Microbiology of Fermented Foods

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Microbiology of Fermented
Foods
Second edition
Volume 1

Edited by

Brian J.B. Wood

Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology
University of Strathclyde
Glasgow, UK

BLACKIE ACADEMIC &. PROFESSIONAL

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First edition published by Elsevier Applied Science Publishers 1985

Second edition 1998
© 1998 Thomson Science
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2rd edition 1998

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Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Best-set Typesetter Ltd, Hong Kong
ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-7990-4 e-ISB N-13: 978-1-4613-0309-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0309-1

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 To the memory of my parents,
who encouraged and supported me
through a long education
Contents

Preface xix
B.l.B. Wood

Volume 1
1 Vinegar 1
M.R. Adams
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Origins of vinegar production 1
1.3 W orId production of vinegar 3
1.4 Uses of vinegar 4
1.5 Raw materials 9
1.6 Production of vinegar stock 12
1.7 Acetification 15
1.8 Processing of vinegar 31
1.9 Vinegar standards, composition and analysis 33
References 37
2 The microbiology of vegetable fermentations 45
L.l. Harris
2.1 Introduction 45
2.2 Sauerkraut 47
2.3 Cucumbers for fermented pickle production 54
2.4 Fermented olives 59
2.5 Future research 67
References 68
3 The silage fermentation 73
M.K. Woolford and G. Pahlow
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Microbiology of silage 75
3.3 Chemistry of silage 83
3.4 Control of fermentation 91
References 96
4 Fermentative upgrading of wastes for animal feeding 103
S. Neelakantan and K. Singh
4.1 Introduction 103
viii MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS

4.2 Fermentation of lignocellulosic crop residues 104

4.3 Lactobacillus/yeast fermentation of animal waste
and com (maize) 112
4.4 Other microbial fermentation of wastes 120
4.5 Conclusion 123
References 123

5 Cocoa, coffee and tea 128

M.S. Fowler, P. Leheup and J.-L. Cordier
5.1 Introduction 128
5.2 Cocoa 128
5.3 Coffee 136
5.4 Tea 140
References 145

6 Thickeners of microbial origin 148

L.M. Harvey and B. McNeil
6.1 Introduction 148
6.2 Traditional thickeners used in the food industry 149
6.3 Xanthan gum (E415) 150
6.4 Gellan (E418) 158
6.5 Gellan-related polysaccharides 162
6.6 Exopolysaccharides from the lactic acid bacteria 163
6.7 Pullulan 164
6.8 Scleroglucan 165
6.9 Conclusions 166
References 167

7 Bread and baker's yeast 172

l. Jenson
7.1 Introduction 172
7.2 Bread 175
7.3 Microbiology of breadmaking 180
7.4 Production and microbiology of baker's yeast 187
7.5 Improvement of yeast strains 194
References 195

8 Sourdough breads and related products 199

W.P. Hammes and M.G. Giinzle
8.1 Introduction 199
8.2 Microbial ecology of sourdough 200
8.3 Technological effects of sourdough lactic acid bacteria 205
8.4 Physiology of lactic acid bacteria in sourdough 207
References 214
 CONTENTS ix

9 The microbiology of alcoholic beverages 217

G.H. Fleet
9.1 Introduction 217
9.2 Wine 218
9.3 Cider 234
9.4 Beer 236
9.5 Sake 248
9.6 Distilled alcoholic beverages 251
References 255
10 Cheeses 263
G. Stanley
10.1 Introduction 263
10.2 Cheese types, production and nutritional aspects 265
10.3 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB): historical review 267
10.4 Microbiology of starter LAB 270
10.5 Microbiology of secondary flora 274
10.6 Functions of starter LAB 278
10.7 Functions of secondary flora 284
10.8 Selection, production and use of LAB 285
10.9 Microbial defects and quality problems 293
10.10 Technology of cheese production 299
10.11 Conclusion and future trends 304
References 304
11 Fermented milks 308
H. Oberman and Z. Libudzisz
11.1 Introduction 308
11.2 Traditional fermented milks 310
11.3 Non-traditional ('new') fermented milks 328
11.4 Chemical composition of fermented milks 331
11.5 Starters for fermented milks production 336
11.6 Nutritional and physiological aspects of fermented milks 339
References 345
12 Fermented protein foods in the Orient: shoyu and miso
in Japan 351
T. Y okotsuka and M. Sasaki
12.1 Introduction 351
12.2 History 353
12.3 Fermented soybean foods in the Orient: shoyu, miso,
tempeh and natto 361
12.4 Manufacture 370
12.5 Recent progress in shoyu and miso production in Japan 374
12.6 Discussion 408
References 411
X MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS

13 Fermented fish and fish products 416

C. G. Beddows
13.1 Introduction 416
13.2 Fish sauces 417
13.3 Fermented fish pastes 429
13.4 Salted fish 432
13.5 Conclusions 434
References 434

Volume 2
14 Fermented sausages 441
F.-K.Lucke
14.1 Introduction 441
14.2 Ingredients and additives 443
14.3 The manufacture of fermented sausages 447
14.4 Biochemical and microbiological changes during
sausage ripening 449
14.5 Public health aspects 464
14.6 Future developments 472
References 474
15 Protein-rich foods based on fermented vegetables 484
B.J.B. Wood
15.1 Introduction 484
15.2 The soybean (Glycine max) 484
15.3 Tempeh production: an outline 486
15.4 Other ingredients 489
15.5 Applications of tempeh in the Western diet 491
15.6 Microbiology of the process 492
15.7 Effects of fermentation on substrate composition 494
15.8 Anti-oxidants 495
15.9 Enzymology 495
15.10 Tempeh bongkrek and other problems 496
15.11 An overview of tempeh 497
15.12 Oncom; ontjom (fermented peanut press cake) 497
15.13 Sufu 498
15.14 Red rice; ang-kak 499
15.15 Conclusion 499
References 500
16 Food flavour from yeast 505
H. Stam, M. Hoogland and C. Laane
16.1 Introduction 505
16.2 Active yeast-derived flavours 506
 CONTENTS xi

16.3 Inactive yeast-derived flavours 517

16.4 Perspectives and future developments 537
References 538

17 Biology and technology of mushroom culture 543

R.I. Scrase and T.I. Elliott
17.1 Mushrooms: an overview of the product 543
17.2 Production of Agaricus bisporus 561
17.3 Pests and diseases of Agaricus and their control 571
17.4 Species grown commercially in an Agaricus growth
system or requiring 'casing' 575
17.5 'Wood-rotting'species 577
17.6 Mycorrhizal species 579
17.7 Future prospects 582
References 582
18 Algae as food 585
M.A. Borowitzka
18.1 Introduction 585
18.2 Spirulina - food and health food 585
18.3 Dunaliella salina - production of beta-carotene 590
18.4 Chlorella 592
18.5 Other algae 593
18.6 New culture systems 595
18.7 Conclusion 597
References 598
19 Bio-enrichment: production of vitamins in fermented foods 603
K.H. Steinkraus
19.1 Introduction 603
19.2 Enrichment/fortification 604
19.3 Sources of vitamins 606
19.4 Bio-enrichment with protein 618
19.5 Summary 618
References 619
20 Production of industrial enzymes and some applications in
fermented foods 622
A. Godfrey
20.1 Introduction 622
20.2 Brief history of industrial enzymes 622
20.3 Modem approach to enzyme production 625
20.4 Enzymes from animal materials 626
20.5 Enzymes from plant materials 629
20.6 Principal steps in extraction of animal and plant tissues 630
xii MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS

20.7 Enzymes from microbial sources 634

20.8 General principles for industrial production of
microbial enzymes 634
20.9 Industrial enzymes - applications in fermented food
production 641
20.10 Endogenous enzymes in fermented food materials 656
References 657

21 Koji 658
N. Lotong
21.1 Definition and scope 658
21.2 Soybean koji 659
21.3 Rice koji and similar products 669
21.4 Seed inocula 677
21.5 Conclusion 688
References 689

22 Food fermentation in the tropics 696

W.R. Stanton
22.1 The decade of the mycotoxins 696
22.2 Antiquity of food processes involving fermentation 697
22.3 Classification and uniqueness 700
22.4 Technology transfer; geographical restriction 700
22.5 Distribution of existing fermented foods 702
22.6 How they evolved 706
22.7 Differentiation by environment and substrate 706
22.8 Discussion 709
References 712

23 African fermented foods 713

S.A. Odunfa and O.B. Oyewole
23.1 Introduction 713
23.2 Fermented non-alcoholic starchy foods 716
23.3 Fermented alcoholic beverages 727
23.4 Fermented vegetable proteins 739
23.5 Fermented animal proteins 745
23.6 Summary 746
References 746

24 Fermented foods of the Indian subcontinent 753

R. Sankaran
24.1 Introduction 753
24.2 Classification 754
24.3 Fermented milk products 755
24.4 Cereal legume or legume foods 764
 CONTENTS xiii

24.5 Cereal foods 775

24.6 Fermented fruits and vegetables 778
24.7 Meat and fish foods 779
24.8 Miscellaneous 780
24.9 Conclusion 781
References 783

25 Fermented weaning foods 790

M.R. Adams
25.1 Breast-feeding and weaning 790
25.2 Weaning, diarrhoeal disease and malnutrition 791
25.3 Lactic fermentation 797
25.4 Fermented weaning foods 800
25.5 Monitoring and challenge studies 801
25.6 Epidemiological evidence 803
25.7 D- and L-Iactate 804
25.8 Nutritional improvements 805
25.9 Germination/malting 805
25.10 Conclusions 807
References 807

26 Potential infective and toxic microbiological hazards

associated with the consumption of fermented foods 812
N.J. Rowan, J.G. Anderson and J.E. Smith
26.1 Introduction 812
26.2 Fermented foods and opportunist microbial pathogens 813
26.3 Acid resistance of some foodborne pathogens 816
26.4 Spoilage of popular fermented foods 817
26.5 Factors increasing susceptibility of the consumers of
fermented foods to microbial hazards 822
26.6 The role of fungal toxins (mycotoxins) in fermented
foods 825
References 833

27 The impact of genetic engineering on food and beverage

fermentations 838
J.E. Smith
27.1 Introduction 838
27.2 Applied genetics and recombinant DNA technology 839
27.3 Genetically engineered plants and microorganisms 841
27.4 The safety of genetically engineered foods 843
References 851

Index 1-1
Contributors

Martin R. Adams School of Biological Sciences, University of

Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH, UK
J.G. Anderson Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street,
Glasgow GIIXW, UK
C.G. Beddows Faculty of Health and Social Care, Leeds Metro-
politan University, Calverley Street, Leeds LSI
3HE, UK
Michael A. Borowitzka School of Biological and Environmental Sci-
ences, Murdoch University, Perth, Western
Australia 6150, Australia
Jean-Louis Cordier Nestec S.A., Vevey, Switzerland
T.J. Elliott Horticultural Research International, Welles-
bourne, Warwick CV35 9EF, UK
Graham H. Fleet Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of New South Wales, Sydney, New
South Wales 2052, Australia
Mark S. Fowler Nestec S.A., Vevey, Switzerland.
Also at Nestle R&D Centre, PO Box 204, York
YOIIXY, UK
Michael Ganzle Universitat Hohenheim, Institut fur Lebens-
mitteltechnologie (ALT), Garbenstr. 28, D-
70599, Stuttgart, Germany
A. Godfrey E.T. Consulting, 'Glenview', Upper Common
Road, Gilwern, Abergavenny, Gwent NP7 ODR,
UK
W.P. Hammes Universitat Hohenheim, Institut fUr Lebens-
mitteltechnologie (ALT) , Garbenstr. 28, D-
70599, Stuttgart, Germany
Linda J. Harris Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of California, Davis, California 95616,
USA
xvi MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS

Linda M. Harvey Department of Bioscience and Technology,

University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street,
Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Martin Hoogland Quest International, PO Box 2, 1400 CA
Bursum, The Netherlands
Ian Jenson Burns, Philp and Company Limited, PO Box
219, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
Colja Laane Agricultural University Wageningen, Dreijen-
laan 3,6703 HA Wageningen, The Netherlands
Patrick Leheup Nestec S.A., Vevey, Switzerland
Zdzislawa Libudzisz Institute of Fermentation Technology and
Microbiology, Technical University, L6dz,
Poland
Napha Lotong Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science,
Kasetsart University, 50 Paholyothin Road,
Jatujak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Friedrich-Karl Lucke Fachbereich Haushalt und Ernahrung,
Fachhochschule Fulda, Marquardstrasse 35, D-
36039 Fulda, Germany
B. McNeil Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street,
Glasgow GIIXW, UK
S. Neelakantan Dairy Microbiology Division, National Dairy
Research Institute, Kamal, Haryana 132001,
India
Helena Oberman Institute of Fermentation Technology and
Microbiology, Technical University, L6dz,
Poland
S.A.Odunfa Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi,
Off Agege Motor Road, Oshodi, PMB 21023,
Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria
O.B. Oyewole Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi,
Off Agege Motor Road, Oshodi, PMB 21023,
Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria
Giinter Pahlow Institut fUr Grunland - und futterpflan-
zenforschung, Bundesalle 50, D-38116
Braunschweig, Germany
 CONTRIBUTORS xvii

N.J. Rowan Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,

University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street,
Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Rugmini Sankaran 89 Gokulam II Stage, Near J.K. Nursing Home,
V.V. Mohalla, Mysore 570 002, India
Masaoki Sasaki Research and Development Division, Kikkoman
Co. Ltd, 339 Noda, Noda-Shi, Chiba-Ken, 278
Japan
Richard J. Scrase 38 Eastbourne Avenue, Bath BAI 6EN, UK
Kishan Singh Dairy Microbiology Division, National Dairy
Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana 132001,
India
John E. Smith Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street,
Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Hein Stam Quest International, PO Box 2, 1400 CA
Bursum, The Netherlands
Glyn Stanley R.P. Texel Ltd, Poleacre Lane, Woodley,
Stockport, Cheshire SK6 IPQ, UK
W.R. Stanton 73 Main Street, Stanbury, Keighley, West York-
shire BD22 OHA, UK
K.H. Steinkraus Institute of Food Science, Cornell University, 15
Cornell Street, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA
Brian J.B. Wood Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street,
Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Michael Woolford Alltech UK Ltd, 15-17 Abenbury Way,
Wrexham Industrial Estate, Wrexham, Clwyd
LL13 9UZ, UK
Tamottsu Yokutsuka Research and Development Division, Kikkoman
Co. Ltd, 339 Noda, Noda-Shi, Chiba-Ken, 278
Japan
Preface

When I undertook the production of the First Edition of this book it was my
first foray into the world of book editing, and I had no idea of what I was
undertaking! I was not entirely alone in this, as in asking me to produce
such a book the commissioning Editor, Mr George Olley of Elsevier Ap-
plied Science Publishers, had pictured a text of perhaps 300 pages, but on
seeing my list of chapter titles realized that we were talking about a 20-
chapter, two-volume work. We eventually decided to go ahead with it, and
the result was more successful than either of us had dared to hope could be
the case. It was therefore with rather mixed emotions that I contemplated
a second edition at the suggestion of Blackie Press, who had taken over the
title from Elsevier. On the one hand, I was naturally flattered that the book
was considered important enough to justify a second edition. On the other
hand, I was very well aware that the task would be even greater this time.
Indeed, so much had changed in the decade since the first edition, it ap-
peared that this would be in many ways a totally new book. The subject
matter has grown greatly in that period, and so has my knowledge of it. The
appearance of glossaries of names associated with fermented foods (by
Hesseltine & Wang, and by Campbell-Platt) had helped to place the subject
on a much firmer foundation, but had compelled me to recognize the true
extent of the subject. Moreover, it was clear that the regional dimension
would warrant fuller consideration this time. The appearance of Dirar's
552-page text devoted to the indigenous fermented foods of one country,
The Sudan, was a further reminder that the subject is immensely complex.
Dirar subtitled his book A Study in African Food and Nutrition, and it is
easy to justify this, but in fact he demonstrates that The Sudan's geography
means that the country's food fermentations, and its food in general, is a
rich mingling of African, Mediterranean, Islamic, and even British (from
the time of the colonial mandate) influences. I therefore planned that the
two specifically 'regional' chapters in the first edition (Odunfa on African
food fermentations, and Stanton on the Tropics in general) should be
accompanied by chapters on India, the Middle East and South America, but
in practice I only succeeded in adding India to the list. However, so many
other topics presented themselves that there is a nearly 50% increase in
chapters in this edition, and I am already aware that there is adequate scope
for reviewers to chide me for omissions from the subjects covered here.
xx MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS

Despite this, I hope that the finished book will be seen as rather more than
just an updating of the first edition.
Some of the contributors to that first edition were able to contribute to
the second edition, and in all cases the changes have been such that the new
chapter is considerably expanded over the first version. In other cases,
retirement from active involvement in scientific work or, sadly, the death of
contributors has required me to find new authors. In all cases my authors
have exceeded all that I could reasonably ask of them, and one or two of
them did so at very short notice moreover. I am therefore greatly indebted
to all of the authors who have contributed chapters to this book. It also
gives me great pleasure to record my sincere gratitude to Dr Lesley
Anderson of Blackies in Glasgow, who began this process, and to Ms Rose
Gilliver who has seen it through to the end. Both of them have exhibited
great patience and forbearance when faced with what must have seemed
like endless prevarication on my part.
I conclude with some pleas to the Reader. First, I point out that I have
deliberately used authors from many countries and cultures. As always, I
am amazed at the fine English which they command, even when it is not
their first language. I want to retain the vigour and diversity which their
individual styles of writing bring to the book, so I have tried to exercise
restraint in editing, limiting myself to changes which I considered to be
demanded on grounds of clarity or the rules of English grammar. If the
result is less harmonious than you might wish, then I accept full responsibil-
ity for that, and hope that you will understand the reasons for it; of course
I also hope that you will share my pleasure in the authors' individuality.
Secondly, if you find factual errors or you feel that there is some significant
omission from the materials covered herein, please feel free to communi-
cate with me. I am responsible for the Index to this edition, and have tried
to model it on the Index which was prepared professionally for the first
edition. However, indexing is an art, and I admit to lacking skill in that
art, so bear with me please if I fall short of your standards. Finally, I hope
that you will find working with this text rewarding, interesting, and even
enjoyable.

Brian J.B. Wood,

Lenzie, Scotland
April 1997
Microbiology of Fermented Foods
VISIT OUR FOOD SCIENCE SITE ON THE WEB
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e-mail orders: direct.orders@itps.co.uk