J Biomechunicr. 1973. Vol. 6. pp. 173-185. Pcgamon Press.

Printed in Great Britain

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ORTHOPEDIC

PLASTER BANDAGES*
VOLKER E. SCHMIDT and JAMES H. SOMERSET
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Syracuse University.
Syracuse,N.Y., U.S.A.

ROBERT E. PORTER?
Department of Orthopedic Surgery State University. New York. U.S.A.

Abstract-This paper is a continuation of the investigations started by Schenck. Somerset and

Porter (1968) to evaluate the stresses in orthopedic plaster bandage casts. Experiments have
been conducted to determine and verify the mechanical properties of the molded plaster band-
age material as well as its individual components. the plaster and the gauze. The modulus of
elasticity, the yield stress, and the ultimate strength as functions of moisture content were
measured for the plaster bandage material and the plaster without the gauze. Modulus of
elasticity and ultimate strength tests were also conducted for various brands of bandage gauze.
Using information obtained in the previous study regarding the location of maximum stresses
in lower leg casts, volunteer experiments were conducted on completely dried casts to measure
the stresses developed in lower leg casts subjected to normal and abnormal use. Material
properties are explained by the plaster-gauze interaction and conclusions are drawn regarding
the suitability of plaster bandage material.
It is found that plaster bandage achieves its optimal mechanical characteristics at its natural
dry weight of 2 I per cent water content. a state which is usually not achieved in the prescribed
24 hr drying period. Various ‘normal’ activities subject lower leg walking casts to stresses
which may be expected to cause tensile failure of the plaster composite material. especially
before the cast is completely dry. The failure of the casts in tension is due primarily because the
effective elastic modulus of the gauze is so much lower than that of the plaster.

INTRODUCTION J. V. Luck ( 1944) investigated the breaking

IMPREGNATION of gauze with plaster to form a strength of plaster bandage material as a func-
plaster bandage material was first described tion of the technique of application. Using
in a pamphlet published by the Dutch Army cylindrical specimens loaded as beams, he
Surgeon Anthonius Mathysen in 1852. found that the strength of the plaster bandage
(Cameron, 196 1). Since then methods of was a function of soaking procedure and water
application and manufacturing have been temperature. of curing time, and of other
refined, and the modern commercial bandage curing techniques.
is a high density, fast-setting product. In- More recently, Schenck, Somerset and
creased strength and moisture resistance Porter (1968) evaluated the stresses in ortho-
has been shown to result from the addition of pedic walking casts. Experiments were
melamine resin to the plaster compound conducted to determine the mechanical
(Arden and Wood, 1955; Velioso, 1955). properties of molded plaster bandage material
Furthermore, the strength of the cast is in- and to determine the stresses in a partially
creased if the plaster carrying gauze or cured cast as it was subjected to normal and
crinoline is starched (Velloso, 1955). abnormal use. The stresses developed in a

*Received 8 February 1972.

This work was supported jointly by the Hendricks Fund, by the Department of Orthopedic Surgery at Upstate
Medical Center, State University of New York. Syracuse, N.Y. and by the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering at Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.. U.S.A.
+Presently: Lecturer in Orthopedic Surgery University of Sheffield Department of Orthopedic Surgery. Sheffield.
England.
173

B.M. Vol. 6 No. 2 -E

174 V. E. SCHMIDT, 3. H. SOMERSET
lower leg walking cast were found to be
sufficient to cause failure of the material
(Schenck et al., 1968). After 24 hr, the
plaster had achieved only one-third its
maximum strength.
This paper is a continuation of the investi-
gations started by Schenck, Somerset and
Porter ( 1968) to evaluate and improve various
immobilization techniques. The properties of
the plaster bandage material are more fully
explored. Experiments have been conducted
to determine and verify the mechanical
properties of the molded plaster bandage
material as well as its individual components,
the plaster and the gauze. Included are tests
on the z-axis to clarify the compression
phenomenon described in the previous
paper (Schenck et al., 1968). With the aid of
the gauze-plaster interaction. various mechan-
ical properties exhibited by the molded
plaster bandage are explained.
To measure the stresses developed in
completely cured lower leg walking casts,
furthervolunteer experiments were performed.
These experiments were performed on casts
that were allowed to dry for over 72 hr. The
dried casts provided for better bonding of the
strain gages and this, together with more
accurate modulus data, allowed more consis-
tent results to be obtained.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The experimental program comprises both
material tests and volunteer experiments. The
modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, and the
ultimate strength as functions of moisture
content were measured for the plaster bandage
material and the plaster without the gauze.
Modulus of elasticity and ultimate strength
tests were also conducted for various brands
of bandage gauze. Using information ob-
tained in the previous study (Schenck,
Somerset and Porter, 1968) regarding the
location of maximum stresses in lower leg
*Specialist plaster bandages (fast setting): a product ofJohnson
and R. E. PORTER
casts, volunteer experiments were conducted
on completely dried casts to measure the
stresses developed in lower leg casts sub-
jected to normal and abnormal use.
Material tesfs
The material tests were divided into three
segments: tests on the plaster bandage mater-
ial, tests on the plaster without the guaze. and
tests on gauze without the plaster. For con-
sistency, soaking water temperature was
always 70” (2 2”).
Plaster bandage
There are no ASTM standards for molding
plaster bandages and hence techniques
recommended by the manufacturers and
further relined by Schenck et at. (1968)
were employed. After cutting the dry plaster
bandages* into large rectangular pieces, the
pieces were soaked in fresh water and then
squeezed to remove any excess moisture. The
desired thickness of the matrix was then
obtained by stacking of these layers (52 layers
per in.) to form a composite slab of ortho-
tropic matrix material. The slabs were molded
on a flat stainless steel plate, and all molding
was completed in less than the setting time
(5 min) of the plaster bandage material to
prevent delamination. Specimens were cut
from the slabs within 6 hr of setting and
machined to the proper dimensions.
An ‘off the shelf‘ Specialist Plaster Bandage
roll (4 in. X 15 ft) weighs about 2 10 g, of which
8 per cent is gauze, with the rest being the
plaster. The gauze is a 28 X 32 threads per in.
weave of crinoline.
For simplicity, the axis convention used by
Schenck, Somerset and Porter (1968) was
adopted. Figure l(a) shows the three axes of
the cast slab bandage material. As sketched
in Fig. l(b), the x-axis of the slab coincides
with the axis of the original roll, whereas the
z-axis is normal to the layers of gauze.
& Jonhson.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Fig. la. Line drawing of plaster bandage slab.
Fig. I b. Line drawing of plaster bandage roll.
Plaster
Plaster provided by the manufacturer was
used’*. Since the strength of the resultant
plaster mix does not depend significantly on
the method of spatulation (Eamshaw and
Smith, 1966), hand spatulation was used. The
mix was shaken by hand and “skimmed” to
remove excess air and then poured into the
molds.
Two types of molds were used. The S.U.
Standard specimens (Schenck et al., 19681,
4 in. long by 1 X 1 in., were cast in a special 10
piece stainless steel mold shown in Fig. 2. No
reaction with plaster was noted. Enclosed on
three sides, the fourth side of the mold was
kept open to allow for expansion during
*Johnson &Johnson
OF ORTHOPEDIC PLASTER BAKD.GES 175
setting. Specimen removal was facilitated by
disassembly of the mold. For the diametral
compression tests, disks, l-4 in. in dia. and
0.55 in. thick. were cast in individual lucite
molds coated with vasoline to improve
extraction.
All plaster experiments were conducted
using two ratios of plaster to water. 7: 1 and
5 : 2 by weight. Weighing of the plaster bandage
material in its dry state and when it had been
soaked indicated that these are the approxi-
mate initial plaster to water ratios.
COMPRESSION TESTS
Plaster and plaster bandage
Adapted ASTM Standard C 109-64 (1968)
and S.U. Standard (1968) were employed for
the ultimate compressive strength tests. Both
one inch cubes and S.U. Standard specimens
x were used. The specimens were machined
from the slabs and the plaster briquets. and
each plaster bandage specimen was marked
with the adopted axes convention. All load
carrying surfaceswere machined on a precision
abrasive belt grinder to assure squareness.
Specimens tvere compression tested using
the arrangement shown in Fig. 3. The speci-
mens were mounted between the upper
constant speed crosshead and the lovver
s herically seated platen which rested atop
P load cell. This self-aligning arrangement
tire
assured uniform axial loading. After the speci-
men \vas mounted, the load was applied by the
constant speed crosshead (0.1 in.lmin.1 and
the load was measured using the load cell in
the lnstron Testing Machine.
To determine the moisture content of a
plaster bandage sample, the specimen was
weighed just before testing, and after testing
was force dried in an oven at 180°F until the
minimum weight was achieved. This force
dried weight was found to be the same as the
weight of the material in its original dry state
before soaking. The excess moisture in each
specimen could then be determined as a per-
176 V. E. SCHMIDT. J. H. SOMERSET and R. E. PORTER

Constant speed specimens were molded for each of the 2

crosshead \, plaster-water ratios. For z-axis tests, fifteen
i modified S.U. Standard specimens (3 in. x
I I
1 in. X 1 in.) were prepared.
All x- and y-axis compression loaded
plaster bandage specimens failed cata-

57
Upper strophically in shear along the plane of maxi-
ploten
mum shear, a plane inclined 45” to the axis of
load. As shown in Fig. 4, the ultimate com-
Specimen
pressive stress increases as the moisture
content decreases, with the maximum com-
Strain gages
pressive stress occurring at 21 per cent
10
moisture content. The average maximum
compressive stress (occurring at 21 per cent
moisture) was found to be 1390 psi, with a
lower platen
deviation of t270 psi. However, the devia-
tion for a particular batch was much less. One
batch averaged 1500 + 160 psi, another
134O+lOOpsi, and the third 1150-~40psi.

Fig. 3. S.U. standard-compression test.

centage of force dried weight. For plaster and

z-axis plaster bandage specimen, where
failure usually involved loss of material,
control specimens were weighed after various
I I I I I I
degrees of drying, the control specimens were 10 20 30 40 50 60

then force dried and the test specimens’ rate Water content, % of dry weight

of drying determined from the resulting data.
To minimize test result dependence upon
minute molding technique and sample diffe-
rences, independent repetitive testing was
employed. Approximately one hundred one
inch cubes were cut from three different one
inch thich plaster bandage slabs, and one
hundred one inch cubes were prepared from
four separate plaster batches (3 batches at
5 : 2 and one at 2 : 1). Using a different plaster
bandage slab, 10 S.U. Standard specimens
with the x-axis parallel to the 4 in. length and
10 S.U. Standard specimens with the y-axis
parallel to the 4 in. length were cut and pre-
pared. Similarly, 20 S.U. Standard plaster
Fig. 4. Ultimate strength versus water content-plaster
bandage ( I in. cubes in compression).
The maximum for the S.U. Standard was
1375 * 100 psi. Compressive stresses were
found to be identical for x- and y-axis loading.
These values are about 450 psi smaller than
those reported by Schenck et al. (1968) and
are probably the result of differences in plaster
batches due to manufacturing, molding and
curing technique, and drying procedure.
Specimens loaded along the z-axis also
failed in shear, although the failure was not
catastrophic. As shown in Fig. 5, for the one
inch cubes, the compressive ‘yield’ stress
Fig. 2. S.U. standard plaster mold.

Fig. 5. Typical frdctwzs.

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ORTHOPEDIC PLASTER BhND.AGES 177

Interestingly. after yielding. the z-axis

Yield - I in. CU!XS
Standard specimens compressed to approxi-
I!
--- mately Y3 of the original height of the speci-
t
‘0 IO mens before failure occurred. Moreover, for a
n
z 3 specimen with a moisture content above 28
::
$ a per cent, water was extruded after the
t
- 7 specimen had yielded.
:: In casts, the z-axis is perpendicular to the
E
VI 6 Ultimate -S.U. standard
limb axis and thus the z-axis characteristics
.?
0 5
t / / are not of great importance. They were in-
4 /
i / vestigated mainly because it was felt by the
6 3
authors that a study of the high compressive
2- strength along the z-axis might yield clues as
Yield -S.U.stondord
/ -
/
to how the compressive strength of the X- and
L I
IO
I
20
I
30 40
I
50
I
60
v-axis might be increased.
All solid plaster specimens loaded in com-
Water content. % of dry wght
pression failed catastrophically in the 45”
Fig. 3- . Compressive strength versus water content -
t-axis (plaster bandage specimens).
shear plane (see Fig. 6). No difference was
found between the results obtained for the
decreased as the moisture content decreased. one inch cubes and the S.U. Standard speci-
After failure, the load was increased to the mens. The ultimate compressive stress versus
limit of the machine (20,000 Ibs.) without any moisture content profile was of the same
more apparent failure. Schenck et al. (1968) form as the plaster bandage, with the maximum
reported on this apparent high strength ultimate strength attained at a moisture
phenomenon but gave no explanation for it. content of 2 1 per cent. The ultimate compres-
It was found in this study that this property is sive stress was found to be dependent upon
a ‘size’ effect. S.U. Standard specimens the plaster-water ratio (see Fig. 7). For the
loaded in compression also failed in shear, plaster-water ratio of 5: 2 the average maxi-
with the ultimate compressive stress decreasing mum compressive stress was 5.300 psi
with decreasing moisture content (see Fig. 5). 2 800 psi, and for a plaster-water ratio of 2 : I,
However, the ultimate stress for the S.U. the average maximum compressive stress v+.as
Standard proved to be markedly lower than 3,300 psi+400 psi. No significant ultimate
the ‘yield’ stress for the 1 in. cubes. At 21 strength variations were noted among
per cent moisture content, the average ulti- different plaster batches.
mate stress for the 1 in. cubes was 6.000 psi.,
whereas for the S.U. Standard specimens it
was 4,200 psi. The S.U. Standard specimens
v1

failed as shown in the left side of Fig. 6, with

the applied load needed to cause additional
deformation tending toward zero after failure.
P5

i4
, /’
/
1 P w (5.2)

l
-3 1’ ;A_+ = o
However, the 1 in. cubes failed as shown in
i 2*,= \ = .
the upper left of Fig. 6, with the applied load 1
.
P: w (.?:I)
needed to cause additional deformation in- I 1 I I
$’
creasing after failure. It should be noted that r: IO 20 30 40 50 60

the yield stress for the z-axis loaded specimens Water content. % of dry !m?igM

increased to 1,200 psi. as the moisture content Fig. 7. Ultimate compressive strength versus water
decreased (see Fig. 5). content-plaster.
178 V. E. SCHMIDT, J. H. SOMERSET
TENSION TESTS
Ultimate tensile stress tests as functions of
moisture content were performed in a variety
of ways. Plaster bandage material was tested
using adapted ASTM Standard C 190-63
(1965). Instron serrated-jaw clamps, connected 5
*I
to the load cell through a universal joint, were P
p 6
used to hold the x- and y-axis specimens. For c’
the z-axis specimens, a special jig similar to i
2 6-
that described in ASTM C 190-63 (1965) was
f 5-
used. The tensile stress for the pure plaster al
z 4_
was determined using the diametral compres- r
sion test, as explained below. A constant f 3-
crosshead speed of 1 in. per min was used in
the loading of all specimens.
Plaster bandage
X- and y-axis specimens were machined
from molded $in. thick (26 layers) plaster
bandage slabs into necked I tensile specimens.
The machined specimens had a constant
2;t in. x $ in. x 4 in. neck which expanded into
1 in. X 4 in. cross-sectioned ends to assure
proper grip and load distribution from the jaw
clamps. Only data obtained from specimen
that failed in the center of the I specimens
was used.
Significant differences between x-axis and
y-axis loaded specimens were found for the
ultimate and the yield tensile stresses.
Schenck et al. (1968) did not report any
significant difference between the x-axis and
y-axis tensile stresses. As shown in Fig. 8, the
tensile yield stress increases as the moisture
content decreases, with the y-axis yield
stress being slightly higher than the x-axis
yield stress. The average maximum yield
stress was 525 psi for the y-axis loaded
specimens and was 460 psi for x-axis loaded
specimens. However, the most important
difference was the ultimate tensile stress. The
average ultimate tensile stress of specimens
tension loaded in the x-direction was 700 psi,
whereas for the y-axis loaded specimens, the
ultimate tensile stress was 1190 psi. More-
over, the ultimate tensile stress for either axis
loaded specimens was not found to increase
and R. E. PORTER
9-
x-axis ulttmatc
7- L.-&h
*
.
2 _ x-axis yield
I -
I I
IO 20 30 40 50 60
water content, % of dry WelgM
Fig. 8. Tensile strength versus water content-plaster
bandage.
as the moisture content was decreased. These
phenomena are explained with the aid of the
gauze tensile data. Before yielding, the load is
largely carried by the plaster- hence the large
modulus of elasticity. As yielding occurs, the
plaster structure fails in one or more places-
the load is then carried by the crinoline in these
places, and the modulus decreases accordingly.
The ultimate tensile stress of the plaster
bandage is then determined by the ultimate
stress of the crinoline rather than the plaster.
Simple calculation show this to be true.
Johnson & Johnson plaster gauze has approxi-
mately 16 12 load carrying threads per in.’ in
the y-direction (3 1 threads per in. x 52 layers).
Using the average ultimate Ibs. per thread from
Table 1, the ultimate y-axis load supported by
threads is 890 psi. Similarly for the x-axis,
with approximately 1,508 load carrying
threads per in.” in the x-direction (29 threads
per in. X 52 layers), the ultimate x-axis load
supported by the threads is 560 psi.
This may be expressed in equation form by
u=Nlq (1)
where m is the ultimate tensile stress, IV is the
number of threads per linear in., 1 the number
 A!ECH,ANICAL PROPERTIES OF ORTHOPEDIC PLASTER B.AND.AGES 179

of layers. and q the ultimate strength per
thread.
Z-axis tensile specimens were machined
similar to the X- and y-axis specimens. How-
ever, the total length of a specimen vvas 3 in.
Slabs higher than 3 in. could not be molded
using standard molding techniques vvithout
escecding the setting time of the plaster
bandage (3 min) and hence incurring the
possibility of delamination.
The ultimate stress for z-axis specimens
loaded in tension was found to increase as the
moisture content decreased to its natural dry
weight 0:‘ 3 1 per cent water content, Hith a
maximum tensile strength of I50 psi (see
Fig. 5).
PlllSlW
The usual plaster of paris ‘dumbell’ shaped
molded specimen used in the direct tensile
test (ASTM C 150-63) ( 1965) is highly sus-
ceptible to bending moments caused by even
the smallest of grip misalignments. Similarly,
flexural tests may reflect unduly the surface
condition of the specimen (Earnshaw and
Smith. 1966). The diametral compression test
does not suffer from these disadvantages. As
diametrically between the platens of the Instron
Testing Machine. causing a uniform tensile
stress normal to the diametral plane joining the
two lines of contact of specimen and platens.
The magnitude of this tensile stress is directly
proportional to the compressive load and is
given by
‘P
*, = _z-- (2)
rDt
where (+= is the tensile stress, P the applied
load, and D and t the dia. and thickness of the
specimen. Provided that failure has occurred
in tension, the tensile strength can then be
calculated from the breaking load using the
above equation (Earnshaw and Smith, 1966).
For a further discussion of the theory for the
test, see Earnshaw and Smith ( 1966). (Also
Timoshenko and Goodier. Thea? of Elasti-
city, pp. 107-109.)
The ultimate tensile stress as a function of
moisture content for plaster is shokvn in Fig.
IO. The tensile strength increases with de-
creasing water content and the maximum
7

shown in Fig. 9, a disk of plaster is compressed

I upper platen
I
5

3
Jo p:w (5:2)

/ t ,/,,,I,“’
I

I I I I
IO 20 30 43 50 60

Woter content, 46 of dry weight

Fig. IO. Ultimate tensile strength versus Hater content-

plaster (disk specimens).

strength occurs at the natural dry weight of

the specimens. For a plaster-water ratio of
5 : 1, the average maximum tensiie stress was
72.5 psi., whereas for a plaster-water ratio of
2 : 1, it was 565 psi.
t
~_owerplaten end load ccl!
Gauze test
Adapted ASTM Standard D 1681-64 ( 1968)
Fig. 9. Diarnetral tension test. was used for tensile testing various plaster
180 V. E. SCHMIDT, J. H. SOMERSET and R. E. PORTER

bandage gauzes. The two inch wide speci- A strain gage was attached longitudinally
mens were cut out and placed into special to each exposed x-y plane of the material. The
emery coated tensile grips. These grips were specimens were loaded in quasi-static incre-
pinned to the load cell through a universal ments until failure, with the gages being
joint to prevent misalignment. Crosshead monitored by carrier amplifiers. Simul-
speed was O-05 in. per min. taneously, the strain data was recorded
Table 1 lists results for various types of through an oscillograph and the load was
gauze. Wherever the brand name is followed recorded on a strip chart.
by the word ‘plaster’, the gauze specimens Table 2 lists the results of the modulii tests.
were obtained from a plaster bandage by No difference was noted between the modulus
washing off the plaster. X-axis threads have
an average ultimate strength per thread Table 2. Young’s modulus
of about 0.4 Ibs. and the y-axis threads average
Young’s modulus (psi)
greater than 0.5 Ibs. per thread. This difference
is probably the result of the manufacturing Plaster Bandage
process. It does not seem to be the result of (tension and compression) 1.1 x IO”? 15%
x- and y-axis loading
cyclic loading, for load cycling was found to P:W (5:2) 2.3 x 108-c15%
increase the ‘apparent’ modulus of elasticity Plaster
without affecting the ultimate strength. P:W (2: 1) 1.9 x IO”Z 15%

Table I. Gauze material properties

No. threads Avg. ult. Apparent Young’s

Brand name per 2 in. Ibs. per thread modulus (psi)

Johnson &Johnson 60 0.51 665

Johnson &Johnson 56 0.36 650
J &J Plaster (x-axis) 58 0.37 400
J &J Plaster (y-axis) 63 0.55 635
Ostic Plaster k-axis) 54 0.42 270
Ostic Plaster (y-axis) 68 0.61 725
Nu Wrap (x-axis) (J &J) 70 0.44 521
Nu Wrap (v-axis) (J &J) 84 0.59 1140

Modhs of elasticity of elasticity for x- and y-axis loaded bandage

Both the compressive and the tensile
modulii ofelasticity were obtained for naturally
dry materials. Compression testing arrange-
ments for the plaster bandage and the plaster
were the same as in the compression tests.
Similarly, the same arrangement used in the
plaster bandage tensile test was also used to
find the tensile modulus. However, due to the
brittle nature of plaster, special mounts were
employed for the tensile plaster modulus
tests. The specimens were cast into end
plates using epoxy plastic, and the end plates
bolted to the testing machine. A universal
joint between the end plate and the load cell
assured uniform axial loading.
specimens. Also, no significant difference was
found between the tension or compression
modulus for plaster bandage material. The
values are approximately the same as those
obtained by Schenck et al. (1968) (1 x 106
psi). For compression, the modulus was nearly
constant almost to failure of the material.
Similarly for tension, the modulus was con-
stant until yielding occurred. Figure 15 shows
a typical compressive stress-strain curve of
naturally dry specimens.
The modulus for the plaster was found to
be dependent upon the plaster-water ratio.
Plaster at a ratio of 5: 2 has an E = 2.3 X lo6
psi., whereas at a ratio of 2: 1, the E =
 XlECHXNlCAL PROPERTIES OF ORTHOPEDIC
1.9 x 10Gpsi in compression. The tensile
modulii were found to be approximately IO
per cent lower. For both tension and compres-
sion the modulus was constant to the point of
failure. This dependence on water ratio
explains the scatter in the stress data reported
by Schenck et al. (1968), and also the scatter
in the stress data observed in this paper.
To obtain the modulus of elasticity as a
function of moisture content, indirect strain
measurements were required because of the
difficulty in attaching strain gages to wet
surfaces. Using the compression testing
arrangement, a strain gage extensometer was
attached to the constant speed crosshead. A
direct continuous recording of load versus
crosshead movement could then be obtained
on the strip chart and a ‘bulk’ modulus
determined from the resultant graph.
The modulus determined in this way was
found to increase with decreasing moisture
content. reaching a maximum at the natural
dry weight of 21 per cent water content. The
modulus approximately tripled as the moisture
content decreased to 11 per cent.
VOI>UNTEER EXPERIMENTS
Experiments were performed to determine
the strains developed in a completely cured
lower leg Ls.alking cast during normal and
abnormal activity. Using generally accepted
techniques, plaster bandage casts were applied
to seven different healthy volunteer subjects
by an orthopedic surgeon. Volunteer subjects
were both male and female (5 men and 2
women), with weights ranging from 135 to
180 Ibs. Stockinette and webril padding were
applied under the plaster bandage, with the
casts extending from the top of the calf to the
ball of the foot. To each cast was attached a
rubber walking heel. Soaking water tem-
perature was approximately 70°F.
To realize the maximum strength of the
plaster. all casts were allowed to dry naturally
for at least 72 hr. Since in the previous study
maximum stresses were found to result from
muscle contraction rather than ambulation.
PLASTER Bhir;D.AGES 181
each subject was instructed not to apply any
undue stress to the cast.
Strain gages bvere attached with epoxy 18
hr after application of the casts. All gages
were applied near the anterior-posterior
plane lying just below the ankle and making
an angle of about 45’ with the tibia. In previ-
ous similar experiments performed by
Schenck et trl. (1968) it was found that the
maximum stresses developed in a lower leg
walking cast occurred in the front and back
of the ankle along this plane. In all experi-
ments, gages were placed at these points of
expected maximum stress, one gage parallel
to the tibia and one gage perpendicular to the
tibia at each location. Since it was possible to
monitor six gages for each experiment, gages
uere also placed at various locations on the
inside and outside of the ankle. Gage locations
and orientations are sketched in Fig. Il. The
strain gages were monitored by carrier
amplifiers and the data recorded on a seven-
channel Sanborn tape recorder, lvith one
channel being used as a marker channel. The
marker channel served two purposes: for
recording a voice description of the experi-
mental proceedings, and to record the instant
of heel contact. At the instant of heel contact,
a hand-held switch actuated a relay. causing a
600 Hz signal to be imposed upon the marker
channel.
Each subject performed the follo\ving
activities: (1) moderate plantar flexion. (2)
stand, with weight evenly distributed between
Fig. I I. Sketch of cast showing typical strain gage
location.
182 V. E. SCHMIDT. J. H. SOLMERSET and R. E. PORTER

cast and free leg. (3) entire weight on cast.
(3) marking time in place, (5) treadmill walk
at varying speeds, (6) vigorous plantar flexion.
(7) vigorous dorsiflexion, and (8) stomp with
or jump on cast. Each activity, except stomp-
ing. was repeated at least ten times. All
experimentsexcept stomping, were performed
on an electrically insulated treadmill.
Voltrnteer test results
The stress patterns obtained on the com-
pletely dried casts were similar to those found
by Schenck. Somerset and Porter (1968) on
partially dried casts. The stresses obtained
varied greatly from cast to cast and for the
various activities. However, for a particular
activity, the pattern was quite uniform for
each cast. with only the magnitude varying
from cast to cast.
Figure 13 shows the strain distribution for
various activities. and Fig. 14 shows the
corresponding stresses obtained by multi-
plying the strains by E. It should be noted that
these are not the masimum stresses obtained
by assuming a plane stress model. Data shown
is that recorded by the various gages with
each circle representing the maximum stress
and strain recorded for each volunteer.
Although redundant gages were placed as
close as practicable, there were marked
differences in the magnitude of strain recorded
by two closely placed strain gages. This is
probably due to the distance between the
gages (at least 1 in.) and the irregularity of the
casts. Therefore, it vvas not advisable to use
any two or three dimensional equations or
techniques, such as hlohrs circle. to evaluate
the maximum stresses. Moreover. it was not
practical to apply a rosette to the cast surface.
The magnitude of strain for standing on the

Strain gages

Oa+a channels

Push-button 1 f?!? 7- Chonnel

instrumentation tape recorder
H-P 2000

LOU0
Power
speaker
L!J amplifier
Marker light

I I
Orcillagraph

Fig. 12. Schematic drawing of data recording.

 MECH.ANIC.\L PROPERTIES OF ORTHOPEDIC PLASTER B.\NDAGES 183

/ 3
1400 -

1x0-
zi
0

_ ccc-

l
200 100 600 300 1000 I200 1400 16OC
stmn. In IIll 1. IO6
Fig. lj. Compre>sikr stress-strain of plaster bandaze
Fig. 13. hiaximum strain distribution for various activities.
marcrial.

walking. In fact, the pattern for both were

Fig. 1-I. Corresponding stress distribution
activities.
cast was approximately double that exhibited
while standing even on both feet. As shown in
Fig. 14 the stresses developed were weIl under
those necessary to produce material failure.
There was not significant variation in magni-
tude between walking in place and treadmill
similar and very regular from subject to
subject. Both front and back longitudinal
stresses were tensile during contact and com-
pressive while lifted. This anomaly is appar-
ently due to the natural method of walking,
with the foot extending to push the ground
during contact. and recoiling in between
contact. Maximum stresses were developed
longitudinally at the front of the ankle with a
maximum of 250 psi compression for the
treadmill Lvalking and 3 I5 psi (compressive)
for marking time.
To test the hypothesis that the height of the
sole of the shoe ~vorn on the healthy foot
affects the stresses, one volunteer repeated
the walking and standing test wearing a special
high heeled ‘Dutch’ shoe. No significant
for various change in stress magnitude was noted.
Apparently the height change between a
regular shoe and the ‘Dutch’ shoe was not
sufficient enough to cause a variation of stress.
The patterns for the flexion tests were also
similar from cast to cast. Longitudinal stresses
at the front of the ankle were always tensile
during plantar flexion and compressive
during dorsiflexion. The stresses at the back
184 V. E. SCHMIDT, J. H. SOMERSET
were just the reverse, being compressive
during plantar flexion and tensile during dorsi-
flexion. The largest stresses occurred during
the vigorous plantar flexion activity, with two
of the seven volunteers attaining stresses high
enough to cause cracks to appear on the front
of the ankle.
The stomping or jumping activity produced
stresses as high as 605 psi longitudinally on
the heel.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The increase in the modulus of elasticity as
the moisture content decreases is very sig-
nificant. A ‘green’ cast has attained only l/3
its maximum ultimate strength after 24 hr of
drying. Coupled with the lower modulus,
unknown deformation of the cast can occur
before drying is complete. Note that a patient
need not ambulate for this to occur. Moderate
plantar flexion can cause tensile yielding of
the plaster bandage, with the resultant matrix
being held together by the crinoline sub-
structure. Hence, permanent deformation can
result in a cast before complete drying has
occurred. This is an added incentive for a
longer drying period.
In summary, the gauze in the plaster
bandage has the following mechanical effects;
(1) causes a decrease in the compressive
strength in all directions, (2) causes an in-
crease in the X- and y-axis ultimate tensile
strength, and (3) causes a decrease in the
t-axis tensile strength.
As noted above, the crinoline sub-matrix
increases the ultimate tensile strength of the
plaster bandage material in all directions
except along the z-axis. However, the
plaster substructure yields at stresses obtain-
able through normal use of the cast. This low
ultimate tensiIe strength of plaster is the major
drawback of the plaster bandage material.
Higher plaster-water ratios are not the
answer, for as found by Eartishaw and Smith
(1966), the tensile strength of plaster has a
finite limit.
The stress diagram shown for the volunteer
and R. E. PORTER
experiments in the previous study by Schenck,
et al. (1968) may be incorrect. At the time
these experiments were conducted, 24 hr was
the recommended drying time for casts and
thus the volunteer experiments were con-
ducted on casts dried for 24 hr. In deriving
the stresses, an E = 1.0 X lo6 was assumed.
However, it is now known that these casts
were only partially dry and hence the modulus
was probably lower than I.0 X 10”. No actual
correction factor can be given since the mois-
ture content of the casts are not known, nor
can it now be determined. Furthermore,
ultimate stress was assumed as the upper
limit of load support. But the modulus of
elasticity decreases sharply when yielding
occurs, and tensile yielding occurs far below
the ultimate stress. Hence both the actual
stress value below yielding and the values
above yielding are probably incorrect.
Obviously the major drawback of the
plaster bandage material, or any plaster
material in use for walking cast application, is
the lack of tensile strength. Although the ten-
sile strength can be increased by greater
strength gauze, the low tensile strength of the
plaster substructure causes the cast to lose its
rigidity and hence its usefulness.
REFERENCES
Arden and Wood (1955) Experiences with experimental
plaster bandages containing resin. J. Bone Jnt Surgery
37B, 639-64 1.
ASTM Standards (1968) Gypsum and Cement Book of
ASTM Standards.
ASTM Standards (19653 Textile Materials- Yarns,
Fabrics, General Methods Book of ASTM Standards.
Cameron, D. M. (1961) Plaster of Paris-a history. Am.
J. Orthop.
Eamshaw, R. and Smith, D. C. (1966) Tensile and com-
pressive strength of plaster of paris and stone. Amt.
Dent. J. 11,415-422.
Luck, J. V. ( 1944) Plaster of paris casts-an experimental
and clinical analysis. JAMA. 1,23-29.
Schenck, Somerset and Porter Stresses in orthopedic
walking casts. J. Biomechanics 2,227-239.
Timoshenko. S. P. and Goodier, J. N. Theory of Elas-
ticity. pp. 107-l Ii. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Velloso, G. D. (1955) Experimental studies on ideal
fabric for plaster of paris casts. J. fnt. COD. Surg. 24,
108-l 12.
 hlECHANlCAl_ PROPERTIES OF ORTHOPEDIC PLASTER B.I\NDAGES 185

NOME;YCLATuRE I number of layers

w stress in psi q ultimate strength per thread
E modulus of elasticity in psi D diameter in in.
N number of threads per linear in. t thickness in in.