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HRENG 313 REVIEWER

Importance of Transportation
Primary need for transportation involves:

• Personal travel in search of food or work.

• Travel for the exchange of goods and commodities.
• Exploration
• Personal fulfilment
• Improvement of a society or a nation
Passenger Transportation Modes and Traffic Congestion
• Our transportation today is highly developed than before, it has a complex network of modes and facilities.
• Each mode offers unique set of characteristics in terms of travel time, frequency, comfort, reliability, convenience
for the passengers, drivers or the users of that mode of transportation and safety.
• Traveler or shipper can choose if public carrier or personal/private transportation.
Common Modes of Transportation in the Philippines
1. Jeepneys and Multicabs
a. Jeepneys- are non-air con vehicles servicing the commuting public, roaming the streets in a parade of
colors.
b. Multicab- is a smaller version of standard jeepney, but has the same function.
2. Buses- it’s the main mode of transport for land trips that last an hour to several hours or overnight.
3. Taxis- normally roam around the city streets, picking up or unloading passengers within the city limits.
4. Trains (MRT/LRT)
a. Three railway systems in the country:
i. Manila Light Railway Transit System (LRT 1 & 2)
ii. Philippine National Railways iii. Manila Metro Rail Transit System
(MRT)
5. Vans- vans for hire or V-hires service provincial routes where other modes of transportations are scarce or
unavailable.
6. Motorcycle with Passenger Compartment- they serve very limited routes and are often restricted from
servicing busy cities.
a. Motorela- are fitted with jeepney-like chassis and have four wheels.
7. Motorcycle Taxis (Habal-habal)- generally, the only means of transportation to hinterlands and mountain
barangays in the Philippines.
8. Bicycles with Sidecar (Pedicab or Trisikad)- are non-motorized versions of the tricycle or motorela.
9. Ferry Boats (Ro-Ro)/ Pumpboats (Bancas)- Philippine inter-island travels are best done via ferry boats or roll-
in-roll-out ships for major islands, and pumpboats or bancas for smaller islands and private island-hopping trips.
a. Bancas- are usually small fishing vessels with wooden panels and bamboo riggers.
10. Airplanes- the costlier but faster way to visit different islands of the Philippines is via airplane.
Some of the Most Peculiar Means of Travel in Philippines
• Palayon or wooden scooter in Banaue
• Pasayad or carabao-pulled cart
• Kalesa or horse carriage
• Kuliglig or hand tractor ride
• Riles Kariton or railroad trolley
Traffic Congestion
 • Traffic congestion that has arisen as a result of extensive private-vehicle use and low-vehicle occupancy presents
a perplexing problem
• Of the available urban transportation modes (such as bus, commuter train, subway, private vehicle and others),
private vehicles (and single-occupant private vehicles in particular) offer an unequaled level of mobility.
Characteristics of Road Transport
• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks two and three wheeled
automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles.
• Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Construction and maintenance of the
roads is also cheaper that of railway track, docks, harbors and airports.
• Road transport completely offer freedom to road users to transfer the vehicles from one lane to another according
to the need and convenience.
• Road transport saves time.
• Road transport is subjected to high degree of accidents due to flexibility of movements offered to the user.
• Road transport is the only means of transport offer itself to the whole community.
• The Major defect of road is traffic. o Traffic means the number of vehicles using in given volume of
road than average number of vehicles. SCOPE OF HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Transportation Engineering
• Is the application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.
Modes of Transportation
• Highways
• Urban Transit
• Air
• Rail
• Water
• Pipelines
Highway Engineering
- Highway Engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the planning, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of highway systems, streets, roads, bridges as well as parking facilities.
Difference between Highway and Street
Highway- usually refers to a facility that can accommodate large volume of traffics.
Street and Road- are used mainly for facilities that serve local areas and also provide access to highways.
Scope of Highway Engineering
• Development, Planning and Locations
• Highway Design, Geometrics and Structure
• Traffic Performance and its Control
• Materials, Construction and Maintenance
• Pavement Design and Evaluation
• Economic, Finance and Administration
Traffic Engineering
Traffic Engineering is a method of civil engineering that helps optimize the performance and efficiency of the
movement of people, goods and transportation.
 •
Common Objectives of Traffic Engineering includes the following:
Providing highly efficient traffic flow through ample research and innovate design efforts.
• To produce free flow traffic.
• Use research to design roadways and highways that increase traffic safety (strategic implementation of stop signs,
traffic signs, and traffic lights)
Some (of the many) studies a traffic engineer must consider;
• Accident Studies
• Traffic Capacity Studies
• Speed Studies
• Traffic Volume Studies
• Parking Studies
• Origin and Destination Studies
• Traffic Flow Characteristics Studies
Highways as Part of the Transportation System
• It is important to keep in mind that highway transportation is a part of a larger transportation system that includes
air, rail, water and pipeline transportation system. Highways are the dominant mode of most passengers.
Highways in the Philippines
• 1900, Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more than a dream to most Filipinos.
• The American government initiated the development of roadways in the Philippines, Macadam road type was
introduced.
• After the Second World War, the new independent Philippine government continued the rehabilitation and
construction of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese government.
• The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered an automobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as luxury
item but a necessity in transporting people and goods, a necessity for survival.
o Slogan: The Nation is on Wheels
• Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed through the financial assistance and loans
from foreign banks.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
National Primary
• Directly connects Major Cities (at least around 100,000 people)
• Cities within Metropolitan Areas are not covered by the criteria.
National Secondary
• Directly connects Cities to National Primary Roads, except in Metropolitan Area
• Directly connects Major Ports and Ferry Terminals to National Primary Road
• Directly connects Major Airports to National Primary Road
• Directly connects Tourist Service Centers to National Primary Roads or other
• Directly connects Cities (not included in the category of Major Cities)
• Directly connects Provincial Capitals within the same Region
• Directly connects to Major National Government Infrastructure to National Primary Roads or Other National
Secondary Roads
National Tertiary

• Other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function

Provincial Roads (Local Roads)
 • Connect Cities and Municipalities without traversing National Roads
• Connect National Roads to Barangays through rural areas
• Connect to Major Provincial Government Infrastructure
Municipal and City Roads (Local Roads)
• Road within the Poblacion
• Roads that connect to Provincial and National Roads
• Roads that provide Inter-Barangay connections to Major Municipal and City Infrastructure without traversing
Provincial Roads
Barangay Roads (Local Roads)
• Other Public Roads (officially turned over) within the Barangay and not covered in the above definitions.
Expressways
• Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may include facilities for levying tolls for passage in
an open or closed system
Bypasses
• Are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let through traffic flow without
interference from local traffic reduce congestion and improve road safety where a toll for passage is levied in an
open or closed system.
HIGHWAY PLANNING
Roads and Highways play a vital role in development of human society. But for every successful project
planning is necessary. From a small road to big structure and highways planning is the first and foremost thing need to be
done.
Planning becomes more important when sources of funds and materials are limited in quantity. These types of
problems especially occur in developing countries.

Objectives of Highway Planning

• A highway should be plan according to the volume of daily traffic flow from a particular path. For this purpose,
proper survey must be done to collect the adequate amount of data.
• The highways develop must be efficient, but at a minimum cost, especially in cases of developing and
underdeveloped countries.
• The highways should be safe and secure.
• The planning must have a forecast for next several years in order plan fix periods for maintenance, renewal and
widening as well.

Planning Surveys - this data is beneficial for the best utilized type of road (MDR, NH, SH) to be created on
the path. This
includes traffic volume survey, origin destination survey, vehicles damage surveys (vdf) etc.
Social survey- is done along road side, town villages and shops. The surveyors collect data about villagers
and have discussions about the project and ask for cooperation during the years for construction. In small
town or villages there are limited sources for people to live.
• Environment Data- Environment is another important factor which must be taken under consideration before
planning a highway. A report regarding affecting number of trees, flora and fauna near construction sites,
pollutants increased during construction in air and water must be prepared and submitted to environment ministry
to get the green signal for development.
 •
• Roads Inventory and Condition Surveys- Under this survey condition of pavement and structures (bridges
and culverts) along the road are taken. If the condition structures are poor, they need to be reconstructed. If
conditions are fair, they are widened or repaired. If conditions are good, they are retained.

Highway Location
An important initial step in the design of a proposed highway is to determine the location. The basis for selecting
the location can be topography, soil characteristics, cost, and environmental factors. The data required are usually
obtained from different types of surveys, depending on the factors being considered.

Principles of Highway Location

The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as curvature and grade must blend with
each other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design
criteria and safety standards.

The highway location process involves four phases:

a. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between terminal points.
• The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available data of the area in which
the road is to be constructed.
• This phase is usually carried out in the office prior to any field or photogrammetric investigation.
• All of the available data are collected and examined. These data can be obtained from existing
engineering reports, maps, aerial photographs, and charts, which are usually available at one or more of
the state’s departments of transportation, agriculture, geology, hydrology, and mining.
• Data should be obtained on the following characteristics of the area:
i. Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes
ii. Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns
iii. Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic, and archeological
sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and water pollution
iv. Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of agricultural, commercial, and
industrial activities.
b. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.

• The object of this phase of the study is to identify several feasible routes, each within a band of a limited
width of a few hundred feet.
• When rural roads are being considered, there is often little information available on maps or photographs,
and therefore aerial photography is widely used to obtain the required information.
• Control points between the two endpoints are determined for each feasible route.
• Feasible routes are identified by a stereoscopic examination of the aerial photographs, taking into
consideration factors such as:
i. Terrain and soil conditions
ii. Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas
iii. Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and highways iv. Directness
of route
c. Preliminary survey of the best route.
• During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set as closely as possible by
establishing all the control points and determining preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for
each.
• Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic and environmental feasibility of the alternative
routes.
 i. Economic Evaluation o Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to
determine the future effect of investing the resources necessary to construct the highway. Factors usually
taken into consideration include road user costs, construction costs, maintenance costs, road user benefits,
and any disbenefits, which may include adverse impacts due to dislocation of families, businesses, and so
forth.
o The results obtained from the economic evaluation of the feasible routes provide valuable
information to the decision maker.
ii. Environmental Evaluation o A highway is therefore an integral part of the local
environment and must be considered as such. This environment includes plant, animal, and
human communities and encompasses social, physical, natural, and man-made variables.
o These variables are interrelated in a manner that maintains equilibrium and sustains the
lifestyle of the different communities. The construction of a highway at a given location
may result in significant changes in one or more variables, which in turn may offset the
equilibrium and result in significant adverse effects on the environment.
o In cases where an environmental impact study is required, it is conducted at this stage to
determine the environmental impact of each alternative route. Such a study will
determine the negative and/or positive effects the highway facility will have on the
environment.
o Federal legislation has been enacted that sets forth the requirements of the environmental
evaluation required for different types of projects. In general, the requirements call for
the submission of environmental impact statements for many projects. These statements
should include:
a. A detailed description of alternatives
b. The probable environmental impact, including the assessment of positive and
negative effects
c. An analysis of short-term impact as differentiated from long-term impact
d. Any secondary effects, which may be in the form of changes in the patterns of
social and economic activities
e. Probable adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided if the project is
constructed
f. Any irreversible and irretrievable resources that have been committed

d. Location survey, staking of the right of way and of the highway including the structure for construction.

• Final location is essentially the fixing of the details of the projected highway. It offers
opportunity for small
shifts of the line and adjustments in grade.
• At this final horizontal and vertical positioning of structures, channels, and other age facilities is set.
Particular attention should be paid to coordinating horizontal and vertical alignments.
• Computer-based techniques have been developed which display the road ahead on a cathode-ray
tube. These will enable the designer to have a driver's eye view and adjust the design to make it
aesthetically pleasing
• Following final location, whether done in field or office, sufficient curvature, tangency, and other control
points must be carefully referenced on the ground to permit easy location of the line during all phases of
construction.
 •
• Location of Highways in Urban Areas
i. Urban areas usually present complex conditions that must be considered in the highway location
process. In addition to factors discussed under office study and reconnaissance survey, other
factors that significantly influence the location of highways in urban areas include:
o Connection to local streets o Right-of-way
acquisition
o Coordination of the highway system with
other transportation systems o Adequate
provisions for pedestrians
Location of Bridges
i. Highways and Bridges have but one purpose - to convey traffic. The location and position of a
bridge is subordinate to the general alignment and grade. But sometimes, favorable alignment has
to be sacrificed, only to provide a right angle crossing to small creek.
Horizontal Curves
• Route surveys are horizontal and/or vertical plane surveys.
• There are four types of horizontal curve: o Simple Curves o Compound
Curves o Reverse Curves
o Spiral Curves

a) Simple Curves- is a circular curve used to connect two tangents intersecting at a point.

Elements of Simple Curve:

1. Point of curvature (PC) – the point where the curve leaves the first tangent; sometimes this point is
called TC or tangent to curve.
2. Point of tangency (PT) – the point where the curve joints the second tangent; sometimes called CT or
curve to tangent.
3. Vertex (V) – the point of intersection of the tangents; also called PI or point of intersection.
4. Tangent distance (T) – the distance from the vertex to the PC or PT.
5. External distance (E) – the distance from the vertex to the middle of the curve.
6. Long chord (LC) – a straight line joining the PC and PT.
7. Middle ordinate (m) – the line joining the middle of the chord with the middle of the curve.
8. Radius (R) – radius of the curve.
9. Angle of intersection (I) – the deflection angle between the tangents.
10. Degree of curve (D)
a. Arc basis – In highway practice where the radius is usually short and usually the distances are
considered to be the same as along the arc, the degree of the curve is the angle at the center
subtended by an arc of one full station.
b. Chord basis – Where the curve is relatively of long radius, distances along the arc of the curve
are connected to be the same as along the chord. This is the angle subtended by the chord of one
full station. Most railways work uses this degree of curve. In metric system, 1 full chord = 1 full
station = 20m; in English, 1 full chord = 1 full station = 100ft.
11. Sub-chord (C) – chord less than 1 full station.
12. Sub-angle (d) – angle at the center subtended by a sub-chord.
13. Length of curve (Lc) – total distance from the PC to PT.
14. Deflection angle of a point – the angle formed by the chord drawn from a point of tangency to the point.
15. Offset Distance – the perpendicular distance of a point from the tangent.
b) Compound Curves- consist of two or more circular curves between two main tangents joined at a point of
compound curve (PCC).

Elements of Compound Curve

1. PC - point of curvature
2. PT - point of tangency
3. PI - point of intersection
4. PCC - point of compound curve
5. T1 - length of tangent of the first curve
6. T2 - length of tangent of the second curve
7. V1 - vertex of the first curve
8. V2 - vertex of the second curve
9. I1 - central angle of the first curve
10. I2 - central angle of the second curve
11. LC1 - length of first curve
12. LC2 - length of second curve
13. L1 - length of first chord
14. L2 - length of second chord
15. L - length of long chord from PC to PT

c) Reverse Curve– a curve formed by two circular simple curves having a common tangent but lies on opposite
sides.

NOTE: Reverse Curve has the same elements as Compound Curve but instead of PCC, Reverse Curve has PRC
which refers to
Point of Reversed
Curve.

d) Spiral Curve or Transmission Curve– a curve of varying radius introduced at the outer edges of the roadway or
truck in order to allow the vehicle or train to pass gradually from tangent to the circular curve.

Elements of Spiral Curve

1. TS - Tangent to spiral
2. SC - Spiral to curve
3. CS - Curve to spiral
4. ST - Spiral to tangent
5. LT - Long tangent
6. ST - Short tangent
7. RC - Radius of simple curve
8. TS - Spiral tangent distance
9. TC - Circular curve tangent
10. L - Length of spiral from TS to any point along the spiral
11. LS - Length of spiral
12. PI - Point of intersection
13. I - Angle of intersection
•
14. IC - Angle of intersection of the simple curve
15. p - Length of throw or the distance from tangent that the circular curve has been offset
16. X - Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to any point on the spiral
17. XC - Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent to SC
18. Y - Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral
19. Yc - Distance along tangent from TS to point at right angle to SC
20. ES - External distance of the simple curve
21. θ - Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral
22. θS - Spiral angle from tangent to SC
23. i - Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral, it is proportional to the square of its distance
24. is - Deflection angle from TS to SC
25. D - Degree of spiral curve at any point
26. DC - Degree of simple curve
Geometric design
• Deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical and horizontal curves, cross sections,
truck climbing lanes, bicycle paths, and parking facilities.
• When one considers the diversity of vehicles’ performance and physical dimensions, and the interaction of these
characteristics with the many elements constituting highway design, it is clear that proper design is a complex
procedure that requires numerous compromises.
• In highway design, the determination of the length of freeway acceleration and deceleration lanes, maximum
highway grades, stopping sight distances, passing sight distances, and numerous accident-prevention devices all
rely on a basic understanding of vehicle performance.

Factors Influencing Highway Design

Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls which depend on the following roadway system
factors: (These factors are often interrelated)
• Functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
• Topography of the area that the highway traverses
• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factors

Cross Section Elements

• The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some
multilane highways).
• Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes.

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver

• Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness from end to end of the improvement.
This is acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a low volume traffic facility, modification of the
features like the shoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs.

Road Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the
ditch, gutter, curb or side slope.
 •
Cross Slope
Cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from the centerline
of the two lane highway except where super elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside. For high type
pavement the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%.

Cut or Fill Slope

Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They also serve as a safety feature
by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios.
Meaning, the first number represents the horizontal distance while the second number is the vertical distance.

Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the estimated traffic volume for the design year
(AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service.

Highway Median
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing directions. The width
of a median is the distance between the edges of the inside lanes, including the median shoulders. An
island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge.
Within an intersection, median is considered an island.

Grade Line
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure how the centerline of the highway rises and
fall. It appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a series of straight lines connected by parabolic vertical
curves to which straight grades are tangent.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt
curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also
used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way. Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on
the pavement side of a curb to provide the principal drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any
hazard to traffic.

Guard Rails
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with high fills. Their main
function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway.

Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas.

Right of Way
The right of way is the total land area acquired for the construction of a highway. The width should be sufficient to
accommodate all the elements of the highway cross section, any planned widening of the highway, and public-utility
facilities that will be installed along the highway.

Design of the Alignment

The alignment of a highway is composed of vertical and horizontal elements.
Vertical Alignment
• The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections known as grades, (or tangents) connected by
vertical curves. The design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable grades for the
tangent sections and the appropriate length of vertical curves.
• Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run
smoothly as they traverse the highway.

Vertical Curve Fundamentals- a vertical parabolic curve is a parabolic curve tangent to two intersecting tangent.
a. Symmetrical vertical parabolic curve- A parabolic curve where in the horizontal distances from PC to V
and V to PT are equal.

Elements:
1. Point of Curvature (PC)
2. Point of Tangency (PT)
3. Back and Forward Tangents
4. Vertex
5. g1 and g2 (grades of intersecting tangents) - If the algebraic difference in the order of the
grades of the two slopes is positive, that is (g1 - g2), we have a summit curve.
6. Diameter of the vertical parabolic curve – a line drawn from the vertex to the midpoint of
the horizontal distance of the curve from PC to PT.
7. Horizontal distance- Length of the Parabolic Curve (L)
8. Offset from tangent to a point on vertical parabolic curve (y) - between PC and PT the
vertical distance of the point from the tangent which is parallel to the diameter.

b. Unsymmetrical Vertical Parabolic Curve

1.L1 - length of the parabolic curve at left
2.L2 - length of the parabolic curve at right
3.g1 - slope of backward tangent
4.g2 - slope of forward tangent

Stopping Sight Distance

• Construction of a vertical curve is generally a costly operation requiring the movement of significant amounts of
earthen material.
• An appropriate level of safety is usually defined as that level of safety that gives drivers sufficient sight distance
to allow them to safely stop their vehicles to avoid collisions with objects obstructing their forward motion.

Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

• The length of curve is the critical element in providing sufficient SSD on a vertical curve.
• Longer curve lengths provide more SSD, all else being equal, but are more costly to construct.
• Shorter curve lengths are less expensive to construct but may not provide adequate SSD due to more rapid
changes in slope.
• What is needed, then, is an expression for minimum curve length given a required SSD. In developing such an
expression, crest and sag vertical curves are considered separately.
 •
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿
𝐿
𝐴

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆 < 𝐿
𝐴𝑆2

Where:
L = minimum length of vertical curve
A = absolute value of the difference in grades |𝑔2 − 𝑔1|

Standard Values for 𝐻1 and

𝐻2 ℎ1 = 1.143𝑚 𝑜𝑟 3.75𝑓𝑡.
ℎ2 = 0.15𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.50𝑓𝑡.

Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

• Sag vertical curve design differs from crest vertical curve design in the sense that sight distance is governed by
nighttime conditions because in daylight, sight distance on a sag vertical curve is unrestricted.
• Thus, the critical concern for sag vertical curve design is the length of roadway illuminated by the vehicle
headlights, which is a function of the height of the headlight above the roadway and the inclined angle of the
headlight beam, relative to the horizontal plane of the car.

Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

• Design for sag curves is based on nighttime conditions because during daytime conditions a driver can see the
entire sag curve.
• In designing the sag curve, it is essential that the curve be long enough to provide a suitably gradual rate of
curvature such that the overhead structure does not block the line of sight and allows the required stopping sight
distance for the specified design speed to be maintained.

Horizontal Alignment
• The critical aspect of horizontal alignment is the horizontal curve, with the focus on design of the directional
transition of the roadway in a horizontal plane. Stated differently, a horizontal curve provides a transition
between two straight (or tangent) sections of roadway.
• The highway engineer must design a horizontal alignment to accommodate the cornering capabilities of a variety
of vehicles, ranging from nimble sports cars to ponderous trucks.
Vehicle Cornering