Evolution of Stars

The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense
regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a
stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts
and its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K,
nuclear reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase
pressure and stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational
equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton
chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the
pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is
converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.
When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate
of fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less
than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The
star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into
space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes
a white dwarf.

However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such
that temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The
star goes through a series of stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in
the shells around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from
oxygen fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron
from silicon fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter
than iron can be fused because when two of these elements combine, they produce a
nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as
energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy. However,
this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron
nuclei requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron
can be produced in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed.
Gravity squeezes the core until the star explodes and releases a large amount of energy.
The star explosion is called a supernova.

Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the
20th century provided a crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory.
Other pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages of formation happening
in different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.

Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of
star formation. For instance, astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and
compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction. Extinction in astronomy
means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust
particles between an emitting astronomical object and an observer. The IR
measurements are then used to approximate the energy, temperature, and pressure in
the protostar.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within
stars.
 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the
dense regions of a molecular cloud.
 A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed molecular
.
 A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is reached
during the hydrogen fusion in a protostar.
 A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and
switched into the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the
core.
 A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen,
neon, magnesium, silicon, and iron are formed in its core together with carbon,
helium, and hydrogen.
 A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
 Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different
stages of star evolution.