34
ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR WAKE QUALITY ASSESSMENT
by
A. Yticel Odaba0, Dipl.—Ing.,Ph.D.,C.Eng. and P.A. Fitzsimmons, B.Sc.,M.Sc.,*)
Summary
This article discusses the alternative methods for the quality assessm
classified in two groups: heuristic methods and analytical method
the wake quality criteria adopted by BSRA are presented and underlying
based on flow kinematics, flow geometry and turbulent boundary layer approxi
analytical methods. It is shown that although these methods have a considerable
echn iques, anal ytica l meth ods cannot be applied adequately due to the
quality, with the current wake survey t
lack of sufficient data.
1. Introduction
The adverse effects of unsteady cavitation on Pro-
peller Excited Vibration (PEV) and propeller perform-
ance have been matters of much concern to ship and
propeller designers and to shipowners, alike. Results of
BSRA, as well
the PEV project recently carried out at
as the research conducted in other national and inter-
national organisations, indicate that the main causes of
unsteady cavitation and the resulting aft-end vibration
are the non-uniformity of flow into the propeller and
the heavy propeller loading.
Thus, ship and propeller designers have an increasing
need to know not only that a given hull form and pro-
peller combination will meet propulsive performance
requirements but also that it will operate within some
acceptable limits of propeller excitation. Failure to
meet such requirements in service has, in some cases,
resulted in a reduction in operating speed and, in other
cases, to the fitting of fins and partial tunnels over the
propeller in attempts to improve the flow into the
propeller and reduce the excitation.
The need to have criteria with which to assess the
flow quality from a given velocity distribution is,
therefore, evident and in recent years efforts have been
made to devise criteria as well as to improve the flow
quality. As part of the Propeller-Excited Vibration
(PEV) project, recently carried out by BSRA, research
has been conducted into alternative methods for wake
quality assessment. The results of this research are
summarised here.
A study of available publications indicates that the
methods useful for this purpose may be divided into
two groups: heuristic methods and analytical methods.
Heuristic methods generally use only the axia,
• velocity
component and assess the flow quality by means of
the variation of this component alone. On the other
hand, analytical methods require all three components
*) The British Ship Research Association, Wallsend. Tyne and Wear.
England.
ent of ship wakes. Available methods are
s. Within the context of the heuristic methods
reasoning is expressed. The methods
mation are the subjects of the
potential for representing the flow
of the velocity and their variations, and assess the flow
quality by means of non-dimensional quantities re-
lated to flow kinematic and flow geometry.
It is shown that with the current wake survey tech-
niques, analytical methods cannot be applied adequat-
ely, although their potential for representing the flow
quality is quite high. A criterion based on heuristic
methods is proposed and underlying reasoning is ex-
pressed.
2. Heuristic methods
These methods, as the term implies, attempt to solve
the problem by inductive reasoning and by evaluating
past experience. Although there is extensive literature
on experimental studies not many of them finalise
their findings with a criterion. Amongst those which
do not give criteria are the NSRDC experiments[ 1-2]
where various features of the wake flow were studied
and analysed under varying conditions. These studies,
however, indicate by their method of analysis that the
m aini cfaccotnotresnctoonfsiadxe iraeldanwd ertan
eVgaentiv,
/V, A6 /13 and the har-
elois ititese; where
h vc ship,s
is the local wthaekelocva V
frward
o
Va ve elo city elo
lacdit
advance angle and AO
variation of 13 .
is the local
In the experiments conducted by SSPA [3] on
large tanker models, the
assessment was based on the
0-.1‘ diagram for each model tested, where a is the ca-
vitation number and J
is the advance coefficient (see
Figure 1). Although their presentation indicates the
difference between U-, V-, and the bulbous-stern
models, they do not constitute a criterion for a future
design.
A criterion has been proposed by Van Gunsteren
and Pronk 141 where the results are expressed in terms
of G o , AJ/J, and CI , from the propeller design point
of view (see Figure 2). here, 0 is the cavitation num-
ber based on the entrance speed in the propeller disc
and CI is the screw loading coefficient. Since the varia-
 35

0 the cavitation induced pressures because firstly, the

outer sections beyond 0.7R are more susceptible to
cavitation and secondly, the angular interval where the
variation A.1 occurs has quite a significant effect on the
cavitation induced pressures.
In his study, Huse [5] emphasized the importance
of the wake peak in the upper part of the propeller
disc and expressed his criteria as follows:
In his study, Huse [5] recognised the importance of
the wake peak in the upper part of the propeller disc.
He derived the following four criteria as a means for
deciding possible afterbody modifications prior to
further model tests. The criteria should not be con-
sidered as absolute.

(i) For large tankers and other ships with high block
coefficients Wmax , the maximum wake measured
at the centre-plane and in the range 0.4R to
Figure 1. Typical form of SSPA assessment chart. 1.15R above shaft centre, should preferably be
less than 0.75.
tion of advance coefficient, AJ, is directly related to W max < 0.75 (1)
the variation of the wake at 0.7R the criterion may be
utilised for both the propeller design and the wake (ii) For fine ships (block coefficient below 0.60)
quality analysis for a given propeller-wake system. The this value should preferably be below 0.55.
results however, are not quite suitable in relation to Wmax < 0.55 for CB < 0.60 (2)
detecting the possibility of cavitation and reducing
(iii) The maximum acceptable wake peak should satis-
12 fy the following relationship with respect to the
mean wake at 0.7R, Wo .7 ,
11 W max < 1.7 W0.7 (3)

10 (iv) The width of the wake peak should also be taken

into account. If the width is slightly smaller than
9 the distance between the propeller blades, pres-
sures on the hull due to cavitation will be max-
8 imum.
/ In the above criterion W is the Taylor wake de-
7 t•J 5 fined by
=•
es
J W = 1 — Va /V.
6
Huse's criterion appears to be the most useful as
5 far as wake quality assessment is concerned. It does
not, however, provide the necessary information in
c relation to wake-propeller combination nor is the local
Cro 4 -4 flow behaviour at the wake peak considered: both play
a very important role on the generation of high vibra-
I -3 V
tory pressures on the hull due to cavitation.
2 •Z In the BSRA project work, Huse's criterion has, in
.4 principle, been considered suitable provided that it
- is supplemented with additional conditions to account
for the above-mentioned shortcomings. After trying
0 a number of alternative typical measures the following
0 05 10 1 5 20 2.5 30 set of conditions has formed the BSRA wake criteria .
T
(1) The maximum wake measured inside the angular
Figure 2. Gunsteren - Pronk criterion 141 . interval B B = l 0 + 360/Z degrees and in the range
36

360.10 blades, R is the propeller radius and C /3 is the

block coefficient.

(2) The maximum acceptable wake peak should

satisfy the following relationship with respect to
the mean wake at 0.7R:

max
< 1.7 W0.7
(6)

(3) The width of the wake peak should not he less

than 0 13' The definition of the wake peak for
various wake distributions is presented in Figure
4.
(4) The cavitation number for the propeller tip, o n ,
defined as
9.903 — D/2 — ZP TA
an —
(7)
0.051 (7rn D)2
and the averaged non-dimensional wake gradient,
at a characteristic radius, defined as
Figure 3. Definition of angular interval OB .
[ AW/(1—W) 1 (8)

should correspond to the points above the divid-

0.4R to 1.15R around the top dead centre (see
ing line of Figure 5. Here D is the propeller dia-
Figure 3) should satisfy meter, Z, is the distance between propeller shaft
(4)
Wmax < 0.75 axis and the base line, TA is the ship's draught at
or A.P., n is the propeller revolutions per second,
(5) AW is the wake variation, and all the units should
W max < C
B '
be expressed in S.I. units.
whichever is smaller. Here Z is the number of

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

06

05

0 4

03

0.2

01
I \
0
180 150 130
1" 11,i0 130 90 60 30 0
POSITION ANG'‘. Width of wake POSITION ANGLE
1)egrees I Peak I Degrees)
Half Wi dth of \
Penv.
la) Single wake peak, (I)) Double ke peak

Figure 4. Definition of wake propel tie,


0 30
0 25
GREY AREA
an
ACCEPTABLE DIVIDING LINE
0 20
0 15
0 10
0 05 10 15
1-W
Figure 5. Wake non-uniformity criterion.
(5) For propellers susceptible to cavitation (near grey
region of Figure 5), the local wake gradient per
unit axial velocity for radii inside the angular
interval 013 and in the range 0.7R to 1.15R should
be less than 1.0,
1 (dW/d0 ) < 1.0
(r/R) I (1—W)
where 0 is in radian s.
The consideration leading to the definition of the
angle 0 B was the desire to avoid high vibratory pres-
sures set up by cavitation where the effect of wake
contraction in full-scale wakes could be important.
The relationship between the cavitation number a n
and the averaged non-dimensional wake gradient has
been established from results obtained from existing
ships and has aimed at avoiding unsteady cavitation
and a high level of pressure on the hull. The final con-
dition expressed by inequality (9) is based on the con-
sideration of instantaneous cavity volume variations
producing impulsive pressures and the numerical value
has been determined by using the model wake data of
ships with known full-scale vibration behaviour.
3. Analytical methods
In an analytical study the type and quality of a
given flow may be considered from two different view-
points, i.e. flow kinematics and flow geometry. They,
respectively, are the analytical equivalents of the wake
survey and flow visualisation tests.
The flow quality measures which may be utilised for
wake quality assessment are mainly due to Truesdell
37
[6]. In 1953, in an attempt to find an absolute crite-
rion for flow rotationality, Truesdell devised a kine-
matical measure of vorticity, which was defined as the
ratio of the rotational motion to the displacement type
of motion, and showed that a number of qualitative
features of the flow can be directly inferred from the
numerical values of this measure. Denoting the local
velocity components by vi (i = 1,2,3) and the co-
ordinates by xi (i = 1,2,3), the components of the de-
formation, i.e. pure displacement, and of rotation
tensors, respectively, are:
1 ov, av,
D ,
— = d.. — +—
ax. ax;
( 10)
1 ( avi
= cj = avi (ij=1.2,3)
" 2 3 xi 3 xi
20
Therefore the scalar products, D : D and f2 : S2, D and
fl being the deformation and rotation tensors, are
measures of pure displacement and rotational motions,
respectively, and the ratio
/1-2 : cok1co kl
wk V (12)
D:D dl" d ..
u
is defined as Truesdell's kinematical vorticity measure
(TKVM). [6].
As can be seen from Appendix 1, TKVM, as far as
(9) ship wakes are concerned, may be utilised for three
main purposes:
(i) To assess the flow quality from propeller cavita-
tion viewpoint. Depending on the numerical
values of wk the pressure, including the effects of
conservative external forces such as gravity, may
attain its maximum or minimum value on the
flow boundaries. Since to have the maximum on
the ship's stern is undesirable, it may be con-
cluded that for a wake flow to be admissible wk
values should be less than one at the outer radii
around the top dead centre.
(ii) To detect the tendency to produce subharmonic
pressures. Although subharmonic pressures, i.e.
twice, three or four times blade-passage frequen-
cy, are generally considered as being generated by
volume variations of the cavity, the tendency of
the inflow to produce subharmonics might be
expected to have a significant influence. TKVM
can be utilised for this purpose, and it is found
that the vorticity measure should take values less
than unity in the cavitation region in order to
avoid inflow generated subharmonics.
(iii) To assess the flow vorticity. This final application
is important from the propeller design and ana-
lysis point of view. All of the existing propeller
38
design and analysis methods assume that the in-
flow to the propeller is potential and vorticity
does not exist. Hence for their applications to be
justified wk values must be small. When w k va-
lues are not small one needs to take the vorticity
of the inflow into account in the propeller design
studies.
Attempts to include the effects of turbulence in
the vorticity measure was made by Mockros [7] by
introducing flow geometry into consideration. For
this purpose he proposed a function K defined as:
av3 av2 av3 av2 ) (aVi av3 av1av3
K= ax 1 ax 3 - aX3 ax 1
ax 3 ax 2 - ax2 ax3
/av2 aVi av2 av1 (13)
ax2 ax1 - aX 1 ax 2
This function is related to the curvature of a flow
field, but not flow paths, and for desirable flows the
values of the function K are required to be small.
Oswatitsch [8] introduced a new vorticity measure
for perturbed unidirectional flows, for example the
x-axis direction. For two-dimensional flows, he
, of the streamlines
adopted the radius of curvature, R c
as the characteristic length and defined the measure
of vorticity as
2w R
Wos=
IvI
where v is the velocity vector and 2w = (curl v. I . Al-
though Oswatitsch's measure of vorticity is quite use-
ful for two-dimensinal flows since it accomodates both
the flow kinematics and the flow path geometries, it
cannot be applied to three-dimensional flows because,
considering the flow path of a particle as a space curve,
there is more than one curvature which characterises
the development of the flow path. - development has been the experience
Before making an attempt to find the three-dimen
sional equivalent of Oswatitsch's measure of vorticity
it will be useful to pay attention to the geometry of
three-dimensional curves which in itself can produce
quite useful information for propeller design and ana-
lysis. As can be seen from Appendix 2, the geometry
of the flow path of a fluid particle in the vicinity of a
of two quan-
space point can be described by means
and flow torsion x which
tities, i.e. flow curvature K
can be determined from a given velocity field. The
indicates the deviation of flow path,,
flow curvature K
1--
in the radial direction whereas the quantity (
is the commonly cared flow curvature used pro-
peller design methods. Depending on the sign of x
the flow path may take a different course in the an-
gular direction.
The mean curvature of a space curve is defined as
Rc = — --
IK x (15)
Incorporating this value in a wake quality assessment
one has to remember that deviations from the main
stream directions are not desirable which implies
that larger values of R c are preferable. With this
thought in mind the following quantity may be con-
sidered as the wake quality measure:
wqm
(16)
The limiting value of this quantity should, however,
be determined from the scaled wake data of the ships
in service with known vibratory behaviour.
Apart from the above-mentioned alternatives,
BSRA's research has included the evaluation of the de-
velopment of flow around the aft-end. In this ap-
proach, the boundary layer development around the
ship's afterbody was calculated using Gadd's method
[9] and, depending on the variation of the shape fac-
tor H, defined as the ratio of displacement thickness
to momentum thickness, certain tentative conclusions
have been drawn. The limited applications suggest
that a sudden increase in H-values corresponds to
retarded flow into the propeller disc, hence indicating
the possibility of high wake peaks. Another conclu-
sion is that if the value of H, calculated for the scaled
model Reynold's number approaches 2.0 within a
diameter forward of the propeller plane then flo
w
separation is probable.
4. Concluding remarks
As a consequence of the need to assess the quality
of both the wake and the wake-propeller combination,
criteria have been developed in BSRA which have been
presented in Section 2 of this paper. The basis of the
d from
ships in service with known vibration characteristics.
Compliance with these criteria is expected to reduce
the possibility of high levels of pressures due
into cavita
gae
tion, although fulfilment of the criteria
cannot quaran-
tee that vibrations will not occur. However
if
the Wake
criteria are not fulfilled, one should carefully
alterations to the afterbody hull form. consider
The applicatiOn Qt
tlw,
.., crit c.-141
is unambiguous and
generally
' .uses
. flu0 .tige ,
1,o properties of the wake data.
()Illy hi toI e
application of condition (5) (Inequality 91
special care is needed because of the inherent measure-
ment errors in the wake data. Therefore if there are
l(dW/d0 )/(1 vol values outside the normal trend
they should he excluded. Applications of conditions
(5) for a model wake is illustrated in Figure 6.
 39

PEV 49 1 I
0 r/R = 0.9357
Vo Vs 10
2 l 0 r/R = 1.0526
1 dW/de
(r/R) 1-W 0 r/R = 1 1696 Vo / Vs
--
..,

co •s, / /

/--/ —
--- \
...-
.4... ..," ..1
••\•"---.--- ..-- "
7Q
\
\ --. -0.- — 50 ,- /
..,/,
04180 140 130 120 0
/ e (degrees)
..- ." /
\ _ --
/
\ /
--- /
-

Figure 6. Normalised local wake gradient.

Although it is desirable to devise and use criteria References

based on more fundamental considerations, the exist- 1. Hadler, B. and Cheng, M., "Analysis of experimental wake
ing wake data does not permit the reliable application data in way of propeller plane of single and twin-screw ship
of the discussed theoretical measures. This is due to models", Trans. SNAME, Vol. 73,1965.
2. Grant, J.W. and Lin, A.C.M., "The effects of variations of
the need to incorporate the history effect in the ana-
several parameters on the wake in way of the propeller plane
lytical measures which require wake data in more than for Series-60-0.60 CB models", NSRDC Report No. 3024,
one plane This is not the practice in current wake sur- Dept. of Navy, Washington, D.C., 1969.
vey methods. An application of some of the analytical 3. Dyne, G. and Idunger, L., "Large tankers — Final report on
propulsion cavitation and vibration properties of large single
measures with limited data is illustrated in Figure 7.
screw tankers with different stern shapes", SSPA, Report
No. 95, Goteborg, 1973.

27 21
WK 20 • r I I I i 20 WK
ii
Rc II PEV 49 0 r/R = 0 9357
i 1
I WK (TKVM) 0 r /R - 1 0526
i --- W/R (WQM)
1 C 0 r /R = 1 - 1696
I I
I I
15 I I 5
I 1

1\1 11-I-\1
1 I 1
I1 1 1 0
1 1 1
11 I V 0IIIII
— 10 1.0
Willail
I
11 I es44.-:...-LA'
VII 001.11111,. .dmil
il 1 ,
o,.
1111 ° 1%gi
1411 ...SI 05
01 i •
0 i _ ,
0 , i • i "'
0 lt ... ..4 .... .... % , ... .... .... ...
__._
1.• ...
--.--
.t.......T. \ -.• .,
.....
11- - t. •
\
•

-) 180 170 160 150 140 (degrees)

. 130
. 1
120
TDC

Figure 7. Application of analytical wake criteria.

40

4. Gunsteren, L.A. van, and Pronk, C., "Propeller design con-
cepts", International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 20, No.
227, 1973.
5. Huse, E., "Effect of afterbody forms and afterbody fins on
the wake distribution of single-screw ships", NSFI, Report
R-31.74, Trondheim.
6. Truesdell, C., "Two measures of vorticity", Rational Mech.
Anal. Vol. 2, 1953.
7. Mockros, F.L., "The significance of vorticity, vortex motion
and dissipation in turbulent fluid flows", Dissertation, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, 1962.
8. Oswatitsch, K., "Uber Wirbelkennzahlen and Wirbelmasse",
Z. angew. Math. Phys., Vol. 20, 1969.
9. Gadd, G.E., "Current method for calculating the flow over
ship' sterns", NPL Ship TM. 439, 1975.

Appendix 1

Truesdell's kinematical measure of vorticity

a1 = V. + v1..j - xi
Consider a general motion of a continuous medium. (A1.4b)
It is known from the theory of continuum mechanics where
that any continuous motion of a continuum can be
a (a l , a 2 , a3 ) is the acceleration vector and ( • ) =
expressed as a sum of a rigid rotation and a pure de-
a/at.
formation. It is also known that the numerical mag-
By taking the divergence of the acceleration formula
nitude of the rate of deformation and of the rate of
(A1.4a) and remembering that for an incompressible
rotation of any line segment can be calculated from
fluid div v = 0, we find
the tensors
1 div a = div (v • grad v) = vj,i
— (v. .+ ) .) (A1.5)
D 13 2
Using the definitions of deformations and rotation
•--- V• • ) tensors, equation (A1-5) can alternatively be expressed
2 ( LI 1,J
as
etric deformation tensor,
where D is d u is the symm div a = D : D + : St= (1 - )D:D
(A1.5)
c rotation tensor,
= 6, 0 is the skew-symmetri
" 1, Equation (A1.6) can also be written as
v.1 (i = 1,2,3) are the components of velocity, xi
2,3) are the co-ordinates, and vii
= avi /axi . div a = div (6.) x v) +172 (1/2 q 2 ) (A 1 .7)
d1 and St :St wher e w = curl v and q is the magn itude of the ve-
Since the scalar products D:13
amount of deforma-
ij w ij are scalar indication of the locity.
tion and rotation respectively, and are the dimensions It is known that any vector field may be d erived
T-2 , where T is a unit of time, the ratio from the sum of a scalar and a vector potential, e.g.
a_7 w kIW (1= - grad 0 + curl A
(A1.3) (A 1.8)
St :S2 kl

Wk For an incompressible viscous fluid obeyi ng the

D:D dii d .li. Navier-Stokes equation
is a non-dimensional measure of kinematical vorticity. 0 =H , =
(A1.9)
For a rigid rotation d13 = 0 and at least one element
= co and for an irrotational
61 0 0 0 and therefore w k u 0 and Where P is the pressure, p is the(A fluid
i.9 density,
H is vis-
the kinematical the
motion coil = 0 and at least one element d sum of extraneous forces and v is
can conclude that
hence wk = 0. From this result we osi3
c(A itui .t8in)gweequoabttiaoinn for the ) into
ity.) aSnudbs(tA dens equations
in order to make a reasonable assumption about the k acc eleratio n po-
must be small. We call w
flow irrotationality w k tential
Truesdell's kinematical measure of vorticity. v2 .0 =- _1) ki)
Apart from measuring the flow rotationality the
es some additional qualitative in-
measure wk provid - anci
formation about the fluid motion which in the proe
blem of propeller-excited vibration rnay suppress th
V (1) + 1/2 q 2 1= div (v x w ). (A1.1 1)
importance of the previous appViCati011. To Niqi0jjbe.
this further application, consider the expression
for From equations (A1.10) and (A1.11 ) it follows
acceleration in a general motion of a continuous that "given a flow of an incompressible fluid, whether
medium. viscous or not, subject to conservative external forces
(H),
a = + v grad v (Al.4a)
1. In a region where wk -> I the greatest values of
or in scalar form p +pH occurs on to flow boundary,
 41

2. In a flow region where wk < 1 the least value of The scalar potential q5 of acceleration is
p + pH must occur on the flow boundary,
3. In a flow region where wk = 1, p + pH cannot ex- 1. Subharmonic if w12, > 1,
perience a maximum or a minimum".
2. Harmonic if wk = 1,
Furthermore by making use of the definitions of
harmonic, subharmonic and superharmonic functions*, 3. Superharmonic if w2 < 1.
k
we may deduce from equation (A1.10) that: These final results follow from the fact that D : D > 0.

Appendix 2

Curvature and torsion of a space curve

Vector functions of a scalar argument, provide a is orthogonal to T because it is the derivate of r and
conventional method of determining space curve. Sup- when devided by I r" (s) I we arrive at the unit vector
pose we are given a continuous vector function r(t) v = r"/Ir" I (A2.6)
(a < t < b). After constructing its hodograph we then
orthogonal to T. Furthermore the unit vector
obtain space curve r and we say that the curve is re-
presented parametrically, provided that there is a one- 0=rxv (A2.7)
to-one correspondence between the parameter value t is orthogonal both to r and v and the vectors (r,v,(3)
and the points of the curve I", the correspondence form the moving trihedron of the space curve r.
being continuous at each point of the interval. Hence These vectors are called the tangent (r), the principal
the equation normal (v) and the binormal (3) and are related to
r = r(t) (r = x i e i + X 2 S2 +
x3
) (A2.1) each other by the Frenet-Serret formulae:
T=K V
is referred to as the parametric equation and when
written in scalar form V'= -K T +)(13 (A2.8)
x1= xI(t)
' x
2= X (t) X = X (t)
2 5 3 3 (A2.2) = - XO

it gives the variation of each co-ordinate with respect Here the quantities lc and x are called the curvature
to parameter t. and the torsion of the curve r. These quantities are
In many cases it is convenient to take the arc length quite useful in determining the shape of the curve r
in the vicinity of a point.
of the curve, measured from a fixed point, as the para-
meter. The relation between the parameter t and the Suppose that the derivatives at the point r =
arc length s is expressed by the formula r(s0)
"(so
ro = r'(s.), ro" = r" (s.), =r )
s=1 .15(2 +
I
+
23
dt
0 are different from zero. Expanding the function r(s)
t (A2.3) into a Taylor series in the neighbourhood of the point
ors = Ir(t)1 dt we obtain
0
2 trr
where ( • ) indicates the derivative with respect to t. In r(s) =—0
r +—r'0 As + — r As — r Asa + . . . (A2.9)
+6 °
this new parameter the equation of the space curve
Choosing the origin at the point r and the tangent,
becomes
principal normal, and binormal lines as the x 1 -, x2 -,
r = r(s) (A2.4) and x 3 - axes, respectively, the scalar form of equation
At each point M of the curve r, corresponding to a (A2.9) becomes
value of s, the unit vector
2
x 1 = As — 6 Asa + 0(60 ) (A2.10a)
T = r'(s) (A2.5)
determines the direction of the tangent to the curve, I 2 K' 3
X
2
=— K ±- + 0( 6.0 (A2.l0b)
where prime denotes the derivative with respect to 6
arc length s. The vector
X
3 = K x Asa + 0(AS4 ) (A2.lOc)
r"(s) = T'(s)
Retaining the first terms in these equations we have
*) A twice differential function f is superharmonic (subharmonic) in a
region if V2 f < 0 (V 2 f 0) at all interior points. If V 2 f = 0 the function = A s,
1
' x,= 2 , = -K N. A (A2.11 )
A
X
is called harmonic. 1 -, k As
6
sa
42

Eliminating As we obtain these relationships become

X2 =---tc 2 (A2.12) X2 (A2. 14)

1

1 0 7-- 6K X X
3
x X Xi (A2.13) (A2.15)
3 6
Reverting to the propeller co-ordinate system (x,r,O) and thus K and x indicates the magnitudes of the radial
deviation and the flow curvature of the streamlines.