References

▪Bolton S. 2010. Pharmaceutical Statistics. 5th Ed


 ▪Daniel W. 1995. Biostatistics: A Foundation for Analysis
Normal Distribution
 in the Health Sciences


 ▪Mendoza O et al. 2000. Foundations of Statistical

Analysis for the Health Sciences.
▪Walpole R. 1982. Introduction to Statistics. 3rd Ed.

Objectives Discrete Probability Distributions

▪Define continuous probability distributions ▪Binomial Probability Distribution

▪Explain the properties of a normal curve ▪Poisson Probability Distribution
▪Explain the standard normal curve ▪Hypergeometric Probability Distribution
▪Calculate the standard score or z score
▪Determine the probabilities using the standard normal
table
random variable X = probability

3 4
 Continuous Probability
Distributions Continuous Probability Distribution

▪Normal Distribution ▪Normal Probability Distribution NORMAL CURVE

✓ aka Gaussian Distribution
▪Log-normal Distribution
▪Exponential Distribution
▪Gamma Distribution normal random variable X = probability
▪Weibull Distribution that X will be between certain values

area under the curve

5 6

Probability Density Function Normal Distribution: µ and σ

▪defined by its mean and standard deviation
Changing µ shifts the Changing σ increases or
1 x−µ 2 distribution left or right decreases the spread
1 − ( )
f ( x) = ⋅e 2 σ
σ 2π
X
This is a bell shaped
Note constants: curve with different
π=3.14159 centers and spreads
e=2.71828 depending on µ and σ
7 8
Importance of Normal Distribution Importance of Normal Distribution

▪Useful for explaining many biological phenomena

✓ Even if the distribution of the variable is not normal, one can
transform it using log, square root or other transformations to Parametric Tests Nonparametric Tests
make it approximate the normal distribution Two sample t-test/ Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test
Independent t-test
▪Many statistical tests assume normality Paired t-test Wilcoxon Signed Rank
✓ Parametric vs Nonparametric tests
Test
One Way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis
Pearson correlational Spearman correlational
coefficient coefficient

9 10

Importance of Normal Distribution Characteristics of a Normal Distribution

▪Approximates other important distributions (binomial,
Poisson, t-distribution) when sample size is large
enough
▪Sampling distribution of the mean is approximately
normal if the sample size is large enough (central limit
theorem)
▪bell-shaped and symmetrical about the mean
▪mean, median & mode are all equal
▪total area under the curve is 1 or 100%
▪has long tapering tails that extend infinitely in either
direction but never touch the x-axis
NORMAL CURVE

34% 34%
14% 14%
2% 2%
- 3σ - 2σ - 1σ + 1σ + 2σ + 3σ

11 12
 Symmetric, (-) and (+) Skewed

13 14

Standard Normal Distribution The Standard Normal Deviate (Z)

❖ refers to the distribution of a normal random variable ❖ obtained by transforming any value (X) from a normal distribution into z
❖ shows the number of standard deviations away from the mean
with mean 0 and standard deviation equal to 1 ❖ can be + or -

❖ transform normal probability distribution into a

standard normal distribution standardizing or normalizing

❖ use the z-score to determine the probability

❖ z table (standard normal table) X −µ
Z=
σ

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 The Standard Normal Deviate (Z) Comparing X and Z units

X −µ
EXAMPLE: Z=
σ
For a normal distribution of SBP with mean 129
mmHg and SD 19.8 mmHg, describe an SBP reading of
167.8 mmHg.
100 200 X
(µ = 100, σ = 50)

It is 1.96 standard deviations above

the mean A = 0.0228

0 2.0 Z
17 18

Table of Cumulative Areas Table of Cumulative Areas

Under the SNC Under the SNC
What is the area to the Z=1.96
left of Z=1.51 in a Area is 0.9750 or
standard normal curve? 97.50%

97.50% of the
values comprising
the SNC are less
than 1.96

What is the area

Area is 0.9345 or below -1.96? area
Z=1.96
Z=1.51 93.45% between -1.96 and
1.96? area below
2.58? area below
-2.58?
Z=1.51 Z=1.96

Pharmaceutical Statistics I 19 Pharmaceutical Statistics I 20

 Commonly Used Values of z Applications of Normal Distribution

❖ computation of proportions or percentages of values

z Area between + z that belong to different categories of the variable of
interest
1.00 0.68
1.28 0.80
1.65 0.90
1.96 0.95
2.32 0.98
2.58 0.99

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Example
❖ The potencies of the tablets in a batch of tablets have
a mean of 50 mg and a standard deviation of 5 mg.
What proportion of tablets in the batch would be
expected to have more than 58.25 mg of drug?

23 Pharmaceutical Statistics I 24
 Answer
A = 0.0495
Interpretation: 4.95% of the tablets have at least 58.25
mg of drug in this particular batch of tablets
25
Example
❖ The potencies of the tablets in a batch of tablets
have a mean of 50 mg and a standard deviation of 5
mg. What is the 90th percentile of the potencies of the
tablets in this particular batch?
27
Applications of Normal Distribution
❖ determining the x values that bound a specified area
under the distribution of this variable
26
Remember…
❖ When finding the value of z corresponding to a
specified probability that falls between values in the z
table
✓ choose the value of z corresponding to the tabular value
that comes closest to the specified probability.
✓ if the given probability falls midway between 2 tabular
values, we shall choose for the z value falling midway
between the corresponding values of z
28
 Answer
❖ 56.4 mg
❖ 56.4 mg is the 90th percentile of the potencies of the
tablets in this particular batch of tablets
❖ 90% of the tablets in this particular batch have a
potency less than or equal to 56.4 mg
Tests of Normality
❖ Not all continuous random variables are normally
distributed!!
❖ It is important to evaluate how well the data are
approximated by a normal distribution

29 30

Tests for Normality

.
27 Normal Distribution Theory
1. Look at the histogram! Does it appear bell- shaped?
1. Look at the histogram! Does it appear bell
shaped?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

60
2. Compute descriptive summary measures—are
mean, median, and mode similar?
3. Do 2/3 of observations lie within 1 std dev of the

40
Frequency
mean? Do 95% of observations lie within 2 std dev
of the mean?
20
4. Look at a normal probability plot—is it
approximately linear?
0

5. Run tests of normality (such as Shapiro-Wilk). But, 194 196 198 200
Weight
202 204 206 208

be cautious, highly influenced by sample size!

31 32
 Normal Distribution Theory Normal Distribution Theory
2. Compute descriptive summary measures – are mean, 3. Do 2/3 of observations lie within 1 std dev of the
median, and mode similar? mean? Do 95% of observations lie within 2 std dev of the
mean?

variable | mean median mode variable | mean median mode

-------------+-------------------------------- -------------+--------------------------------
Weight | 200.15 200 200 Weight | 200.15 200 200
---------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------

33 34

Normal Distribution Theory Normal Distribution Theory

4. Look at a normal probability plot—is it approximately 5. Run tests of normality
linear?
1.00

✓ Shapiro – Wilk
0.75

X Kolmogorov – Smirnov
Normal F[(Weight-m)/s]
0.25 0.50
0.00

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00

Empirical P[i] = i/(N+1)

35 36
Example 1 Example 2
❖ Given a normal distribution with µ = 50 & σ = 10, find ❖ Given a normal distribution with µ = 300 & σ = 50, find
the probability that X assumes a value between 45 & 62 the probability that X assumes a value greater than 362

37 38

Example 3 Example 4
❖ Given a normal distribution with µ = 40 & σ = 6, find ❖ On an examination the average grade was 74 & the
the value X that has standard deviation was 7. If 12% of the class are given
a)below 38% of the area A’s, and the grades are curved to follow a normal
distribution, what is the lowest possible A and the
b)above 5% of the area highest possible B?

39 40
Example 5
❖ Given a normal distribution with µ = 200 & σ2 = 100, find
a)the area below 214
b)the area above 179
c)the area between 188 & 206
Thank you! ☺
d)the x value that has 80% of the area below it
e)the two x values containing the middle 75% of the area

41 42