Electrical Workshop Practice I

Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa institute of technology

Electrical workshop practice I Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
[ECEg: 2203]
Course outline.
1. Work shop safety
2. Soldering Techniques
2.1.General Soldering information
3. Internal Installation Practice
3.1.Splicing
3.2.One lamp controlled by a single pole single throw switch
3.3.Two lamps controlled from two different places by means of two two-way switches.
3.3.1. System I
3.3.2. System II
3.3.3. System III
3.4.Intermediate ways of controlling lamps.
3.4.1 Two lamps controlled from three different places by means of two two-ways
switches and one intermediate switch
3.4.2. Two lamps controlled from four different places by means of two two-ways
switches and two intermediate switch.
3.5.Fluorescent Lamp Circuit.
3.6.Bell and annunciator circuit.
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ECEG 2203 100% attendance is mandatory
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Work shop safety rules
Before you can use equipment and machines or attempt practical work in a work shop, you must understand
basic safety rules. These rules will help keep you and others safe in the work shop. Read the safety rules
carefully. If you fully understand them you should be able to work safety in a work shop.
1. Always listen carefully to the person who is in charge of the working are and follow instructions.
2. Use the right tools for the right job.
3. Always be patient, never rush in the work shop
4. Wear good strong shoes. Training shoes are suitable.
5. Bags should not be brought into a workshop as people can trip over them.
6. Identify the electric shock and are flash, as other hazards that may be present
7. Do not run in the work shop, you could “bump” into another pupil and cause accident.
8. Test every circuit and every conductor every time before you touch it.
9. Work on electrical equipment and conductors only when de-energized, unless procedures and safe
guards have been established to ensure zero exposure for the worker and other people in area.
10. Always wear an apron as it will protect your clothes and hold loose clothing such as ties in place.
11. When attempting practical work all tools should be put away.
12. When learning how to use a machine, listen very carefully to all instruction given by the person who
is in charge. Ask questions, especially if you do not fully understand.
13. Always use a guard when working on a machine.
14. Keep baud away from moving or rotating machinery.
15. Use band tools carefully, keeping both hands behind the cutting edge.
16. Any damage to machine or equipment as this could cause an accident.
17. Know where the emergency stop button is optioned in the work shop. If you see and accident at the
other side of the workshop you can use the emergency stop button to turn off all electrical power to
machines.
18. Do not use a machine if you have not been shown how to operate it safely by the person in charge.
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19. Splicing Techniques
Conductor splices and connections are an essential part of any electrical circuit. When conductors join each
other or connect to a load, splices or terminals must be used. Therefore, it is important that they be properly
made. Any electrical circuit is only as good as its weakest link.
The basic requirement of any splice or connection is that it is both mechanically and electrically as strong as
the conductor or device with which it is used. Quality workmanship and materials must be used to ensure
lasting electrical contact, physical strength, and insulation. The most common methods of making splices
and connections in electrical cables are explained in the discussion that follows.
19.1. Insulation removal
The first step in splicing or terminating electrical conductors is to remove the insulation. The preferred method
of removing insulation is with a wire-stripping tool, if available. A sharp knife may also be used. In any
removal method .In any removal methods the most important point to be considered is avoiding nicking,
cutting, or otherwise damaging the conductors. The hand wire strippers are common hand tools found in many
workshops. Wire strippers vary in size according to wire size or diameter and can be ordered for any size
needed. But commonly, we use Sharpe electrician knives. The procedure of how to remove insulation by
using knife is much the same as to sharpening a pencil. The knife should be held at Approximately 600
angles to the conductor.
Fig 1.Insullation removal.
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19.2. Types of conductor splices
There are six commonly used types of splices. Each has advantages and disadvantages for use.
Each splice will be discussed in the following section.
1) Western Union Splice

A simple connection known as the Western Union splice is used to splice small, solid conductors together.
After the splice is made, the ends of the wire are clamped down to prevent damage to the tape insulation.
Prepare the wires for splicing. Enough insulation is removed to make the splice. The conductor is
cleaned.
Bring the wires to a crossed position and make a long twist or bend in each wire
Wrap one end of the wire and then the other end four or five times around the straight portion of
each wire
Press the ends of the wires down as close as possible to the straight portion of the wire. This prevents
the sharp ends from puncturing the tape covering that is wrapped over the splice.
Fig 2 Western Union
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2) Staggering Splices
The staggered splice is used on multi conductor cables to prevent the joint from being bulky.
Care should be taken to ensure that a short wire from one side of the cable is spliced to a long wire, from the
other side of the cable. The sharp ends are then clamped firmly down on the conductor.
Fig 3. Staggering splices.
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3) Rattail Joint
A splice that is used in a junction box and for connecting branch circuits; wiring is placed inside conduits.
Whenever branch or multiple circuits are needed, junction boxes are used to join the conduit. To create a
rattail joint, first strip the insulation off the ends of the conductors to be joined. You then twist the wires to
form the rattail effect. This type of splice will not stand much stress.
Fig 4. Rattail joint.
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4) Fixture Joint
When conductors of different sizes are to be spliced, such as fixture wires to a branch circuit, the fixture joint
is used. Like the rattail joint, the fixture joint will not stand much strain.
 The first step is to remove the insulation and clean the wires to be joined.
 After the wires are prepared, the fixture wire is wrapped a few times around the branch wire.
 The end of the branch wire is then bent over the completed turns.
 The remainder of the bare fixture wire is then wrapped over the bent branch wire.
 Soldering and taping completes the job.
Fig 5. Fixture joint.
5) Knotted Tap Joint
All the splices discussed up to this point are known as butted splices. Each was made by joining the free
ends of the conductors together. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to join a branch conductor to a
continuous wire called the main wire. Such a junction is called a tap joint.
The main wire, to which the branch wire is to be tapped, has about 1 inch of insulation removed. The branch
wire is stripped of about 3 inches of insulation.
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Step :
 The branch wire is laid behind the main wire. About three-fourths of the bare portion of the branch
wire extends above the main wire.
 The branch wire is brought under the main wire, around itself.
 Then over the main wire to form a knot. The branch wire is then wrapped around the main conductor
in short.
 Tight turns; and the end is trimmed off.
The knotted tap is used where the splice is subject to strain or slippage. When there is no strain, the knot
may be eliminated.
Fig 6.Knotted tap joint.
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6) Wire nut and split bolt splices
The wire nut is a device commonly used to replace the rattail joint splice. The wire nut is housed in plastic
insulating material. To use the wire nut, place the two stripped conductors into the wire nut and twist the
nut.
In so doing, this will form a splice like the rattail joint and insulate itself by drawing the wire insulation into
the wire nut insulation.
The split bolt splice (view B in fig 7) is used extensively to join large conductors. In the illustration, it is
shown replacing the knotted tap joint. The split bolt splice can also be used to replace the “butted” splices
mentioned previously when using large conductors.
Fig 7. Wire nut and split bolt splices.
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2. What is soldering? And what mean by solder?
Soldering is the process of making a sound electrical and mechanical joint between certain metals by joining
them a soft solder.
Soldering joins two pieces of metal, such as electrical wires, by melting them together with another metal to
form a strong bond. Many people use soldering in their field, from electrical engineering and plumbing to
jewelry and crafts. In a delicate procedure, a special material, called solder, flows over two pre-heated
pieces and attaches them through a process similar to welding or brazing.
The first step in soldering is cleaning the surfaces, initially with sandpaper or steel wool and then by melting
flux onto the parts. N e x t s t e p i s t i n n i n g , i t i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y c o a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l t o b e
s o l d e r e d w i t h a b r i g h t c o a t o f s o l d e r . Sometimes, flux is part of the alloy of the soldering wire,
in an easy to use mixture. Then, the pieces are both heated above the melting point of the solder (but below
their own melting point) with the soldering iron. When touched to the joint, this precise heating causes the
solder to "flow" to the place of highest temperature and makes a chemical bond. The solder shouldn't drip or
blob, but spread smoothly, coating the entire joint. When it cools, you have a sturdy, even connection.
2.1. What Is a Soldering Iron?

A soldering iron is a tool which is designed to be used in soldering. Soldering is classically used to attach
two pieces of metal to create a joint, although plastics can be soldered as well. Soldering irons provide a
controlled source of heat which can be used to manipulate the materials used in the soldering process to
achieve the desired goal of a smooth, clean joint. Soldering is easy enough to do that it is regularly taught in
high school electronics classes.
Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. Solder is a metal or metallic
alloy used, when melted, to join metallic surfaces together. It melts at a temperature of
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about 200°C. Coating a surface with solder is called 'tinning' because of the tin content of solder. Lead is
poisonous and you should always wash your hands after using solder.
Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, like the wires inside a mains flux. The flux is
corrosive, like an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts. This is why you must melt the
solder actually on the joint, not on the iron tip. Without flux most joints would fail because metals quickly
oxidize and the solder itself will not flow properly onto a dirty, oxidized, metal surface.
2.2. The key factors that affect quality of soldering joints.
 Cleanliness
 Temperature
 Time
 Adequate solder coverage: Are the key factors affecting the quality of the joint. A little effort
spent now in soldering the perfect joint may save you - or somebody else - a considerable amount of
time in troubleshooting a defective joint in the future. The basic principles are as follows.
2.2.1. Really Clean
Firstly, and without exception, all parts - including the iron tip itself - must be clean and free from
contamination. Solder just will not “take” to dirty parts! Old components or copper board can be
notoriously difficult to solder, because of the layer of oxidation which builds up on the surface of the leads.
This repels the molten solder and this will soon be evident because the solder will "bead" into globules,
going everywhere except where you need it.
2.2.2. Temperature
Another step to successful soldering is to ensure that the temperature of all the parts is raised to roughly
the same level before applying solder. Imagine, for instance, trying to solder a resistor into place on a
printed circuit board: it's far better to heat both the copper PCB. and the resistor lead at the same time before
applying solder, so that the solder will flow much more readily over the joint.
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Heating one part but not the other is far less satisfactory joint, so strive to ensure that the iron is in contact
with all the components first, before touching the solder to it.
2.2.3. Now is the time
Next, the joint should be heated with the bit for just the right amount of time - during which a short length
of solder is applied to the joint. Do not use the iron to carry molten solder over to the joint! Excessive time
will damage the component and perhaps the circuit board copper foil too! Heat the joint with the tip of the
iron, then continue heating whilst applying solder, then remove the iron and allow the joint to cool. This
should take only a few seconds, with experience. The heating period depends on the temperature of your
iron and size of the joint - and larger parts need more heat than smaller ones - but some parts
(semiconductor diodes, transistors and i.c.s), are sensitive to heat and should not be heated for more than a
few seconds. Novices sometimes buy a small clip-on heat-shunt, which resembles a pair of aluminum
tweezers. In the case of, say, a transistor, the shunt is attached to one of the leads near to the transistor's
body. Any excess heat then diverts up the heat shunt instead of into the transistor junction, thereby saving
the device from over-heating. Beginners find them reassuring until they've gained more experience.
2.2.4. Solder Coverage
The final key to a successful solder joint is to apply an appropriate amount of solder. Too much solder is an
unnecessary waste and may cause short circuits with adjacent joints. Too little and it may not support the
component properly, or may not fully form a working joint. How much to apply, only really comes with
practice. A few millimeters only, is enough for an "average" PCB (printed circuit board) joint, (if there is such
a thing).
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2.3. De-soldering methods

A soldered joint which is improperly made will be electrically "noisy", unreliable and is likely to get worse
in time. It may even not have made any electrical connection at all, or could work initially and then cause
the equipment to fail at a later date! It can be hard to judge the quality of a solder joint purely by
appearances, because you cannot say how the joint actually formed on the inside, but by following the
guidelines there is no reason why you should not obtain perfect results.
A joint which is poorly formed is often called a "dry joint". Usually it results from dirt or grease preventing
the solder from melting onto the parts properly, and is often noticeable because of the tendency of the solder
not to "spread" but to form beads or globules instead, perhaps partially. Alternatively, if it seems to take an
inordinately long time for the solder to spread, this is another sign of possible dirt and that the joint may
potentially be a dry one.
There will undoubtedly come a time when you need to remove the solder from a joint: possibly to replace a
faulty component. This is usually known as de-soldering.
perfect solder joint must satisfies the following .
All parts must be clean and free from dirt and grease.
Try to secure the work firmly.
"Tin" the iron tip with a small amount of solder. Do this immediately, with new tips being used for
the first time.
Clean the tip of the hot soldering iron on a damp sponge.
Many people then add a tiny amount of fresh solder to the cleansed tip.
Heat all parts of the joint with the iron for under a second or so.
Continue heating, and then apply sufficient solder only, to form an adequate joint.
Remove and return the iron safely to its stand.
It only takes two or three seconds at most, to solder the average PCB joint.
Do not move parts until the solder has cooled.
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2.4. Soldering Guide

2.4.1. First a few safety precautions:
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.

They are very hot (about 400°C) and will give you a nasty burn.
Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron.
The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary plastic flex will melt
immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of burns and electric shock.
Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment!
Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it
by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work.
Wash your hands after using solder.
Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.
2.4.2. Preparing the soldering iron:
 Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in.

The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about 400°C.
 Dampen the sponge in the stand.
The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a moment, then
squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping wet.
 Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up.
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip.
 Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge.
This will clean the tip.
 Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip to the joint. It
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only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to
wipe the tip clean on the sponge.
You are now ready to start soldering:
Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.
Imagine you are going to write your name! Remember to never touch the hot element or tip.
Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made.
Make sure it touches both the component lead and the track. Hold the tip there for a few seconds
and...
Feed a little solder onto the joint.
It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape as shown in the diagram.
Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.
Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still.
Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you move the circuit board.
Inspect the joint closely.
It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not, you will need to reheat it and feed in a little
more solder. This time ensure that both the lead and track are heated fully before applying solder.
Preparing to solder
Tinning the Soldering Tip
Before use, a new soldering tip, or one that is very dirty, must be tinned. "Tinning" is the process of
coating a soldering tip with a thin coat of solder. This aids in heat transfer between the tip and the
component you are soldering, and also gives the solder a base from which to flow from.
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Step 1: Warm Up the Iron
Warm up the soldering iron or gun thoroughly. Make sure that it has fully come to temperature because
you are about to melt a lot of solder on it. This is especially important if the iron is new because it
may have been packed with some kind of coating to prevent corrosion.
Step 2: Prepare A Little Space
While the soldering iron is warming up, prepare a little space to work. Moisten a little sponge and
place it in the base of your soldering iron stand or in a dish close by. Lay down a piece of cardboard
in case you drip solder (you probably will) and make sure you have room to work comfortably.
Step 3: Thoroughly Coat the Tip in Solder
Thoroughly coat the soldering tip in solder. It is very important to cover the entire tip. You will use a
considerable amount of solder during this process and it will drip, so be ready. If you leave any part
of the tip uncovered it will tend to collect flux residue and will not conduct heat very well, so run the
solder up and down the tip and completely around it to totally cover it in molten solder.
Step 4: Clean the Soldering Tip
After you are certain that the tip is totally coated in solder, wipe the tip off on the wet sponge to
remove the entire flux residue.
3. General Soldering Information

3.1. Cleaning
A good soldering technician observes the following stages of preparation for each job.
Cleaning all components, circuit boards, tools, and materials to be used for the soldering process.
Selecting the flux.
Determining the heat to be used and the length of time to do the job which is based on the thermal
mass of the parts to be connected.
Selecting the solder.
Choosing the flux remover.
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Ask an experienced soldering technician, "What is the most important task to perform before soldering?"
Many technicians, even those who have been soldering for years, will probably answer, "heat," "iron tip,"
"solder." They usually miss the most critical task of all: cleaning.
Clean the soldering iron tip, component lead or wire, the item that the component is being soldered to (board
or terminal), tools being used to form the wires/leads, and even the solder itself.
3.2. Cleaning the Soldering Tip
The soldering iron tip should be bright silver with no flux residue or solder on it. Any major buildup of
oxide on the tip is removed by wiping the tip on a damp sponge before applying it to the area to be soldered.
This shocking action steams off the oxide and leaves the tip pristine and in the proper condition for
soldering. To start, you need the correct soldering iron for the job. For the majority of electronics work, this
means a 25-to-30-watt pencil type iron with variable heat control. This makes is easy to ensure that the
proper temperature is used for the work at hand. Soldering guns or irons with magnetically controlled
heaters can possibly damage the very tiny and sensitive integrated circuits or ICs because of the
electromagnetic fields radiating from these types of irons.
3.3. Tip Maintenance

If a soldering iron does not have a thin consistent layer or solder over the entire surface, the tip has not been
properly tinned. If the iron tips are not properly tinned, start with a cold iron, turn the heat on, and hold the
flux cored wire solder against the tip as it heats up. Wipe off the excess solder, then shock the tip on the
sponge before soldering. Do not wipe the excess solder, burned flux residue, and other contaminants onto
the sponge. The purpose of the sponge is to shock the iron. If you keep dumping your excess solder, burned
flux, and other residue onto your sponge, the sponge quickly becomes useless. Every time you then touch
the sponge, you pick up the dirt you put there earlier. This adds contamination to the solder connection. The
sponge should
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remove the thin layer or oxide that builds up when the iron is heated. Find another means and another place
to remove the dirt from your iron. One method is to use a paper or cotton wipe, ones that will not be shred
and leave particles behind, and very gently wipe the dirt from your iron. Then shock the iron tip to touching
the dampened sponge. Some solder stations now have sponges with openings in the middle that allow you to
wipe the excess solder off into the opening leaving the sponge free of contaminants that would otherwise
end up on the tip of the iron. (Practical Hint: When you are not using your iron, make sure you leave a large
lump of solder on the tip. This maintains the tinning on the tip, and the tip will last much longer. Many
technicians mistakenly clean the tip before they put the iron into the holder. Leave the solder on the tip to
protect it.)
3.4. Board Cleaning

In a manufacturing facility, a relatively clean board is generally available, but this should not be taken for
granted. If boards have been stored without protection against oxides and other airborne contaminants,
cleaning may be required before you do any soldering. Wire terminals may need to be pre-tinned to remove
oxides before a wire is installed. Dirt films on metals may consist not only of oxides, but sulfides,
carbonates, and other corrosive materials from the environment. These will hinder solder flow or wetting of
the solder onto the surfaces being soldered.
3.5. Component Leads and Wire Cleaning

Component leads should be tested periodically for solder ability. Take items from stock at random and test
them to ensure that problems will not be encountered when components are installed onto the board. If
necessary, re-tin the leads, and then clean them off. Wire, tinned by hand or solder pot, should have the burned
flux residue removed. If this residue is not removed, this contaminating material will be included in an
unreliable connection. Clean the wire with a liquid cleaner. Items such as a pink eraser, steel wool or similar
types of cleaning tools are not a good idea. The eraser leaves a gum residue which you now have to remove
and the steel wool
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could actually remove the tinning, etc. Some technicians feel that the heat of the soldering iron cleans off
the area to be soldered. This is a very common misconception. Some of the techniques used actually
increase the oxidation rate. Make sure everything you use or solder is clean.
3.6. Flux
A second very important item in preparing to solder is the flux. Flux has a very definite purpose: It prevents
oxidation and removes the thin layer of oxide and the atmosphere gas layer from the area to be soldered. When
the flux is applied to the area, it permits the solder to flow, or wet, smoothly and evenly over the surface of
the lead, wire, or pad being soldered. It also improves the flow of heat, resulting in faster heating of the items
are area being soldered.
3.6.1 Types of Flux
There are various types of fluxes available. (Caution: Some types of flux should never be used on a circuit
board because they corrode the board and the lead parts if the flux is not removed immediately. Acid- or zinc-
based fluxes should not be used on a circuit board. Fully activated rosin flux, known as RA, also is not
recommended for use on a circuit board.) The acceptable types of rosin flux include the pure rosin and the
mildly activated rosin (R or RMA). This later flux is in common use today, with some inroads being made
by so-called low residue and no clean fluxes. It has been found that some residues left behind from flux
becomes water absorbent and should be removed within a maximum or thirty minutes after the connection
has been made. RA flux is acceptable for use in tinning bus wire or component leads, but should not be used
on a circuit board or even kept in the same room, in case it gets picked up and used by mistake. Activators
will degrade the board and cause problems that would otherwise not occur. Most boards operate in an enclosed
environment where there is considerable heat, moisture (relative humidity), airborne bits and pieces or
dirt. The environment softens the flux left on the board, turning it into a gooey, particle-attracting, water-
absorbing blob or useless material. This mess will become conductive as it absorbs moisture, resulting in
leakage paths that cause problems in the operation of the equipment. In late 1992, a new water-soluble flux,
developed originally by Huges Aircraft, received acceptance: final approval for
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its use was made in early 1993. The flux is made from lemons. This makes it very easy to clean, but the
cleaning must be very thorough, or residue may cause corrosion.
3.7. Wetting
If the correct flux is properly used, it will greatly assist all aspects of soldering and desoldering. It improves
the intermetallic bonding and consequently the solder flow, which is one of the important areas of
inspection. Poor wetting is usually the result of poor cleaning procedures or lack of sufficient heat. De-
wetting problems relate to the material that is being soldered as a result of the intermetallic compound reaching
the surface of the tinned area. The feathering out of the solder on a connection indicates that wetting
has occurred.
4. Heat, Time, Mass

The third item in preparing to solder includes three very important factors to be considered. These are the
heat to be used, time on the connection, and the mass of the joint. Because not all connections are the same,
consideration must be given to the differences in the mass of the joints and adjusting the heat and/or time
accordingly. You should not use the same heat and length of time to solder a diode to a small pad as would
be needed for soldering a wire onto a terminal. The diode would be would be damaged, the pad area where
the lead is being soldered could be damaged, and the solder will be overheated. An iron that is too cold will
result in a mush type of melt and poor wetting action. The maximum time from when a soldering iron comes
into contact with the parts that are to be connected until the joint is finished should not exceed two to five
seconds. In some cases just one second is the maximum allowable time. One other thing to keep in mind as
far as heat is concerned is the oxidation rate of the soldering iron tip. At a normal temperature of 600
degrees, there is a certain amount of oxidation produced, depending on the time it is left unused and without
any solder on the tip. At 700 degrees the rate is nearly ten times the level of oxidation and at 800,
approximately hundred times. This oxidation acts as a barrier to the transfer of heat and therefore the proper
flow of solder. Because we are not robots and because people work and react differently to what is
happening, it is beneficial for personnel to
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be able to easily regulate the amount of heat being applied. Changing the heat of the tip of the iron should be
the simplest task possible; for example, turning a dial. People should be able to recognize what is actually
occurring as compared to what they feel is going on. Experienced solders have a genuine knowledge of what
happened to a particular joint. They know by observing what has happened and can judge whether a joint
will be reliable or will break down in a short period of time. To inspect solder connections, a 10X stereo
microscope should be made available for managers and supervisors. They should also be trained to know what
they should see during inspection.
5. Solder Types
The fourth point in preparing to solder is to consider the type of solder to be used. Most companies and
technicians use 60/40 solder. There is nothing wrong with 60/40 solder, but there is a better one- 63/37 or
eutectic solder. Note that for the 60/40 solder, there is a time when the solder is neither liquid nor solid. It is
in a plastic state during this period. It is very important that there be absolutely no vibration or movement of
the connection when the solder is going through this plastic region, otherwise a disturbed joint will be the
result. The 63/37 solder has no plastic period and reduces the possibility of a disturbed connection.
6. Heat Sinking
Heat sinking is a method used to prevent the overheating of components, wires, or circuit boards. It usually
is a small metal clip or clamp which is attached to the area between where the solder connection will be
made and the item to be protected. The use of a heat sink for soldering some components is not required if the
proper technique for soldering is followed to the letter. However, if the proper soldering technique is not
followed, heat sinking becomes an alternative, but not a good one. Heat sinking is used mostly by persons
who are unaware of the proper procedures.
Compensation has to be made for the additional mass of the heat sink by increasing the heat and possibly
the length of time. If this concerns a diode in a double-sided board in a plated through hole will a small pad
area on each side, the chances of lifting a pad becomes greater by the millisecond. The heat sink would have
to be placed on the top of the circuit board attached to one of the leads. Because the solder and iron are on
the bottom of the board, it will be difficult to get the solder to flow throughout the hole and wet onto the
component side pad - which is what should happen for the lead to be soldered correctly.
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7. Cleaners and/or Flux Removers

Item five is preparing to solder involves the selection of a good chemical cleaner. When it comes to the
cleaner to be used for removing flux and cleaning in general, there is a wide variety of cleaners from which
to choose. The cleaner must be able to remove ionic and non-ionic residue from anything that is being, or
has been soldered. Check the contents of the cleaner, then check the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for
information on the various chemicals involved. See if anything in the cleaner is carcinogenic (cancer causing).
Even if carcinogens are present in only small quantities, you should try something else. Isopropyl alcohol
(IPA), also known as isopropanol, is a decent cleaner; but there are others that contain blends of alcohol that
are even better. The key is to find a cleaner that will not harm your work or - more importantly - yourself.
8. Soldering Techniques
Various techniques have been tried ever since soldering was first used in electronics. The old saying "the
bigger the blob, the better the job" can no longer be accepted. What was considered too meticulous and
fussy is now the standard. Soldering can no longer be taken for granted. It is an art, and there are very few
gifted painters. In 1989 a person who received two weeks of formal soldering training in 1981 said, "Soldering
sure has changed in eight years!" This comment underscores the need for training from knowledgeable
instructors who keep up-to-date with soldering techniques. The usual soldering technique is as follows: First
apply the solder to the tip of the iron, then apply the iron to the area to be soldered. If the flux is not put onto
the lead and
pad first, the purpose of the flux in the wire solder is defeated. The flux dissipates over the iron tip and turns
into carbon pieces rather than going onto the lead and pad to remove the oxides. So much for a clean, oxide-
fee surface; so much for the wetting action; and so much for a good, reliable, problem-free connection.
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8.1. Solder Application

There are a few exceptions, but the following is a tried and proven technique. Believe it or not, it has been
known for decades.
Before the iron is applied, solder of the proper size is placed beside the lead or wire and on
the pad area or terminal to be soldered. A clean iron is applied, and no pressure is exerted on
the area being soldered. Only contact with both surfaces is required.
The proper iron tip - clean, oxide-free, and heated to the correct temperature - is brought to
where the solder has been placed, commonly referred to as the "point of maximum thermal
mass." As soon as the hot iron touches the solder, the solder melts, permitting the flux in the
wire solder to clean off the surface, as well as creating a solder or heat bridge that heats up
the joint area very quickly.
The wire solder is now moved to the opposite side of the lead or wire, and the proper amount
of solder needed to complete the connection is added. In either case the exposed copper end
of the lead or wire must be sealed by solder to prevent oxidation of the copper, which occurs
very rapidly. How do you know if you have the right amount? If the solder is concave and
has an angle of wetting between 0 and 20 degrees, it could be a good connection.
For double-sided and multilayered boards this is the required technique, to ensure that solder
has gone through the board onto the component side and wetted the appropriate area on that
side. If this technique is not used, the chances of the solder flowing to the component side,
without excessive heat being applied, are
from very poor to none. Solder should only be applied to the solder side. The solder fillet on
the component side of the double-sided or multi-layered boards is never applied on the
component side. Some technicians might have learned that the best soldering method is to apply
the iron to the item being soldered and then to add the
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solder. This method can reduce your chances of making a good connection in two ways:
When heat is applied to any metal, the metal oxidizes at a very rapid rate. The higher
the heat, the faster the oxidation. This oxidation creates an insulating barrier that will
not allow the solder to flow easily into the surfaces being soldered, thereby
preventing good wetting action needed.
Flux in the wire cored solder should remove the surface gasses and oxides from the
surfaces being soldered. If the solder is applied after the iron, the overheated flux
becomes small pieces of carbon-type material that sit on the soldering iron. The flux
never gets to do what it is supposed to do. Worse still, it flows into the connection
area, causing the joint to become contaminated - a poor connection.
By applying the solder before the iron, you make proper use of the available flux and form a heat or solder
bridge. This technique heats up the surface faster and allows you to complete the job properly in the shortest
possible time. As you reduce the amount of time needed to do the job, you also reduce the probability of
board damage due to excessive heat and time.
8.2. Amount of Solder

When soldering a joint, it is not how much solder is added but the technique used to make the joint. Very little
solder is needed in most cases. Usually about one-half to one-third of what is usually considered necessary is
all the solder needed. The larger the blob of solder, the more difficult it is to determine if proper wetting of
the soldered surfaces has taken place.
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Reflow Soldering
A second method of soldering is referred to as reflow soldering. This is normally used where plated through
holes are not involved, such as the installation of surface mount items or repairing circuit board traces. The
technique is relatively simple.
Unreliable Solder Joints
Some examples of poor and therefore unreliable connections to watch out for are:
Overheated - de-wetting; lumps; dull; crystalline-like; looks as though sand has been thrown into the joint.
Cold - poor wetting; stretch marks between the pad and lead.
Fractured - poor wetting; stretch marks between the pad and lead.
Non-wetting - solder balled up around the joint.
Excessive solder - lead or wire contour is not visible and the shape of the solder is convex.
Insufficient solder - hole is not covered; copper end is not sealed; it is not as wide as the wire or lead.
De-wetting - usually excessive heat; solder balls up. This also occurs if an intermetallic compound is
involved.
Other defects to watch for include:
o Pinholes or voids - from dust, dirt, flux gas, improper heat, or other contamination.
o Lumps and large holes - improper pre-soldering cleaning and outgassing from flux gas.
o Damaged wire insulation - excess heat and/or wicking of solder under the wire insulation.
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9. Characteristics of a Good Connection

A good solder joint has very few things to look for compared to a poor one. A good solder joint shows the
following characteristics:
Smooth
Bright
Shiny
Clean
Concave solder fillet
Good wetting
The end of the wire or lead covered with solder
"Do it once and do it right" should become the standard for soldering personnel. They should be very
familiar with this and be able to apply it to their work. Doing the job right the first time eliminates the need
for costly rework, equipment returned by the customer, the purchase of rework and test equipment, and the
hiring of someone to do the work. Consider these costs and the goodwill of your most important people - your
customers.
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10. One lamp controlled by a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) switch
NOTE: as we are note equipped with low voltage power supply, we will work on 220v, 50Hz. So it is
mandatory to adhere to safe working procedure and methods.
Materials, tools and equipment used.
Solid copper wire Staples or cable clamp

Lamp holder SPST switch
Lamp 220V,40W Electrician knife
Junction box-1 Medium size screw driver
Side cutter,pliers Pin ball hammer
Test lamp Socket outlet
1-Complete the lay diagram of the given figure
S J.B
SPST Switch
Fig 1. Incomplete layout diagram of one lamp controlled by single pole single throw switch.
Assignment I.
Based on the lay-out diagram of fig 1 draw a complete circuit (wiring) .Get your work checked
by instructor and after getting approval proceed to construct the wiring on the circuit board.
27
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11. Two lamps controlled from two different places by means of two
two-way switches.
Solid copper wire or cable Junction box may be 2 Electrical knife
Lamp holder,2 Insulation cup Medium size screw driver
Lamp 220V,40W,50Hz Single pole two way switch Pin ball hammer
Side cutter pliers Test lamp
System I
1-Complete the layout diagram of fig 2
L1 L2
J.B1 J.B2
Sw1 Sw2
Fig 2. Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps controlled simultaneously by two two-way switches.

28

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Assignment II.
Based on the lay-out diagram of fig 2 draw a complete circuit (wiring) diagram.
Procedures for system I
Connect the neutral(N) Wire to the shell of the lamps
Connect the phase(P) line to the traveller terminal of SW1
Connect the corresponding switch terminal of SW1 and SW2 by traveller wire.
Connect the traveller terminal of SW2 to the base of the lamps.
System II
L1
S J.B
Sw2
Sw1
L2
Assignment III.
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Procedures for system II

Connect the phase (P) wire to the nearest supply side of traveler terminal.
Connect the neutral (N) wire to the nearest other traveler terminal of the supply side.
The traveler’s terminals of the two switches connected together by traveler wires.
Connect the corresponding switch terminal of SW1 to the shell of the lamps and
The corresponding switch terminals of SW2 to the base of the lamps.
System III
L1
S Sw1 J.B Sw2
L2
Assignment IV.
Procedures for system III
Connect the neutral wire to the shell of the lamps
Connect the phase wire to one of the traveler terminals
Connect the base of the lamps to the second traveler terminals.
Connect all corresponding switches terminals together by traveler wires.
30
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12. Two lamps controlled from three different places by means of two
two-way switches and one intermediate switch.
Solid copper wire or cable Junction box-3 Electrical knife
Lamp holder,2 Insulation cup Medium size screw driver
Lamp 220V,40W,50Hz Single pole two way switch-2 Pin ball hammer
Side cutter pliers Test lamp
Intermediate switch-1
L1 L2
S
J.B 1 J.B 2 J.B 3
Sw1 Sw2 Sw3
Fig 5. Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps controlled simultaneously from three different places.
Assignment V.
Procedures for Intermediate
Connect the neutral wire to the shell of the lamp
Connect the phase wire to the main terminal of Sw1
Connect the traveler terminal(supply side) of Sw1 to the corresponding terminals of the supply sides of Sw2 and
The rest two terminals of Sw2 should be connected to the corresponding traveller terminals of Sw3.
Connect the main terminals (common) of Sw3 connected to the base of the lamps.
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13. Two lamps controlled from four different places by means of two
two-way switches and two intermediate switches.
Solid copper wire or cable Junction box-4 Electrical knife
Insulation cup
Lamp holder,2 Medium size screw driver
Single pole two way switch-2
Lamp 220V,40W,50Hz Pin ball hammer
Test lamp
Side cutter pliers
Intermediate switch-2
L1 L2
J.B1. J.B2. J.B3. J.B4.
Sw1 Sw2 Sw3 Sw4
Fig 6. Incomplete layout diagram of two lamps controlled simultaneously from four different
places.
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Assignment VI.
Procedures for two Intermediate
Connect the neutral line to the shell of the lamps.
Connect the phase line to the main terminal of Sw1.
Connect the traveler terminals of Sw1 to the corresponding terminals of Sw2 and the rest two terminals of sw2
connected to the corresponding to terminals of Sw3.
Connect the rest two terminals of Sw3 to the traveler terminals of Sw4.
Connect the main terminals of Sw4 to the base of the lamps.
ECEg :2203 100% attendance is mandatory 33

[ECEg: 2203]
14. Fluorescent Lamp.

There's more than a difference in appearance separating fluorescent and incandescent lamps. An
incandescent bulb generates light through heat. When electrical current passes through the tungsten
filament, it heats to the point where it glows and gives off a yellow-red light. To keep the filament from
burning up immediately, it's housed in a vacuum. Even so, the intense heat of the filament ensures a
comparatively short and expensive life span.
A fluorescent lamp has no filament running through it. Instead, cathodes (coiled tungsten filaments coated
with an electron-emitting substance) at each end send current through mercury vapors sealed in the tube.
Ultraviolet radiation is produced as electrons from the cathodes knock mercury electrons out of their
natural orbit. Some of the displaced electrons settle back into orbit, throwing off the excess energy
absorbed in the collision. Almost all of this energy is in the form of ultraviolet radiation.
To turn this radiation into visible light, the inside of the tube has a phosphor lining. The phosphors have
the unique ability to lengthen or convert UV wavelengths to a visible portion of the spectrum. Put
another way, the phosphors are excited to fluorescence by bursts of UV energy.
In our workshop practice we use a bi-pin base fluorescent tube. We can start such type of fluorescent by
using preheated fixtures method, instant and rapid start method. Original preheat circuit uses a starter.
When starter switch is closed, current runs through and heats cathodes. When arc through tube is
established, switch opens.
However, more power is required to start a fluorescent lamp than to maintain it. Preheat fixtures get
their name from a starting circuit that sends increased current through the cathodes to heat their coated
filaments. The heated cathodes send a high-voltage pulse along the tube that creates an arc through the
mercury vapor. As the atmosphere inside the tube heats up, electron activity increases to its most efficient,
ballast-sustained level, and the mercury vapor carries the current on its own. The starting circuit is
controlled by a starter switch that opens after a short preheat period.

[ECEg: 2203]
Instant-and Rapid-Start lamps
An Instant-Start fixture needs no starter switch. It uses special ballast that supplies enough energy to
start and maintain the electrical arc through the tube. Instant-Start fixtures have ballasts with continuous
output high enough to strike an arc instantly. Because no preheating occurs, Instant-Start tubes need
only one pin at each end. While some Instant-Start tubes have bi-pin bases, the pins are joined at the
base. In this case, they're merely structural and not electrical.
Modern Rapid-Start fixtures are also designed without starters, though they are true bi-pin/preheat
fixtures. They have smaller, more efficient ballasts with built-in heating windings that preheat the cathodes
for quick starts
Newer Rapid-Start fixture is similar to preheat type, but without starter. Ballast has separate winding
that heats the cathodes to start the electrical arc.
Fluorescent tubes have several real advantages over incandescent lamps.
Fluorescent lamps are more efficient than incandescent light bulbs of an equivalent brightness.
Fluorescent bulbs last longer.
The longer life may also reduce lamp replacement costs, providing additional saving especially
where labor is costly.
The higher initial cost of a fluorescent lamp is usually more than compensated for by lower
energy consumption over its life.

[ECEg: 2203]
Fluorescent tubes have some advantages over incandescent lamps.

High initial cost.
The initial cost of fluorescent lighting can be up to three times higher than other types of bulbs.
Some lighting may require professional installation the first time around, as the electrical
connections are more complex.
Some fluorescent bulbs can flicker noticeably and produce an uneven light that may bother some
users.
Summary
Typical fluorescent tube is filled with inert gas and a small amount of mercury that creates vapor.
Generating fluorescent light occurs in two stages. First, electrons emitted from cathodes create an electrical
arc through mercury vapor. Then, resultant ultraviolet radiation strikes phosphor coating which then gives
off visible light. Bi-pin bases are necessary for preheat and Rapid-Start fixture designs.
Controlling a single fluorescent lamp from one position by means of SPST switch (Sw1).
Sw1 Ballast
220V, 50Hz AC source Lamp Sw2

[ECEg: 2203]
Fig 7. Complete wiring diagram of a single fluorescent lamp controlled from one places.

Electrical Workshop Practice I

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Electrical Workshop Practice I

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Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa institute of technology

Work shop safety rules

19. Splicing Techniques

Fig 1.Insullation removal.

19.2. Types of conductor splices

1) Western Union Splice

Fig 2 Western Union

Fig 3. Staggering splices.

Fig 4. Rattail joint.

Fig 5. Fixture joint.

5) Knotted Tap Joint

Fig 6.Knotted tap joint.

6) Wire nut and split bolt splices

Fig 7. Wire nut and split bolt splices.

2. What is soldering? And what mean by solder?

2.1. What Is a Soldering Iron?

2.2. The key factors that affect quality of soldering joints.

2.2.1. Really Clean

2.2.3. Now is the time

2.2.4. Solder Coverage

2.3. De-soldering methods

perfect solder joint must satisfies the following .

2.4. Soldering Guide

Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.

2.4.2. Preparing the soldering iron:

 Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in.

You are now ready to start soldering:

Tinning the Soldering Tip

Step 1: Warm Up the Iron

3. General Soldering Information

3.3. Tip Maintenance

3.4. Board Cleaning

3.5. Component Leads and Wire Cleaning

3.6.1 Types of Flux

4. Heat, Time, Mass

7. Cleaners and/or Flux Removers

8.1. Solder Application

8.2. Amount of Solder

Unreliable Solder Joints

Other defects to watch for include:

9. Characteristics of a Good Connection

Solid copper wire Staples or cable clamp

ECEG 2203 100% attendance is mandatory

ECEG 2203 100% attendance is mandatory

Procedures for system II

1-Complete the layout diagram of fig 4

S Sw1 J.B Sw2

1-Complete the layout diagram of fig 5

Sw1 Sw2 Sw3

1-Complete the layout diagram of fig 6

J.B1. J.B2. J.B3. J.B4.

Sw1 Sw2 Sw3 Sw4

ECEg :2203 100% attendance is mandatory 33

14. Fluorescent Lamp.

ECEg :2203 100% attendance is mandatory 34

Instant-and Rapid-Start lamps

Fluorescent tubes have several real advantages over incandescent lamps.

ECEg :2203 100% attendance is mandatory 35

Fluorescent tubes have some advantages over incandescent lamps.

220V, 50Hz AC source Lamp Sw2

ECEg :2203 100% attendance is mandatory 36

ECEg :2203 100% attendance is mandatory 37

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