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1. Introduction

Powering today’s portable world poses many challenges for system designers.
Batteries are the main power source for portable electronic devices, and selecting a
right battery system for an unique application is one of the important factors in the
portable electronic design process. It involves selecting a battery chemistry and
charge management control circuitry. The battery life indicates the length a product
can be used under portable mode. Longer battery life can simply make a portable
device standout in the market automatically. This can usually be achieved by reducing
system power consumption and implementing an advanced battery technology.
1.1 Components of battery
Electrode:
Electrodes are the positive (cathode) and negative (anode) terminals of the cell. These
are made of different materials, depending on the cell chemistry. The farther apart
these materials are on the Standard Potentials Table, the higher the electronic
potential of the oxidation or reduction chemical reactions and the higher the voltage
produced by the cell.
Electrolyte:
The electrolyte is the chemical that separates the electrodes and provides a medium
for conduction of the ions or intermediate compounds between the electrodes. The
intermediate compounds or ions, result from chemical reactions at the anode and
cathode and carry the current through the battery. The electrolyte is usually some type
of liquid or paste.

Fig.1:Components of battery

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1.2 Charging and Discharging of Battery

A battery is a device that converts the chemical energy contained in its active
materials directly into electric energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation
reduction (redox) reaction. This type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons
from one material to another through an electric circuit. In a non-electrochemical
redox reaction, such as rusting or burning, the transfer of electrons occurs directly and
only heat is involved. The operation of a battery during discharge is depicted
schematically in Figure 2. When the electrodes (positive and negative terminals of the
battery) are connected to an external load, electrons flow from the anode, which is
oxidized, through the external load to the cathode. The cathode accepts the electrons
and the cathode material is reduced. The electric circuit is completed in the electrolyte
by the flow of anions (negative ions) and cations (positive ions) to the anode and
cathode, respectively. By definition, the cathode (oxidizing electrode) is the electrode
that accepts electrons from the external circuit and is reduced during the
electrochemical reaction. The anode (reducing electrode) is the electrode which gives
up electrons to the external circuit and is oxidized during the electrochemical reaction.
The electrolyte (ionic conductor) provides the medium for transfer of charge, as ions,
inside the battery between the anode and cathode.

Fig.2:Discharging of battery Fig.3:Charging of battery

When recharging a battery, the current flow is reversed, with oxidation occurring at
the positive electrode and reduction at the negative electrode. As the anode is, by

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definition, the electrode at which oxidation occurs and the cathode where reduction
occurs, the positive electrode is now the anode and the negative electrode is the
cathode. Refer to Figure 3.

2. Portable power devices using battery applications

Three-series and four-series cell Li-Ion battery packs are commonly used in
portable applications with high energy-storage needs, because it is more efficient to
store high energy using multiple batteries connected in series. Series-connected cells
also present efficiency advantages over single-cell packs, because they reduce current
for equivalent-power applications. The series-cell voltage can deliver energy to the
system more efficiently than a single high-current cell with similar resistance, which
in tum lowers the cost and bulk of high-current distribution. Typical applications that
store energy in series include laptop computers, portable printing equipment,
handheld printers, portable test equipment, portable mobile-phones, portable video-
games, portable DVD players and portable medical instruments.

Fig.4:Portable Power Devices

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3. Battery Types

Batteries can be divided into two main categories: primary cells and secondary cells.
Primary cells Secondary cells
Zinc Carbon Sealed lead acid
Alkaline Nickel cadmium
Lithium Nickel Metal-Hydride
Lithium-Ion
Lithium Polymer
Table1:Types of Battery
Table 1 gives examples of primary and secondary cells . Primary cells produce an
irreversible chemical reaction. Zinc Carbon batteries were the first introduced. The
carbon was later purified to increase the energy capacity. These cells are more readily
known as Zinc Chloride. Alkaline batteries are commonly found on store shelves and
are widely used in disposable applications. Silver coin cell or button cell batteries are
lithium batteries comprised of lithium metal and, since their chemical reaction is
irreversible, are categorized as primary cells. Primary cells generally do not need
built-in intelligence. Their disposable nature means that there is no need for recharge
control, protection circuitry or “fuel” gauging. Secondary cells are rechargeable by
passing a current through them in the direction opposite to that of its discharge and
reversing the chemical reaction. The most common forms of secondary cells include
Sealed Lead Acid, Nickel Cadmium, Nickel Metal-Hydride, Lithium-Ion and
Lithium-Polymer. Lead Acid batteries are typically used in automotive applications or
fixed installations because of their large size and weight. Our focus will be discussing
Lithium-Ion. These batteries have been emerging as the dominate chemistry in the
portable market place.
3.1 Alkaline
Alkaline batteries are not rechargeable, but are commonly seen as a portable power
source because it’s low self-discharge rate and always ready to use off the shelf.
Therefore, it is included in the Table 1 and Table 2 as reference against secondary

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(rechargeable) batteries. Rechargeable Alkaline batteries are available, but they are
not very practical and reliable to use in a system due to its fast degradation after a few
charge cycles.
3.2 SLA (Sealed Lead Acid)
SLA batteries are mature and inexpensive battery solutions, and have an advantage in
low self discharge rate. However, it is not an ideal candidate for portable applications
due to it’s low energy density, low charge/ discharge cycles and it is not
environmentally friendly.
3.3 Ni-Cd (Nickel-Cadmium)
NiCd batteries have the best charge/discharge cycles among rechargeable batteries
(Table 1) and are good substitutes to Alkaline batteries because they employ the same
basic voltage profile. NiCd batteries are required to be exercised periodically due to
the memory effect. It is a very low-cost rechargeable solution because of the matured
battery technology and simple charge algorithm.
3.4 Ni-MH (Nickel-Metal Hydride)
NiMH batteries are considered improved version of NiCd batteries that provide higher
energy density and environmentally friendly material. Both NiMH and NiCd batteries
have high self discharge rate (Table 2) and are subject to memory effect. Although
NiMH and NiCd batteries share similar charge algorithm, NiMH batteries require a
more complex design due to the heat that NiMH batteries generate during charging
and the difficult −ΔV/Δt detection.
3.5 Li-Ion (Lithium-Ion)
Li-Ion batteries have advantages in high energy density, low maintenance
requirement, relatively low self discharge rate, and higher voltage per cell. The major
drawbacks of Li-Ion batteries are higher initial cost and aging effect. Li-Ion batteries
age over time regardless of the usage. Protection circuitry is required for Li-Ion
battery to prevent over voltage during charge cycle and under voltage during
discharge cycle.
3.6 Li-Poly(Lithium Polymer)
Li-Polymer batteries should be recognized as Li-Ion Polymer batteries. It is designed
as an improved version of Li-Ion with flexible form-factors and very low profile. It is
perfect for miniature applications, such as Bluetooth headsets or MP3 players. It has
similar characteristics as Li-Ion and can be charged with same algorithm. It is a

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different technology compared to Li- Ion, but will be discussed as Li-Ion in this
application note.

3.7 Battery Comparison

Energy Min. Self Discharge
Chemistry Density Charge Charge/Discharge Discharge Rate Initial
(W- Voltage(v Cycles per (mA-hr) Cost
hr/Kg) ) month(%)
Alkaline 145 NA 1 0.3 0.25C Very
Low
SLA 30-40 2.8 50-500 2-8 <15C Low
Ni-Cd 40-80 1.6 1500 15-20 <10C Low
Ni-MH 60-100 1.5 800 20-25 <3C Medium
Li-Ion 110-130 4.2 1000 6-10 <2C High
Table 2: Battery Comparison

4. Cell Selection: From Ni-Cd to Li-Ion and Beyond

When choosing a cell technology appropriate to the target device, first
choose a chemistry suitable to the architecture and design goals. Factors such as
operating range, cell availability, maximum cells in series, cell capacity range, cycle
life and cost play into your choice.
Your first consideration should be the operating voltage. It is extremely
important to know the range of voltage that your device can handle and where cutoff
voltages should be. A small variation in cutoff voltage will affect the battery pack’s
life cycle. The significance of this is that pulsed current loads lead to variable voltage
response and without careful system consideration this voltage drop leads to
premature battery shutdown.

Fig.5:Battery Energy Density

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It is also important to consider both volumetric and gravimetric energy

densities. Obviously, you need to know minimum and maximum voltages to choose
the right chemistry.
Designers must accept that there are specific trade-offs in cell packaging. Cell size has
much to do with a battery’s run time. However, in comparing cylindrical versus
prismatic form factors, keep in mind that the thinner the cell, the larger the percentage
of packaging material required.
While the thin profile can be a plus for prismatic form factors, these cells carry
several possible downside considerations. These include:
• swelling issues
• higher costs because they are more difficult to manufacture
• less energy density

4.1 Design considerations of a smart battery System

Power
Applications that utilize Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) and Nickel-Metal Hydride
(Ni-MH) battery packs with one or two cells, a few wires and a simple fuse are
becoming increasingly rare. Battery technology has kept pace as portable electronic
devices have become more sophisticated and demanding. Today, more designers are
turning to smart battery pack solutions that offer advanced chemistries, such as
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and Lithium polymer (Li-polymer). These chemistries offer the
highest energy densities currently available and, in the case of Li-ion, a very
competitive cost-per-watt-hour for their weight.
Safety
The development of leading-edge battery technologies does present several
design challenges. Because Li-ion and Li-polymer technologies can be hazardous
when over-stressed, extra caution must be taken during the design process to ensure
that the cells are being utilized in a manner appropriate to their technology. Voltages
must stay within strict operating ranges. Additionally, the use of a safety circuit,
separate in function and purpose from any fuel-gauging capability within the battery
pack, should be utilized to protect the pack from external stressors, such as
overcharging, over-discharging, short-circuiting and excessively high or low
operating temperatures.

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4.2 Battery System Design Challenges

The need for smaller battery systems is making design-for-manufacturability
increasingly important. As form factors shrink, design and manufacturing challenges
grow. Due to the diminishing size of portable applications, it has become even more
difficult to fit the required components into the available space. As component
congestion increases, there is a greater risk of accidental pinching or shorting of wires
and contacts.
The physical layout of the components also becomes important in battery
systems, as it can make the assembly process more difficult or create hot spots inside
the pack. Although venting is less crucial with Li-Ion than it is with Ni-MH, ensuring
that heating is even throughout the pack enables on-board safety devices to trip when
appropriate. Furthermore, the designer must work carefully to ensure that vital
contacts are not placed too closely together, since they can potentially short if the
battery system is subjected to vibration or dropped. Contacts should also be recessed
to prevent external short circuits.

5. Battery Packages and Comparison

6. Lithium-Ion Batteries
Lithium-Ion batteries are comprised of cells that employ lithium intercalation
compounds as the positive and negative materials. The positive electrode material is
typically a metal oxide with either a layered structure (such as lithium cobalt oxide

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(LiCoO2)) or a tunneled structure (such as lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4)) on a

current-collector of aluminum foil. The negative electrode material is typically a
graphite carbon on a copper current-collector. The first Lithium-Ion batteries to be
marketed (and the majority of those currently available) utilize lithium cobalt oxide as
the positive electrode. This material offers good electrical performance, is easily
prepared, has good safety properties and is relatively insensitive to process variation
and moisture. More recently, lower-cost (lithium manganese oxide) or higher
performance materials, such as lithium nickel cobalt oxide (LiNiXCo1-XO2), have
been introduced, permitting development of batteries with improved performance.
The first Lithium-Ion batteries employed cells with coke negative electrode materials.
As better quality graphite became available, the industry shifted to graphite carbons as
negative electrode materials because of their higher specific capacity, with improved
life and rate capability. Until 1990, NiCd batteries dominated the portable,
rechargeable market. Environmental concerns led to the development of NiMH and
Lithium- Ion batteries. Lithium is the lightest metal in the periodic system and
features the greatest electrochemical potential.

7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Lithium-Ion Battery

7.1 Advantages of Lithium-Ion Battery

A lithium-ion battery from a laptop computer

1. Wide variety of shapes and sizes efficiently fitting the devices they power.
2. Much lighter than other energy-equivalent secondary batteries.
3. High open circuit voltage in comparison to aqueous batteries (such as lead
acid, nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium).This is beneficial because it
increases the amount of power that can be transferred at a lower current.
4. No memory effect.
5. Self-discharge rate of approximately 5-10% per month, compared to over 30%
per month in common nickel metal hydride batteries, approximately 1.25%
per month for Low Self-Discharge NiMH batteries and 10% per month in
nickel-cadmium batteries. According to one manufacturer, lithium-ion cells
(and, accordingly, "dumb" lithium-ion batteries) do not have any self-
discharge in the usual meaning of this word. What looks like a self-discharge
in these batteries is a permanent loss of capacity . On the other hand, "smart"

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lithium-ion batteries do self-discharge, due to the drain of the built-in voltage

monitoring circuit.
6. Components are environmentally safe as there is no free lithium metal.

7.2 Disadvantages of Lithium-Ion Battery

1. Charging forms deposits inside the electrolyte that inhibit ion transport. Over
time, the cell's capacity diminishes. The increase in internal resistance reduces
the cell's ability to deliver current. This problem is more pronounced in high-
current applications. The decrease means that older batteries do not charge as
much as new ones (charging time required decreases proportionally).
2. High charge levels and elevated temperatures (whether from charging or
ambient air) hasten capacity loss. Charging heat is caused by the carbon anode
(typically replaced with lithium titanate which drastically reduces damage
from charging, including expansion and other factors).

8. Safety requirements for Batteries

If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runway
and cell rupture.In extreme cases this can lead to combustion. Deep discharge may
short-circuit the cell, in which case recharging would be unsafe. To reduce these risks,
Lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when
its voltage is outside the safe range of 3–4.2 V per cell.When stored for long periods
the small current draw of the protection circuitry itself may drain the battery below its
shut down voltage; normal chargers are then ineffective. Many types of lithium-ion
cell cannot be charged safely below 0°C.

Other safety features are required in each cell:

1. shut-down separator (for over temperature)

2. tear-away tab (for internal pressure)
3. vent (pressure relief)
4. thermal interrupt (over current/overcharging)

These devices occupy useful space inside the cells, add additional points of failure
and irreversibly disable the cell when activated. They are required because the anode
produces heat during use, while the cathode may produce oxygen. These devices and
improved electrode designs reduce/eliminate the risk of fire or explosion.

These safety features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which
require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device (preventing damage due to
mild overcharging) and a back-up pressure valve.

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9. Conclusion
More than ever, sophisticated portable applications demand equally
advanced power solutions. Increasingly, applications are turning to optimum battery
systems to meet the needs of their critical equipment for high-performance, maximum
durability, greater reliability and safety.
Li-Ion batteries are more preferably suitable for today’s critical portable
electronic devices as well as for cost-sensitive designs. Although, high capacity,
compact size, light weight and maximum charge/discharge cycles do not exist in the
same package; there is always a trade-off when engineers/ designers select the key
factors for the design. Due to the phase out rate of today’s portable electric products,
charge/discharge cycles is always the first to be eliminated. However, Lithium-
Polymer batteries could be used for advanced portable electronic devices during
upcoming days.

10.References

1. “Handbook of Batteries, Third Edition”, David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy,

(New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc., 2002)
2. “Batteries in a Portable World Second Edition”, Isidor Buchmann; Cadex
Electronics Inc., 2000.
3. “Lithium Batteries”, Gholam-Abbas Nazri and Gianfranco Pistoia Eds.;
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.

Websites
1. http://www.eetimes.com
2. http://www.wikipedia/battery power management wiki.htm.com
3. http://www.batterypoweronline.com

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