PLEASE NOTE: THE MATTER

PRODUCED BELOW IS
REFERENCE MATERIAL ONLY
FOR PREPARING THE PROJECT
REPORT. IT IS NOT THE
COMPLETE PROJECT REPORT.

1
 A PROJECT REPORT ON

Automatic Road Reflector Light

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

____________________________________ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (--------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and
encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project,
which is result of studied blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

______________, Department of ECE, our project guide, for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable
suggestions.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or
indirectly for the completion of this project.

3
DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled ‘Automatic Road
Reflector Light

’, being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of

Engineering Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering,
affiliated to _________ University, is the work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________

4
 1. ABSTRACT

The Automatic Road Reflector is a simple but effective system will help us automate the traditional road
reflectors.
A raised pavement marker is a safety device used on road to guide the vehicles along the path at the time of
night. The Automatic Road Reflector system is designed to replace this currently being used safety device. The
proposed system is designed to sense the intensity of ambient light and work accordingly. At the time of low
light, the system senses the ambient light has been decreased and it lights up the reflector. On the other hand,
the system will turn itself into power saving mode at the time of bright light and will save energy.
To sense the intensity of light, the system consists of a photoresistor or light-dependent resistor. The Light
Dependent Resistor works on the basic principle of photoconductivity, making them useful in light sensing.
The term photoconductivity stands for a phenomenon in which the conductivity of a substance increases while
in contact with light. In general terms, the LDR is made up of substance who has a low conductivity in
darkness, and whenever it comes in the contact with light the conductive property of the sensor increases. A
typical light dependent resistor has a resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm and in the brightness a resistance of
a couple of KOhm.
The Automatic Road Reflector can be very essential in leading the vehicles on their path at the time of night.
The color of the LED can be rearranged in order to fulfill various requirements. They can be used to divide the
road, show a curvature or an exit on the road. They can be very useful at the places like the airport and airport
hangers where various colors of road reflectors are used to fulfill various purposes.

5
2.PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 2: project block diagram

6
 3. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

 Timer
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Logic Gates
 Diode
 Transistors
 Relay
 Buzzer
 Switch

BATTERY

An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert

stored chemical energy into electrical energy. The battery has become a common power source
for many household and industrial applications.

Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in standby power
applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches;
larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

WORKING OF BATTERY:

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It

consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cat ions. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or
negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cat ions
7
(positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the red ox reaction
that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cat ions at the cathode, while
oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each
other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two half-cells with
different electrolytes. In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is
porous to ions but not the bulk of the electrolytes prevents mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and, in other
words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it would
perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and
the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to
the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy
into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by
Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and
industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates
US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth. There are two types of batteries:
primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and
secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used

8
multiple times. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches;
larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

Principle of operation
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a
number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode;
the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,
cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by
the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half
cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have

emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference

between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical driving force or
across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in
volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-
circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage
of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible
internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then
dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on
complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance
increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the
voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the
shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

9
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand
the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Lead-acid

Tried, tested, and trusted, lead-acid batteries have been with us since the middle of
the 19th century. With an overall rating of 12 volts, they have six separate cells,
each producing 2 volts. Crudely reduced to its basic components, each cell has a
"spongy" lead metal electrode (negative), a lead dioxide electrode (positive), and a
sulfuric acid electrolyte. As the battery discharges, both electrodes become coated
with lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is largely converted into water, while
electrons flow out around the external circuit to provide power.

Lead-acid batteries made it possible to start cars without the help of a dangerous
and dirty hand crank. Normally, you never have to recharge them—because your
car does that automatically. The battery discharges (gives up a little of its energy)
to help the car's gasoline engine start up, and recharges (gets energy back again)
when the engine begins generating electrical energy through a device called an
alternator. As for disadvantages, lead-acid batteries are relatively big, surprisingly
heavy (try lifting one!), expensive, and can't be fully charged and discharged too
many times. Another problem is their use of toxic lead metal, which can cause
environmental problems when they're dumped in landfills.

Nickel-cadmium
10
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd, pronounced "nicad") are widely used as replacements for
disposable 1.5-volt batteries in things like toys, flashlights, and power tools.
They're relatively cheap, can be charged and discharged hundreds of times, and,
properly treated, will last about a decade.

Although very dependable, it's often said that NiCd batteries need to be discharged
fully before you charge them up or the amount of charge they will store (and their
effective lifespan) can be greatly reduced. Opinions vary on whether this is true
and, if so, why it happens, but as a rule of thumb, regularly discharging batteries
completely and then recharging them is a good practice. Another problem with
NiCd batteries is the toxic cadmium metal they contain. If they are buried in a
landfill, instead of properly recycled, the cadmium can escape into the soil and
could potentially pollute watercourses nearby.

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)

Nickel metal hydride batteries work in a similar way, but suffer less from the so-
called "memory effect." They became a popular alternative to NiCd batteries in the
1990s, partly because of environmental concerns about cadmium. NiMH batteries
work more effectively in gadgets like cellphones, which are often "topped-up" with
a quick recharge instead of a complete discharge and recharge (which is more
typical with something like power tools).

Lithium-ion

Lithium-ion batteries are the fastest-growing type of rechargeables; there are

probably lithium-ion batteries in your cellphone, MP3 player, and laptop computer.
What's so good about lithium? It's a lightweight metal that easily forms ions, so it's
excellent for making batteries. The latest lithium-ion batteries can store about
twice as much energy as traditional NiCd rechargeables, work at higher voltages,
and are more environmentally friendly, but don't last as long. Even so, they can be
charged and discharged hundreds of times and typically last several years, so
they're great for everyday use in electronic gadgets that aren't meant to last that
long.

How do they work? When you plug a cellphone or laptop into the power supply,
the lithium-ion battery inside starts buzzing with chemical activity. The battery's
job is to store as much electricity as possible, as fast as possible. It does this
through a chemical reaction that shunts lithium ions (lithium atoms that have lost
11
an electron to become positively charged) from one part of the battery to another.
When you unplug the power and use your laptop or phone, the battery switches
into reverse: the ions move the opposite way and the battery gradually loses its
charge. Read more in our main article on how lithium-ion batteries work.

555 TIMER
We have seen that Multivibrators and CMOS Oscillators can be easily constructed from discrete components
to produce relaxation oscillators for generating basic square wave output waveforms.
But there are also dedicated IC’s especially designed to accurately produce the required output
waveform with the addition of just a few extra timing components. One such device that has
been around since the early days of IC’s and has itself become something of an industry
“standard” is the 555 Timer Oscillator which is more commonly called the “555 Timer”.
The 555 timer which gets its name from the three 5kΩ resistors it uses to generate the two
comparators reference voltage, is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device that
can act as either a simple timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation
oscillator producing stabilized waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%.
The 555 timer chip is extremely robust and stable 8-pin device that can be operated either as a
very accurate Monostable, Bistable or Astable Multivibrator to produce a variety of applications
such as one-shot or delay timers, pulse generation, LED and lamp flashers, alarms and tone
generation, logic clocks, frequency division, power supplies and converters etc, in fact any
circuit that requires some form of time control as the list is endless.
The single 555 Timer chip in its basic form is a Bipolar 8-pin mini Dual-in-line Package (DIP)
device consisting of some 25 transistors, 2 diodes and about 16 resistors arranged to form two
comparators, a flip-flop and a high current output stage as shown below. As well as the 555
Timer there is also available the NE556 Timer Oscillator which combines TWO individual 555’s
within a single 14-pin DIP package and low power CMOS versions of the single 555 timer such
as the 7555 and  LMC555 which use MOSFET transistors instead.
A simplified “block diagram” representing the internal circuitry of the 555 timer is given below
with a brief explanation of each of its connecting pins to help provide a clearer understanding of
how it works.

555 Timer Block Diagram

12
 • Pin 1. – Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative (0v) supply
rail.
 • Pin 2. – Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative pulse on this pin
“sets” the internal Flip-flop when the voltage drops below 1/3Vcc causing the output to switch
from a “LOW” to a “HIGH” state.
 • Pin 3. – Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit and is capable of sourcing
or sinking up to 200mA of current at an output voltage equal to approximately Vcc – 1.5V so
small speakers, LEDs or motors can be connected directly to the output.
 • Pin 4. – Reset, This pin is used to “reset” the internal Flip-flop controlling the state of
the output, pin 3. This is an active-low input and is generally connected to a logic “1” level
when not used to prevent any unwanted resetting of the output.
 • Pin 5. – Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the 555 by overriding the
2/3Vcc level of the voltage divider network. By applying a voltage to this pin the width of the
output signal can be varied independently of the RC timing network. When not used it is
connected to ground via a 10nF capacitor to eliminate any noise.
 • Pin 6. – Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is used to reset
the Flip-flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc causing the output to switch from
“HIGH” to “LOW” state. This pin connects directly to the RC timing circuit.
 • Pin 7. – Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the Collector of an
internal NPN transistor which is used to “discharge” the timing capacitor to ground when the
output at pin 3 switches “LOW”.
 • Pin 8. – Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general purpose TTL 555
timers is between 4.5V and 15V.

13
The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5kΩ resistors connected together
internally producing a voltage divider network between the supply voltage at pin 8 and ground at
pin 1. The voltage across this series resistive network holds the negative inverting input of
comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the positive non-inverting input to comparator one at 1/3Vcc.
The two comparators produce an output voltage dependent upon the voltage difference at their
inputs which is determined by the charging and discharging action of the externally
connected RC network. The outputs from both comparators are connected to the two inputs of
the flip-flop which in turn produces either a “HIGH” or “LOW” level output at Q based on the
states of its inputs. The output from the flip-flop is used to control a high current output
switching stage to drive the connected load producing either a “HIGH” or “LOW” voltage level
at the output pin.
The most common use of the 555 timer oscillator is as a simple astable oscillator by connecting
two resistors and a capacitor across its terminals to generate a fixed pulse train with a time period
determined by the time constant of the RC network. But the 555 timer oscillator chip can also be
connected in a variety of different ways to produce Monostable or Bistable multivibrators as well
as the more common Astable Multivibrator.

The Monostable 555 Timer

The operation and output of the 555 timer monostable is exactly the same as that for the
transistorised one we look at previously in the Monostable Multivibrators tutorial. The
difference this time is that the two transistors have been replaced by the 555 timer device.
Consider the 555 timer monostable circuit below.

Monostable 555 Timer

14
When a negative ( 0V ) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable configured
555 Timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator No1) detects this input and “sets” the
state of the flip-flop, changing the output from a “LOW” state to a “HIGH” state. This action in
turn turns “OFF” the discharge transistor connected to pin 7, thereby removing the short circuit
across the external timing capacitor, C1.
This action allows the timing capacitor to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until the voltage
across the capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set up by the internal voltage
divider network. At this point the comparators output goes “HIGH” and “resets” the flip-flop
back to its original state which in turn turns “ON” the transistor and discharges the capacitor to
ground through pin 7. This causes the output to change its state back to the original stable
“LOW” value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing process over again. Then as
before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only “ONE” stable state.
The Monostable 555 Timer circuit triggers on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and this
trigger pulse must be much shorter than the output pulse width allowing time for the timing
capacitor to charge and then discharge fully. Once triggered, the 555 Monostable will remain in
this “HIGH” unstable output state until the time period set up by the R1 x C1 network has elapsed.
The amount of time that the output voltage remains “HIGH” or at a logic “1” level, is given by
the following time constant equation.

Where, t is in seconds, R is in Ω’s and C in Farads.

15
555 Timer Example No1
A Monostable 555 Timer is required to produce a time delay within a circuit. If a 10uF timing
capacitor is used, calculate the value of the resistor required to produce a minimum output time
delay of 500ms.
500ms is the same as saying 0.5s so by rearranging the formula above, we get the calculated
value for the resistor, R as:

The calculated value for the timing resistor required to produce the required time constant of
500ms is therefore, 45.5KΩ’s. However, the resistor value of 45.5KΩ’s does not exist as a
standard value resistor, so we would need to select the nearest preferred value resistor
of 47kΩ’s which is available in all the standard ranges of tolerance from the E12 (10%) to the
E96 (1%), giving us a new recalculated time delay of 517ms.
If this time difference of 17ms (500 – 517ms) is unacceptable instead of one single timing
resistor, two different value resistor could be connected together in series to adjust the pulse
width to the exact desired value, or a different timing capacitor value chosen.
We now know that the time delay or output pulse width of a monostable 555 timer is determined
by the time constant of the connected RC network. If long time delays are required in the 10’s of
seconds, it is not always advisable to use high value timing capacitors as they can be physically
large, expensive and have large value tolerances, e.g, ±20%.
One alternative solution is to use a small value timing capacitor and a much larger value resistor
up to about 20MΩ’s to produce the require time delay. Also by using one smaller value timing
capacitor and different resistor values connected to it through a multi-position rotary switch, we
can produce a Monostable 555 timer oscillator circuit that can produce different pulse widths at
each switch rotation such as the switchable Monostable 555 timer circuit shown below.

A Switchable 555 Timer

16
We can manually calculate the values of R and C for the individual components required as we
did in the example above. However, the choice of components needed to obtain the desired time
delay requires us to calculate with either kilohm’s (KΩ), Megaohm’s (MΩ), microfarad’s (μF) or
picafarad’s (pF) and it is very easy to end up with a time delay that is out by a factor of ten or
even a hundred.
We can make our life a little easier by using a type of chart called a “Nomograph” that will help
us to find the monostable multivibrators expected frequency output for different combinations or
values of both the R and C. For example,

Monostable Nomograph

17
So by selecting suitable values of C and R in the ranges of 0.001uF to 100uF and 1kΩ to
10MΩ’s respectively, we can read the expected output frequency directly from the nomograph
graph thereby eliminating any error in the calculations. In practice the value of the timing resistor
for a monostable 555 timer should not be less than 1kΩ or greater than 20MΩ.

Bistable 555 Timer (flip-flop)

18
The switching of the output waveform is achieved by controlling the trigger and reset inputs of
the 555 timer which are held “HIGH” by the two pull-up resistors, R1 and R2. By taking the
trigger input (pin 2) “LOW”, switch in set position, changes the output state into the “HIGH”
state and by taking the reset input (pin 4) “LOW”, switch in reset position, changes the output
into the “LOW” state.
This 555 timer circuit will remain in either state indefinitely and is therefore bistable. Then
the Bistable 555 timer is stable in both states, “HIGH” and “LOW”. The threshold input (pin 6)
is connected to ground to ensure that it cannot reset the bistable circuit as it would in a normal
timing application.

555 Timer Output

We could not finish this 555 Timer tutorial without discussing something about the switching
and drive capabilities of the 555 timer or indeed the dual 556 Timer IC.
The output (pin 3) of the standard 555 timer or the 556 timer, has the ability to either “Sink” or
“Source” a load current of up to a maximum of 200mA, which is sufficient to directly drive
output transducers such as relays, filament lamps, LED’s motors, or speakers etc, with the aid of
series resistors or diode protection.
This ability of the 555 timer to both “Sink” (absorb) and “Source” (supply) current means that
the output device can be connected between the output terminal of the 555 timer and the supply
to sink the load current or between the output terminal and ground to source the load current. For
example.

19
Sinking and Sourcing the 555 Timer Output

In the first circuit above, the LED is connected between the positive supply rail ( +Vcc ) and the
output pin 3. This means that the current will “Sink” (absorb) or flow into the 555 timer output
terminal and the LED will be “ON” when the output is “LOW”.
The second circuit above shows that the LED is connected between the output pin 3 and ground
( 0v ). This means that the current will “Source” (supply) or flow out of the 555 timers output
terminal and the LED will be “ON” when the output is “HIGH”.
The ability of the 555 timer to both sink and source its output load current means that both
LED’s can be connected to the output terminal at the same time but only one will be switched
“ON” depending whether the output state is “HIGH” or “LOW”. The circuit to the left shows an
example of this. the two LED’s will be alternatively switched “ON” and “OFF” depending upon
the output. Resistor, R is used to limit the LED current to below 20mA.
We said earlier that the maximum output current to either sink or source the load current via pin
3 is about 200mA at the maximum supply voltage, and this value is more than enough to drive or
20
switch other logic IC’s, LED’s or small lamps, etc. But what if we wanted to switch or control
higher power devices such as motors, electromagnets, relays or loudspeakers. Then we would
need to use a transistor to amplify the 555 timers output in order to provide a sufficiently high
enough power to drive the load.

555 Timer Transistor Driver

The transistor in the two examples above, can be replaced with a Power MOSFET device or
Darlington transistor if the load current is high. When using an inductive load such as a motor,
relay or electromagnet, it is advisable to connect a freewheeling (or flywheel) diode directly
across the load terminals to absorb any back emf voltages generated by the inductive device
when it changes state.
Thus far we have look at using the 555 Timer to generate monostable and bistable output pulses.
In the next tutorial about Waveform Generation we will look at connecting the 555 in an astable
multivibrator configuration. When used in the astable mode both the frequency and duty cycle of
the output waveform can be accurately controlled to produce a very versatile waveform
generator.

21
 3.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805
Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

22
Internal Block Diagram

FIG

4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

23
 3.7 PUSH BUTTONS

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for
controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to
return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the
button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

24
Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical
linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a
stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple
manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the
machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.
Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to
facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and
are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large
mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for
their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators
and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the
attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.
The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the
back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when
pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact
designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action
of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start.
In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a
military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Fig 3.6 (a): push on button

25
Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become
connected. This makes the switching operation using the push button.

3.9 BC 547
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However,
this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, (β). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to
the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (α), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the
value of this parameter α is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this
value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

26
27
An NPN Transistor Configuration

3.10 BC558

BC557 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

The BC557 transistor is an PNP Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC557 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA PNP general-purpose transistors.

An PNP Transistor Configuration

28
 The BC557 transistor is an PNP bipolar transistor, in which the letters "P" and "N" refer
to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar
transistors used today are PNP, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in
semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. PNP transistors consist of a layer
of N-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two P-doped layers. A small current entering the
base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an PNP
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.

The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of
the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode. One mnemonic device
for identifying the symbol for the PNP transistor is "not pointing in." An PNP transistor can be
considered as two diodes with a shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitter base
junction is forward biased and the base collector junction is reverse biased.

In an PNP transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base emitter
junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of
29
the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the
base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high
concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The
electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would
make holes the majority carrier in the base.

3.11 IN4007 RECTIFIER DIODE

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market
are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1
Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used
in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be
used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by

30
company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes
IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the PN junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must
first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction and what happens initially
within the junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper

wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential
of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal
and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron from

31
the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the current path.
Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the
negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal
of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons
are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the
steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal

3.12 LED

LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out
of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that
are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 3.11(a): Typical LED Fig 3.11(b): circuit symbol

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 Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LED’S
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most
common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared
LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages,
such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature,
high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

Fig 4.14(c) Different types of LED’S

3.13 RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

33
 The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-

34
chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices,
and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. [1] A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.
35
 3.14 CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors

separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated
conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

36
 The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

37
Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region[8]. The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges
on their facing surfaces,[9] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance
of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device.[10]

38
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q
on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[8]

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:[11]

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves
the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one
electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the
charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,[12]

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,[13]

.
39
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

RELAY

40
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal.

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover)
switch contacts as shown in the diagram.

Fig 4.8 Relay showing coil and switch contacts

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate
from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC

41
mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link
is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it
can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips)
cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the
larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer
IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page on
switches.

Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage
'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To
prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.

The figure shows a relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left
being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts.

42
 There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making
the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
 COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

43
Applications of relays

Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or

audio amplifiers.
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile.
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers.
 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic
field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute)
delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape
slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer
time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

44
4.SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

45
5 . LAYOUT DIAGRAM

46
 7. HARDWARE TESTING
7.1 CONTINUITY TEST:
In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small voltage
(wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker)
across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged components,
or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".

Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices, generally with a
simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two ends
belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance between the
"right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.

This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has been
completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the soldering.
Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong and
rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component failures and
presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to perform this test. We keep the
multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the ground.
We connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If there is continuation
then you will hear the beep sound.

7.2 POWER ON TEST:

This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is according to
the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode. Remember that this test

47
is performed without ICs. Firstly, if we are using a transformer we check the output of the
transformer; whether we get the required 12V AC voltage (depends on the transformer used in
for the circuit). If we use a battery then we check if the battery is fully charged or not according
to the specified voltage of the battery by using multimeter.

Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
ICs because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the ICs. If a circuit
consists of voltage regulator then we check for the input to the voltage regulator (like 7805,
7809, 7815, 7812, 7915 etc) i.e., are we getting an input of 12V and a required output depending
on the regulator used in the circuit.
EX: if we are using 7805 we get output of 5V and if using 7809 we get 9V at output pin and so
on.

This output from the voltage regulator is given to the power supply pin of specific ICs.
Hence we check for the voltage level at those pins whether we are getting required voltage.
Similarly, we check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In this way we can assure
that the voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.

48
7. BILL OF MATERIAL

Quantit Reference Stock Unit

Category y s Value Code Cost
Capacitors 1 C1 100uF  
Capacitors 2 C2-C3 100nF  
Capacitors 2 C4,C6 10uF  
Capacitors 1 C5 470uF    
Resistors 3 R1,R4,R6 10k  
Resistors 1 R2 390k  
Resistors 1 R3 100  
Resistors 1 R5 4.7k  
Resistors 1 R7 330E  
Resistors 3 R8-R9,R13 2.2k  
Resistors 1 R11 1k  
Resistors 1 R12 100k    
Integrated
Circuits 2 U1-U2 555  
Integrated
Circuits 1 U3 4017  
Integrated
Circuits 1 U4 7805    
Transistors 3 Q1-Q3 BC557AP  
Transistors 2 Q4-Q5 BC547BP    
Diodes 1 D1 LED  
Diodes 6 D2-D7 LED SA  
Diodes 4 D8-D11 DIODE    
BUTTON
Miscellaneous 1 B1 SA  
Miscellaneous 1 BR1 2W005G  
Miscellaneous 1 BUZ1 BUZZER SA  
Miscellaneous 1 J1 SIL-100-02  
TORCH_LD
Miscellaneous 1 LDR1 R  
Miscellaneous 1 RL1 5v relay    

49
 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

WEBSITES

 www.beyondlogic.org

 www.wikipedia.org

 www.howstuffworks.com

 www.alldatasheets.com

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