Virtual Lab Manual

Carbohydrates
Synopsis
Most people are familiar with carbohydrates, especially when it comes to what we eat. For
example, to lose weight, some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast,
often “carbohydrate-load” before important competitions to ensure that they have enough
energy to compete at a high level.

Different types of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are an essential part of a diet because they provide energy to the body. Grains,
fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates for energy. These foods consist
of both soluble and insoluble carbohydrates. The insoluble part is known as fiber, which is
mostly cellulose.

Learn how carbohydrates are digested

Your goal in the Carbohydrates lab is to learn how carbohydrates are digested and utilized
by the body as an energy source. Use the in-lab molecule visualizer to study the chemical
structure of sugars and learn the basics of molecule structures and chemical formulas. You
will also perform a real experiment and get a sense of how the amylase breaks down
starch. A 3D animation will visualize the molecular process of carbohydrate digestion.

Test the effect on blood glucose levels

You will find that the effect on the blood glucose level is very different, depending on the
composition of food. For that reason, you can choose different food items and measure the
increase of the blood glucose level of a virtual test subject.

Will you be able to use your carbohydrates knowledge to figure out which foods will cause
a spike in the blood glucose levels?

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Learning Objectives
At the end of this simulation, you will be able to…
● Understand the molecular structure of sugars and polysaccharides
● Understand digestion and appreciate the complexity of the human body
● Experiment with different foods and measure their impact on the blood sugar level

Techniques in Lab
● Reading scientific papers
● Analyzing blood sugar measurements

Theory
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules built from sugars. They can exist as simple, single sugar
molecules (monosaccharides), or chains of two or more sugar molecules (disaccharides and
polysaccharides). Carbohydrates are an important source of energy and structural material
for organisms.

Carbohydrates can be represented by the stoichiometric formula Cm(H2O)n (where m could

be different from n). In sugars such as glucose and fructose and their derivatives, n = m
and the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1. This formula also explains the origin
of the term “carbohydrate”; which means hydrated or watered carbon. The components are
carbon (“carbo”) and water (“hydrate”).

Carbohydrates are an essential part of a diet because they provide energy to the body. Most
people are familiar with carbohydrates, especially when it comes to what we eat. For
example, to lose weight, some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast,
often “carb-load” before important competitions to ensure that they have enough energy to
compete at a high level. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of
carbohydrates that can be used for energy. These foods consist of both soluble and
insoluble carbohydrates; the insoluble part is known as fibre, which is mostly cellulose.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides (mono = “one”, sacchar = “sweet”) are simple sugars. In monosaccharides,
the number of carbon atoms usually ranges from three to seven. Most monosaccharide
names end with the suffix "-ose". If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the functional group
with the structure R-CHO), it is known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone group (the
functional group with the structure RC(=O)R'), it is known as a ketose. Depending on the
number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (three carbons),
pentoses (five carbons) and/or hexoses (six carbons).

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Figure 1: Monosaccharides are classified based on the position of their carbonyl group and
the number of carbons in the backbone. Aldoses have a carbonyl group at the end of the
carbon chain, and ketoses have a carbonyl group in the middle of the carbon chain. Trioses,
pentoses, and hexoses have three, five, and six carbon backbones, respectively.

The most common monosaccharide is glucose, the building block of many important
carbohydrates. Galactose (part of lactose or milk sugar) and fructose (found in sucrose in
fruit) are other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose and fructose all
have the same chemical formula (C₆H₁₂O₆), they differ structurally and chemically (and are
known as isomers because of the different arrangement of functional groups around the
asymmetric carbon; all of these monosaccharides have more than one asymmetric carbon.

Disaccharides
Disaccharides (di- = “two”) consist of two sugar molecules. They form when two
monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction, forming a glycosidic bond. These bonds
can be of the alpha or the beta type.

Figure 2: Sucrose is formed when a monomer of glucose and a monomer of fructose are
joined in a dehydration reaction to form a glycosidic bond between carbon 1 in glucose and
carbon 2 in fructose. In the process, a water molecule is lost.

Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose.

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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds (poly- =
“many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of
monosaccharides. The molecular weight may be 100,000 daltons or more, depending on the
number of monomers joined.

Starch, glycogen, cellulose, fiber, and chitin are primary examples of polysaccharides.

Glucose
Glucose is a type of sugar with the chemical formula C₆H₁₂O₆. In humans, glucose is an
important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and
that energy is used to help make ATP. Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and
water, and glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant. Excess glucose
is often stored as starch which is catabolized by humans and other animals that feed on
plants.

Figure 3: Depending on the solution, glucose molecules form different isomers.

Sucrose
The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the
monomers glucose and fructose.

Figure 4: Chemical structure of sucrose.

Starch
Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants. It is made up of a mixture of amylose and
amylopectin, both polymers of glucose.

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Plants synthesize glucose through photosynthesis. The excess glucose, beyond the plant’s
immediate energy needs, is stored as starch in areas including the roots and seeds. The
starch in the seeds provides food for the plant embryo as it germinates, and is also a
source of food for humans and other animals.

Animals that consume starch must break it down into digestible sugars using enzymes,
such as salivary amylases. Such enzymes break apart the polysaccharide chain into simpler
sugars such as maltose and glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.

Starch is made up of glucose monomers that are joined by α 1,4 or α 1,6 glycosidic bonds.
The numbers 1,4 and 1,6 refer to the carbon number of the two residues that have joined to
form the bond. Because of the way the subunits are joined, the glucose chains have a
helical structure.

Figure 5: Amylose is composed of unbranched chains of glucose monomers connected by α

1,4 glycosidic linkages.

Glycogen
Glycogen is the stored form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates. It is a highly
branched molecule made up of glucose monomers, and is usually stored in liver or muscle
cells. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch.

Excess sugar must be stored as glycogen to avoid causing osmotic pressure in the cells of
animals. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release
glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis.

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Figure 6: 2-D cross-sectional view of glycogen: A core protein of glycogenin is surrounded
by branches of glucose units. (Source: Häggström, Mikael. "Medical gallery of Mikael
Häggström 2014". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine 1.)

Enzymes
Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are catalysts in biochemical reactions and are
usually complex or conjugated proteins. Each enzyme is specific for the substrate it acts
on. The enzyme may help in breakdown, rearrangement, or synthesis reactions. Enzymes
that break down their substrates are called catabolic enzymes, enzymes that build more
complex molecules from their substrates are called anabolic enzymes, and enzymes that
affect the rate of reaction are called catalytic enzymes. It should be noted that all enzymes
increase the rate of reaction. Therefore, they are considered to be organic catalysts.

Amylase
Amylases are enzymes that break down starch into short sugars. Amylase is excreted in the
mouth and small intestine. Foods that contain a lot of starch but little sugar may acquire a
slightly sweet taste while they are being chewed. This phenomenon stems from the
amylase in the saliva producing the sugars from the starch.

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Figure 7: The active site of amylase binds starch and cuts it in two.

Digestive System
The digestive system is designed to facilitate the transformation of food matter into its
nutrient components.

Figure 8: The digestive system is comprised of the following organs:

1. Mouth
2. Esophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
5. Large intestine
6. Liver
7. Gallbladder
8. Pancreas

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The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and liver are part of the
digestive tract through which food passes. In addition, the accessory organs, the
gallbladder and pancreas add secretions (enzymes) and are regulated by hormones in
response to the food consumed.

Glycemic Index
The glycemic index (GI) represents the total rise in a person's blood sugar level after
consumption of a specific food.

The glycemic index is measured following a 12-hour fast and ingestion of a food with a fixed
amount of available carbohydrate (usually 50 g). It is measured from the incremental area
under the two-hour blood glucose response curve. As the GI of food is calculated relative
to the equivalent of 50 g glucose, it typically ranges between 50 and 100. For example, the
glycemic index of pure glucose is defined as 100.

The GI is useful for understanding how the body breaks down carbohydrates and only takes
into account the available carbohydrate (total carbohydrates excluding fibers) in a food.
Increase in blood sugar can be influenced by a number of other factors, such as the
quantity of fat eaten with the food.

The GI does not take the quantity of food into account, but only the carbohydrates
contained. A related measure, the glycemic load, factors the quantity of food in by
multiplying the glycemic index of the food in question by the carbohydrate content of the
actual serving. Carrots have a high glycemic index, but a low glycemic load for the quantity
typically consumed. Fructose, by contrast, has a low glycemic index, but can have a high
glycemic load if a large quantity is consumed.

The impact of different food on the blood glucose level is very important for diabetics.

Regulation of Blood Glucose Level

In order to manage nutrient intake the body uses hormones to moderate energy stores.
Pancreatic cells produce the two hormones called insulin and glucagon to regulate the
blood glucose level. These two hormones work in synergy to maintain homeostatic glucose
control.

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Figure 9: On the one hand insulin decreases the blood glucose level and on the other hand
glucagon increases the blood glucose level.

Insulin Decreases the Blood Glucose Level

Insulin is a hormone which enhances the rate of glucose uptake by cells, to produce ATP.

When the blood glucose level rises (for example, after a meal is consumed) insulin is
released into the bloodstream to lower the level. It also stimulates the liver to convert
glucose to glycogen, which is then stored in cells for later use.

Insulin increases glucose transport into certain cells, such as muscle cells and the liver
cells. This happens via an insulin-mediated increase in the number of glucose transporter
proteins in cell membranes, which remove glucose from circulation by facilitated diffusion.
As insulin binds to its target cell via insulin receptors and signal transduction, it triggers the
cell to incorporate glucose transport proteins into its membrane. This allows glucose to
enter the cell, where it can be used as an energy source. However, this does not occur in all
cells: some cells, including those in the kidneys and brain, can access glucose without the
use of insulin.

Insulin also stimulates the conversion of glucose to fat in adipocytes and the synthesis of
proteins. These actions mediated by insulin cause the blood glucose concentration to fall,
called a hypoglycemic “low sugar” effect, which inhibits further insulin release from beta
cells through a negative feedback loop.

Impaired insulin function can lead to a condition called diabetes mellitus.

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