OPEN CHANNEL

FLOW
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
• Is one in which the stream is not
completely enclosed by solid
boundaries and therefore has a free
surface subjected only to atmospheric
pressure.

• The flow is caused not by external

head but by the gravity component
along the slope of the channel.

• Hydraulic grade line is coincident

with the stream surface since the
pressure at the surface is atmospheric

• Flow is uniform or non-uniform.

BERNOULLI’S DIAGRAM IN AN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿

𝑣12 /2𝑔
EGL
Slope = S 𝑣22 /2𝑔

𝑑1

𝑑2

𝑆𝑜𝐿

Channel bed,
Slope = So
𝐿
SPECIFIC ENERGY
The specific energy (H) is defined as the
energy per unit weight relative to the bottom
of the channel.
𝑣2
It is given by: 𝐻 = +𝑑
2𝑔
CHEZY FORMULA
The head lost between any two points in the channel is:
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿

Where:
S = slope of the energy grade line
L = Length or run

➢ The head loss balances the loss in height of the channel.

From Darcy - Weisbach relation:

𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿 = where: D = 4R
𝐷 2𝑔

𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2
ℎ𝐿 =
4𝑅 2𝑔

ℎ𝐿 𝑓 𝑣2 ℎ𝐿
= , where =𝑆
𝐿 8𝑔 𝑅 𝐿

8𝑔
𝑣2 = 𝑅𝑆
𝑓

1/2
8𝑔 1/2
𝑣= 𝑅𝑆
𝑓
For a given channel shape and bottom roughness, the quantity
8𝑔 1/2
ൗ𝑓 is constant and can be denoted by C. The equation
becomes, 1/2
30 𝑚 Τ𝑠 - small
Chézy Coefficient rough channels
1/2
90 𝑚 Τ𝑠 - large
𝒗 = 𝑪 𝑹𝑺 rough channels

𝑸 = 𝑨𝑪 𝑹𝑺

CHÉZY FORMULA
-First developed by the French engineer Antoine Chézy in 1769.
Kutter and Ganguillet Formula (1869)
1 0.00155
+23+
𝐶= 𝑛
𝑛
𝑆
0.00155 , (SI Units)
1+ 23+
𝑅 𝑆

1.811 0.00281
+41.65+
𝐶= 𝑛
𝑛
𝑆
0.00281 , (English Units)
1+ 41.65+
𝑅 𝑆
Manning Formula (1889)
1
𝐶= 𝑅1/6 , (S.I. Units)
𝑛
1.486
𝐶= 𝑅1/6 , (English Units)
𝑛
1 2/3 1/2
𝑣= 𝑅 𝑆 , (S.I. Units)
𝑛
1
𝑄=𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 , (S.I. Units)
𝑛
Values on ‘n’ to be used in Manning Formulas
Bazin Formula (1897)
87
𝐶= 𝑚 , (SI Units)
1+
𝑅
87
𝐶= 𝑚, (English Units)
0.552+
𝑅
Powell Equation (S.I.) (1950)
𝑪 𝜺
𝑪 = −𝟒𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈 +
𝑹𝒆 𝑹
Where:
𝑛 = roughness coefficient
m = Bazin Coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
𝜀 = roughness in meter
𝑅𝑒 = Reynold’s number
S = slope of energy grade line
UNIFORM FLOW (S = SO )
The simplest of all open channel problem is the uniform flow
condition. For the flow to be uniform, the velocity, depth of flow, and
cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the stream must be
constant. (i.e v1=v2, d1=d2, A1=A2). For this condition, the stream
surface is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line is
parallel to the stream surface, and therefore the slope of the energy
grade line S is equal to the slope of the channel bed So.
 ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿

𝑣12 /2𝑔

𝑣22 /2𝑔

𝑑1

𝑑2

𝑆𝑜𝐿

𝐿
BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS (𝜏𝑜 )

The average shear stress acting over the wetted surface of

the channel is given by:
𝜏𝑜 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆
Where 𝛾 is the unit weight of the liquid, R, is the hydraulic
radius and S is the slope of the EGL, and for the uniform
flow or for S < 1/10 (𝜃 < 5.7° ), S = 𝑆𝑜
Normal Depth
The normal depth dn is the depth at which uniform flow
will occur in an open channel. Normal depth may be
determined from Chézy formula with S = So. The resulting
equation usually requires a trial-and-error solution.
Most Efficient Cross Sections (MES)
Also known as the economical sections, these are sections
which for a given slope, S, channel cross sectional area A,
and roughness n, the rate of discharge is a maximum.
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the cross-
sectional area constant.
Rectangular Section:
Perimeter, P = b+2d
Area, A = bd
P = A/d +2d
d
𝒅𝑷 𝑨 𝟏
=− +2=0
𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝟐
𝑨
=2 𝐴 𝑑2
𝒅𝟐 𝑅 = = b
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑑
A=2d2 𝑑2
𝑅=
bd=2d2 2𝑑 + 2𝑑

b=2d R=d/2
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the
cross-sectional area constant.

Trapezoidal Section:
x
Perimeter, P = b + 2y d = tan θ

P = b + 2d sec θ (Equation 1) b
A = bd + [1/2 (d tan θ) (d)] x 2 y = d sec θ d d
A = bd + d2 tan θ

bd = A - d2 tan θ

b = A/d – d tan θ (Equation 2) b

Proportions of Most Efficient Section
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the
cross-sectional area constant.

Trapezoidal Section: x
d = tan θ
Substitute equation 2 to equation 1:

P = A/d – dtanθ + 2dsecθ (equation 3) b

By partial differentiation: y = d sec θ d d

𝜕𝑃 𝐴
= − 2 − tan 𝜃 + 2 sec 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑑 𝑑
𝐴
= 2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃
𝑑2 b
𝐴 = (2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃) 𝑑 2
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the
cross-sectional area constant.

Trapezoidal Section:
x
In equation 3: d = tan θ
(2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃) 𝑑 2
𝑃= + (2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃) 𝑑 b
𝑑
𝑃 = 2 (2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃) 𝑑 (equation 4) y = d sec θ d d
𝐴 2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 𝑑 2
𝑅= =
𝑃 2 (2 sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃) 𝑑
R = d/2 b
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the
cross-sectional area constant.

Trapezoidal Section:
x
From the figure: d = tan θ
𝒙 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒚
b
𝒙 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒅 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 (Equation 5)
y = d sec θ d d
𝐴 (2 sec 𝜃 −tan 𝜃) 𝑑 2
but 𝑏 = − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 = − 𝑑 tan 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑
𝑏 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃 − 𝑑 tan 𝜃
𝑏 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 2𝑑 tan 𝜃
b
In equation 5:
𝑥 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 − 2𝑑 tan 𝜃 + 2𝑑 tan 𝜃
𝑥 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 = 2𝑦
𝒙 = 𝟐𝒚
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
Therefore, the most efficient trapezoidal section (including the rectangle) has its top
width (x) equal to the sum of the sides (2y), which is a proportion for a half-hexagon.
From equation 2:
x
𝜕𝑃 d = tan θ
= 0 − 𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 + 2𝑑 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝜃
sec 𝜃 = 2 tan 𝜃 b

y = d sec θ d d
1 sin 𝜃
=2
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 = 1 /2
b
θ = 30°

This shows that the best of all efficient trapezoidal section is the half-regular hexagon
(all sides are equal).
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
Triangular Sections:
d tan (θ/2) d tan (θ/2)

Perimeter, 𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec(𝜃Τ2)

1 d sec(θ/2) d sec(θ/2)
𝐴= × 2𝑑 tan 𝜃ൗ2 × 𝑑 d
2
θ
𝐴 = 𝑑 2 tan 𝜃ൗ2

𝜃 𝐴
tan ൗ2 = 2
𝑑
𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝐴2 + 𝑑 4 A
sec 𝜃ൗ2 =
𝑑2 𝜃ൗ
2

𝑑2
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
Triangular Sections:

Then; d tan (θ/2) d tan (θ/2)

𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec 𝜃ൗ2
𝐴2 + 𝑑 4 𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝑃 = 2𝑑 =2 d sec(θ/2) d sec(θ/2)
d
𝑑2 𝑑
3
4𝑑 θ
𝑑 − 𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝑑𝑃 2 4
=2 2 𝐴 + 𝑑 2 =0
𝑑𝑑 𝑑
2𝑑 4
= 𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
4 2 4 𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
2𝑑 = 𝐴 + 𝑑
A
𝐴2 = 𝑑 4
𝜃ൗ
2
𝑨 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑑2
Proportions of Most Efficient Section
Triangular Sections:

𝐴 d tan (θ/2) d tan (θ/2)

𝜃
tan ൗ2 = 2
𝑑

𝑑 2
d sec(θ/2) d sec(θ/2)
tan 𝜃ൗ2 = 2 = 1 d
𝑑
θ
𝜃ൗ = 45°
2
𝜃 = 90°
𝐴2 + 𝑑 4
Therefore, the most efficient triangular section
A
is 90° V-notch. 𝜃ൗ
2

𝑑2
Alternate Stages of Flow
The channel shown in the figure carries water at a
depth of d and a mean velocity of V.
𝑣2
The total specific energy in the channel is 𝐻 = +𝑑
2𝑔

Solving for v, 𝑣 = 2𝑔 (𝐻 − 𝑑)
And the discharge is, 𝑄 = 𝐴 2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)
 Alternate Stages of Flow
If the equation will be plotted (as shown the figure at the right side), it can be seen that when
d=0, Q=0 and when d=H, Q=0 and by substituting values of d in terms of H we can establish
the curve.

d
v2/2g EGL
Upper stage, FN < 1.0

FN=1.0
Qmax
H Subcritical Critical depth,
d depth dc
Lower stage, FN >1.0

supercritical
depth

0 Q
Variation of discharge with depth for
constant energy
 Alternate Stages of Flow
It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depths at which any given
discharge will flow with the same energy content. These two depths are called alternate stages, and are
spoken as the tranquil or upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.

On the upper stage, the Froude Number FN < 1.0 , while on the lower stage FN > 1.0

d
v2/2g EGL
Upper stage, FN < 1.0

FN=1.0
Qmax
H Subcritical Critical depth,
d depth dc
Lower stage, FN >1.0

supercritical
depth

0 Q
Variation of discharge with depth for
constant energy
Froude Number
The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the expression:

𝑣
𝐹𝑁 =
𝑔𝐿

For the rectangular channel, L=depth of flow d.

𝑣
𝐹𝑁 =
𝑔𝑑
Critical Depth, dc
• The depth at which for a given total head, the discharge
is a maximum.
• The depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is
minimum.
Could be obtained by differentiating the following:

𝑄 = 𝐴 2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)
Critical Depth, dc
Critical Depth on Rectangular Section

For rectangular channel, the discharge 𝑑𝑞 (−1)

per meter width can be expressed = 2𝑔 𝐻−𝑑 1 +𝑑 =0
𝑑𝑑 2 𝐻−𝑑
as: 𝑞 = 𝑑 2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑) 𝑑
= 𝐻−𝑑
Where: 2 𝐻−𝑑
q = unit flow in m3/s per meter width of d=2(H-d)
canal = vd
d=2H – 2d
q = Q/b
3d = 2H
Q = total flow in m3/s 𝟐 𝟑
𝒅𝒄 = 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑯 = 𝒅𝒄
𝟑 𝟐
b = channel width in m

𝑑= 2𝑔 𝑑 𝐻 − 𝑑
Critical Depth, dc
Critical Depth on Rectangular Section

𝑞 = 𝑑 2𝑔 3𝑑ൗ2 − 𝑑
𝑞 = 𝑑 𝑔𝑑

Square both sides:

𝑞 2 = 𝑑 2 (𝑔𝑑)
3 𝑞 2ൗ
𝑑 = 𝑔

𝟑 𝒒𝟐
𝒅𝒄 = , for rectangular channel
𝒈

q = vd = Q/b
Critical Depth, dc
Critical Depth on Rectangular Section

Replacing q = vd
𝑑 3 = 𝑣𝑑 2 /𝑔
𝑔𝑑 = 𝑣 2
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑑
𝑣
or = 1 (Froude Number, F)
𝑔𝑑

This shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1.
Critical Slope
The slope required to give uniform flow at critical depth is known as
the critical slope Sc. The equation for critical slope for a wide
rectangular channel is:

𝒈𝒏𝟐
𝑺𝑪 = 𝟏/𝟑
𝒅𝒄
Critical depth at any section
For any section, the critical depth can be From the figure shown, dA = B x dd and
computed by the following derived formula: dA /dd = B, then:
𝑄2 𝐵
𝑣2 =1
From 𝐻 = 2𝑔
+𝑑 𝑔𝐴3
𝑸𝟐 𝑨𝟑
Where: 𝑣 = 𝑄/𝐴 =
𝒈 𝑩
Then, Where A and/or B, if variable, must be expressed in
𝑄2 terms of d.
𝐻= +𝑑
2𝑔𝐴2

With Q as constant dA
𝑑𝐴 B
𝑑𝐻 𝑄2 2𝐴
= − 2𝑑𝑑 +1=0
𝑑𝑑 2𝑔 𝐴 2
𝑑𝐴 dd
𝑄2
𝑑𝑑 = 1 Area = A dc
𝑔𝐴3
Critical depth at any section
The critical velocity Vc, in irregular channel can be taken by replacing Q=Acvc

𝒈 𝑨𝒄
𝒗𝒄 =
𝑩𝒄
Non-uniform or Varied flow (S ≠ 𝑆𝑂 )
Uniform flow rarely occurs in
natural streams because of
changes in depth, width, and
slope along the channel.
The Manning equation for
uniform flow can be applied to
non-uniform flow with accuracy
dependent on the length of reach
L taken.
Thus, a long stream should be
divided into several reaches of
varying length such that the
charge in depth is roughly the
same within each reach.
 1 2

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿

𝑣12 /2𝑔
EGL Slope = S

𝑣22 /2𝑔

𝑑1

𝑑2

𝑆𝑜𝐿

Section 1: Channel bed, Slope = So Section 2:

V1,R1f,S1 V2,R2f,S2
𝐿
Non-uniform or Varied flow (S ≠ 𝑆𝑂 )
From the figure, you could formulate the following equation:

𝑣12 𝑣22 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏
+ 𝑑1 + 𝑆𝑜 𝐿 = ҧ
+ 𝑑2 + 𝑆𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑳=
𝑺𝑶 − ഥ
𝑺 Where:
H = specific energy
𝑣22 𝑣12 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐 𝑣2
ҧ =
𝑆𝑜 𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
2𝑔
+ 𝑑2 −
2𝑔
+ 𝑑1 ഥ
𝑺= 𝐻=
2𝑔
+𝑑
𝟐 L = length of reach
So = slope of channel bed
𝑣22 𝑣12 𝒏𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟏 S1 & S2 = slope of the energy
2𝑔 + 𝑑2 − 2𝑔 + 𝑑1 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟒/𝟑
𝐿= 𝑹𝟏 grade line at sections 1 & 2,
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆ҧ respectively, compounded using
𝒏𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐 Manning’s formula
𝑺𝟐 = 𝟒/𝟑
𝑹𝟐
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