Professional Documents
Culture Documents
u sin θ
hc 1242 eV-nm H
x
Projectile Motion:
Gravitation constant G 6.67×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 θ
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 × 10−23 J/K O u cos θ
Molar gas constant R 8.314 J/(mol K) R
ES
4π0
Faraday constant F 96485 C/mol
Mass of electron me 9.1 × 10−31 kg 1.3: Newton’s Laws and Friction
1.6726 × 10−27 kg
SS
Mass of proton mp
Mass of neutron mn 1.6749 × 10−27 kg Linear momentum: p~ = m~v
Atomic mass unit u 1.66 × 10−27 kg
LA
Atomic mass unit u 931.49 MeV/c2 Newton’s first law: inertial frame.
Stefan-Boltzmann σ 5.67×10−8 W/(m2 K4 )
Newton’s second law: F~ = d~
p
dt , F~ = m~a
constant C
Rydberg constant R∞ 1.097 × 107 m−1 Newton’s third law: F~AB = −F~BA
Bohr magneton µB 9.27 × 10−24 J/T
S
Bohr radius a0 0.529 × 10−10 m Frictional force: fstatic, max = µs N, fkinetic = µk N
IC
constant
mv 2 v2
Centripetal force: Fc = r , ac = r
PH
p p
vmin, bottom = 5gl, vmin, top = gl
Notation: ~a = ax ı̂ + ay ̂ + az k̂
I
ET
q
Magnitude: a = |~a| = a2x + a2y + a2z θ
l
q
N
l cos θ
Conical pendulum: T = 2π θ T
Dot product: ~a · ~b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = ab cos θ g
KI
ı̂ mg
a × ~b
~ ~b
Cross product:
θ k̂ ̂
~
a
1.4: Work, Power and Energy
~a ×~b = (ay bz − az by )ı̂ + (az bx − ax bz )̂ + (ax by − ay bx )k̂ Work: W = F~ · S
~ = F S cos θ, W =
R
F~ · dS
~
~vav = ∆~r/∆t, ~vinst = d~r/dt Work done by conservative forces is path indepen-
dent and depends only on initial and final points:
~aav = ∆~v /∆t ~ainst = d~v /dt H
F~conservative · d~r = 0.
Work-energy theorem: W = ∆K
1 / 11
Mechanical energy: E = U + K. Conserved if forces are Rotation about an axis with constant α:
conservative in nature.
ω = ω0 + αt, θ = ωt + 12 αt2 , ω 2 − ω0 2 = 2αθ
Power Pav = ∆W
∆t , Pinst = F~ · ~v
mi ri 2 , r2 dm
P R
Moment of Inertia: I = i I=
1.5: Centre of Mass and Collision
P R
R xdm
2
Pxi mi ,
1
2 mr m(a +b )
2 2
Centre of mass: xcm = xcm = mr 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 mr 2
mi dm 2 mr 3 mr 5 mr 12 ml 12
b
a
CM of few useful configurations: ring disk shell sphere rod hollow solid rectangle
m1 r m2
1. m1 , m2 separated by r: C
m2 r m1 r Ik Ic
m1 +m2 m1 +m2 2
Theorem of Parallel Axes: Ik = Icm + md d
cm
h
2. Triangle (CM ≡ Centroid) yc = 3 h
ES
C
h
3
z y
Theorem of Perp. Axes: Iz = Ix + Iy
2r
x
3. Semicircular ring: yc = C
SS
π r 2r
π
p
Radius of Gyration: k = I/m
4r
4. Semicircular disc: yc =
LA
3π C 4r
r ~ = ~r × p~, ~ = I~
3π Angular Momentum: L L ω
r y
5. Hemispherical shell: yc = 2 r
C r
2
C
Torque: ~τ = ~r × F~ , ~τ =
~
dL
dt , τ = Iα
P θ ~
F
~
r x
O
S
3r
6. Solid Hemisphere: yc = 8 C 3r
r ~ ~τext = 0 =⇒ L ~ = const.
IC
8
Conservation of L:
7. Cone: the height of CM from the base is h/4 for Equilibrium condition:
P~
F = ~0,
P
~τ = ~0
YS
M M
1 2 1 2 ~ ~ + ~rcm × m~vcm
K = 2 mvcm + 2 Icm ω , L = Icm ω
I
ET
Impulse: J~ = F~ dt = ∆~
R
p
1.7: Gravitation
Before collision After collision
N
Collision: m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 F F m2
Gravitational force: F = G mr1 m 2
KI
2
v1 v2 v10 v20 r
Momentum conservation: m1 v1 +m2 v2 = m1 v10 +m2 v20
2
Elastic Collision: 12 m1 v1 2+ 12 m2 v2 2 = 12 m1 v10 + 12 m2 v20
2 Potential energy: U = − GMr m
Coefficient of restitution: GM
Gravitational acceleration: g = R2
−(v10 − v20 )
1, completely elastic
e= = h
v1 − v2 0, completely in-elastic Variation of g with depth: ginside ≈ g 1 − R
2h
Variation of g with height: goutside ≈ g 1 −
If v2 = 0 and m1 m2 then v10 = −v1 . R
2 / 11
ω
~ ~
A
~2
A
2
Superposition of two SHM’s: δ
mg mω R cos θ
mgθ0 = mg − mω 2 R cos2 θ ~1
A
θ
R
x1 = A1 sin ωt, x2 = A2 sin(ωt + δ)
x = x1 + x2 = A sin(ωt + )
q q
GM
Orbital velocity of satellite: vo = R A = A1 2 + A2 2 + 2A1 A2 cos δ
q A2 sin δ
Escape velocity: ve = 2GM tan =
R A1 + A2 cos δ
vo
Kepler’s laws: 1.9: Properties of Matter
a
F/A ∆P F
First: Elliptical orbit with sun at one of the focus. Modulus of rigidity: Y = ∆l/l , B = −V ∆V , η= Aθ
~
Second: Areal velocity is constant. (∵ dL/dt = 0). 1
2 3 2 4π 2 3 Compressibility: K = = − V1 dV
Third: T ∝ a . In circular orbit T = GM a . B dP
ES
lateral strain ∆D/D
Poisson’s ratio: σ = longitudinal strain = ∆l/l
SS
2
Hooke’s law: F = −kx (for small elongation x.)
d2 x
LA
k
Acceleration: a = dt2 = −m x = −ω 2 x Surface tension: S = F/l
2π
= 2π m
p
Time period: T = ω k
Surface energy: U = SA
C
Displacement: x = A sin(ωt + φ) Excess pressure in bubble:
S
√
Velocity: v = Aω cos(ωt + φ) = ±ω A2 − x2 ∆pair = 2S/R, ∆psoap = 4S/R
IC
2S cos θ
Capillary rise: h =
YS
rρg
Kinetic energy K = 12 mv 2 K
x Buoyant force: FB = ρV g = Weight of displaced liquid
−A 0 A
C
Equation of continuity: A1 v1 = A2 v2 v2
v1
Total energy: E = U + K = 12 mω 2 A2
I
ET
l
Simple pendulum: T = 2π g l
dv
Viscous force: F = −ηA dx
KI
q F
I
Physical Pendulum: T = 2π mgl Stoke’s law: F = 6πηrv
v
2r 2 (ρ−σ)g
Terminal velocity: vt = 9η
1 1 1
Springs in series: keq = k1 + k2
k1 k2
3 / 11
2 Waves
q
2 T
4. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics: ν1 = 2L µ
q
2.1: Waves Motion 5. 2nd overtone/3rd harmonics: ν2 = 3 T
2L µ
2 2
∂ y 1 ∂ y
General equation of wave: ∂x2 = v 2 ∂t2 . 6. All harmonics are present.
1 2π 2π
T = = , v = νλ, k= String fixed at one end: N A
ν ω λ A N
λ/2
Progressive wave travelling with speed v:
1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0
y = f (t − x/v), +x; y = f (t + x/v), −x q
2. Allowed Freq.: L = (2n + 1) λ4 , ν = 2n+1
4L
T
µ, n =
y 0, 1, 2, . . ..
A q
x 1 T
λ λ 3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 4L µ
Progressive sine wave: 2
ES
q
3 T
4. 1st overtone/3rd harmonics: ν1 = 4L µ
y = A sin(kx − ωt) = A sin(2π (x/λ − t/T ))
q
5 T
5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 = 4L
SS
µ
LA
Speed of waves on a string
p with mass per unit length µ
and tension T : v = T /µ √ q
1 √1 . n T
Sonometer: ν ∝
C L, ν∝ T, ν ∝ µ ν= 2L µ
Transmitted power: Pav = 2π 2 µvA2 ν 2
S
Interference: 2.3: Sound Waves
IC
A2 sin δ s s s
tan = B Y γP
A1 + A2 cos δ vliquid = , vsolid = , vgas =
ρ ρ ρ
2nπ, constructive;
C
δ=
(2n + 1)π, destructive.
2π 2 B 2 2 p0 2 v p0 2
I
Intensity: I = v s0 ν = 2B = 2ρv
ET 2A cos kx
x
Standing Waves: A N A N A
N
4 / 11
5v
5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 = 5ν0 = 4L S1 P
dy y
Path difference: ∆x = D d θ
6. Only odd harmonics are present.
S2 D
2π
Phase difference: δ = λ ∆x
A
1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0
nλ, constructive;
Allowed freq.: L = n λ2 , ν = n 4L
v
, n = 1, 2, . . . ∆x =
n + 12 λ, destructive
v
2. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 2L
2v Intensity:
3. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics: ν1 = 2ν0 = 2L
p
4. 2nd overtone/3rd harmonics: ν2 = 3ν0 = 3v I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos δ,
2L p p 2 p p 2
ES
5. All harmonics are present. Imax = I1 + I2 , Imin = I1 − I2
I1 = I2 : I = 4I0 cos2 2δ , Imax = 4I0 , Imin = 0
SS
l1 + d
λD
Fringe width: w = d
l2 + d
LA
Resonance column: Optical path: ∆x0 = µ∆x
C
Interference of waves transmitted through thin film:
S
l1 + d = λ2 , l2 + d = 3λ
4 , v = 2(l2 − l1 )ν
IC
nλ, constructive;
∆x = 2µd =
Beats: two waves of almost equal frequencies ω1 ≈ ω2 n + 12 λ, destructive.
YS
b
y
ω = (ω1 + ω2 )/2, ∆ω = ω1 − ω2 (beats freq.)
D
For Minima: nλ = b sin θ ≈ b(y/D)
Doppler Effect:
C
1.22λ
Resolution: sin θ = b
v + uo
I
ν= ν0
ET
v − us θ
Law of Malus: I = I0 cos2 θ I0 I
where, v is the speed of sound in the medium, u0 is
N
aE0 I0
Spherical Wave: E = r sin ω(t − vr ), I = r2
5 / 11
3 Optics
h i
1 1 1
Lens maker’s formula: f = (µ − 1) R1 − R2
I
Spherical Mirror: O
f 3.3: Optical Instruments
v
u
ES
Simple microscope: m = D/f in normal adjustment.
1. Focal length f = R/2 Objective Eyepiece
1 1 1
2. Mirror equation: + =
SS
v u f
O ∞
3. Magnification: m = − uv Compound microscope:
LA
u v fe
3.2: Refraction of Light D
sin r µ1
µ2 fo fe
r refracted
YS
1 1
2. Resolving power: R = ∆θ = 1.22λ
I
ET
A
3.4: Dispersion
δ
Deviation by a prism:
N
i i0 A
r r0 Cauchy’s equation: µ = µ0 + λ2 , A>0
KI
µ
Dispersion by prism with small A and i:
µ2 µ1 µ2 − µ1 µ1 v
− = , m=
v u R µ2 u
6 / 11
4 Heat and Thermodynamics 4.4: Theromodynamic Processes
ES
n Efficiency of the heat engine: W
Q2
Maxwell distribution of speed: T2
SS
vp v̄ vrms v work done by the engine Q1 − Q2
η= =
heat supplied to it Q1
LA
q q
3kT 3RT
RMS speed: vrms = m = M
Q2 T2
ηcarnot = 1 − =1−
q q C Q1 T1
8kT 8RT
Average speed: v̄ = πm = πM
T1
Q1
S
q
Most probable speed: vp = 2kT Coeff. of performance of refrigerator: W
m
IC
Q2
T2
Pressure: p = 13 ρvrms
2
Q2 Q2
COP = =
YS
W Q1 −Q2
Equipartition of energy: K = 12 kT for each degree of Rf
∆Q ∆Q
freedom. Thus, K = f2 kT for molecule having f de- Entropy: ∆S = T , Sf − Si = i T
PH
grees of freedoms.
Q Tf
Const. T : ∆S = T, Varying T : ∆S = ms ln Ti
f
Internal energy of n moles of an ideal gas is U = 2 nRT .
Adiabatic process: ∆Q = 0, pV γ = constant
I C
∆t x
Latent heat: L = Q/m x
Thermal resistance: R =
KI
KA
∆Q
Specific heat at constant volume: Cv = n∆T
V 1 x1 x2 K1 K2 A
Rseries = R1 + R2 = A K1 + K2
∆Q x1 x2
Specific heat at constant pressure: Cp = n∆T
p
K2 A2
1 1 1 1
Relation between Cp and Cv : Cp − Cv = R Rparallel = R1 + R2 = x (K1 A1 + K2 A2 ) K1 A1
x
Ratio of specific heats: γ = Cp /Cv
emissive power Ebody
Relation between U and Cv : ∆U = nCv ∆T Kirchhoff ’s Law: absorptive power = abody = Eblackbody
∆Q
Molar internal energy of an ideal gas: U = f2 RT , Stefan-Boltzmann law: ∆t = σeAT 4
f = 3 for monatomic and f = 5 for diatomic gas. dT
Newton’s law of cooling: dt = −bA(T − T0 )
7 / 11
5 Electricity and Magnetism 5.3: Capacitors
−q +q
Coulomb’s law: F~ = 1 q1 q2
4π0 r 2 r̂ q1 r q2 Parallel plate capacitor: C = 0 A/d
A A
d
~ r) =
Electric field: E(~ 1 q
4π0 r 2 r̂
~
E
q ~
r
r2
1 q1 q2
Electrostatic energy: U = − 4π 0 r Spherical capacitor: C = 4π0 r1 r2
−q +q
r2 −r1
r1
1 q
Electrostatic potential: V = 4π0 r
Z ~
r
~ · ~r,
dV = −E V (~r) = − ~ · d~r
E 2π0 l r2
∞ Cylindrical capacitor: C = ln(r2 /r1 ) l
r1
p
~
Electric dipole moment: p~ = q d~ −q +q
d A
Capacitors in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 C1 C2
ES
B
1 p cos θ V (r)
Potential of a dipole: V = 4π0 r 2
θ r
1 1 1
p
~ Capacitors in series: = + C1 C2
SS
Ceq C1 C2 A B
LA
θ r F = 2A
Eθ 0
p
~
Q2
Er = 1 2p cos θ
4π0 r3 , Eθ = 1 p sin θ
4π0 r 3
Energy stored in capacitor: U = 12 CV 2 =
C 2C = 12 QV
~ ~τ = p~ × E
Torque on a dipole placed in E: ~ Energy density in electric field E: U/V = 12 0 E 2
S
0 KA
IC
~ U = −~
Pot. energy of a dipole placed in E: ~
p·E Capacitor with dielectric: C = d
YS
H
~ · dS~ = qin /0 1 eE i
Gauss’s law: E Drift speed: vd = 2 mτ = neA
x P
Ohm’s law: V = iR
E and V (of a uniformly charged sphere:
N
1 Q
4π0 r 2 , for r ≥ R O
r
R i.e., Σnode Ii = 0. (ii)The Loop Law: The algebraic
sum of all the potential differences along a closed loop
( 2
Q
3 − Rr 2 , for r < R V
V = 8π 0R
1 Q in a circuit is zero i.e., Σloop ∆ Vi = 0.
4π0 r , for r ≥ R O
r
R
1 1 1 A
Resistors in parallel: Req = R1 + R2 R1 R2
E and V of a uniformly charged spherical shell: B
0, for r < R E
E= 1 Q Resistors in series: Req = R1 + R2
4π0 r 2 , for r ≥ R O
r A
R1 R2
B
R
(
1 Q
4π0 R , for r < R V R1 R2
V = 1 Q
4π0 r , for r ≥ R r ↑ G
O R Wheatstone bridge:
R3 R4
λ
Field of a line charge: E = 2π0 r
V
Balanced if R1 /R2 = R3 /R4 .
σ
Field of an infinite sheet: E = 20
Electric Power: P = V 2 /R = I 2 R = IV
σ
Field in the vicinity of conducting surface: E = 0
8 / 11
i ig G i ~
Energy of a magnetic dipole placed in B:
Galvanometer as an Ammeter: i − ig U = −~µ·B~
S
~
ig G = (i − ig )S Bi l B
Hall effect: Vw = ned w
y
x
R G i d z
Galvanometer as a Voltmeter: ↑
A ig B
VAB = ig (R + G)
5.6: Magnetic Field due to Current
R C
i ~
⊗B
Charging of capacitors: ~ = µ0 i d~l×~
r
Biot-Savart law: dB 4π r 3 θ
~
r
V d~l
h t
i
q(t) = CV 1 − e− RC
θ2
C
t Field due to a straight conductor: i
d ~
Discharging of capacitors: q(t) = q0 e− RC q(t)
⊗B
θ1
R
µ0 i
B= 4πd (cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
ES
Time constant in RC circuit: τ = RC
µ0 i
Field due to an infinite straight wire: B = 2πd
SS
∆H Peltier heat
Peltier effect: emf e = ∆Q = charge transferred . dF µ0 i1 i2 i1 i2
Force between parallel wires: dl = 2πd
LA
e d
Seeback effect: T
T0 Tn Ti
C a
P
1. Thermo-emf: e = aT + 12 bT 2 Field on the axis of a ring: i ~
B
d
2. Thermoelectric power: de/dt = a + bT .
S
µ0 ia2
3. Neutral temp.: Tn = −a/b. BP =
IC
µ0 iθ
∆H Thomson heat Field at the centre of an arc: B = ~ θ i
Thomson effect: emf e = ∆Q = charge transferred = σ∆T . 4πa B
a
Faraday’s law of electrolysis: The mass deposited is
PH
µ0 i
Field at the centre of a ring: B = 2a
1
m = Zit = F Eit
~ · d~l = µ0 Iin
H
Ampere’s law: B
C
l
Faraday constant.
ET
l
N
µ0 N i
5.5: Magnetism Field inside a toroid: B = 2πr r
KI
~
B Horizontal Bh
Angle of dip: Bh = B cos δ δ
Force on a current carrying wire: ~l
Bv B
~
F i
F~ = i ~l × B
~
Tangent galvanometer: Bh tan θ = µ0 ni
2r , i = K tan θ
Magnetic moment of a current loop (dipole): k
Moving coil galvanometer: niAB = kθ, i= nAB θ
µ ~
~ A
µ ~
~ = iA q
i I
Time period of magnetometer: T = 2π M Bh
~ ~τ = µ
Torque on a magnetic dipole placed in B: ~
~ ×B
~ = µH
Permeability: B ~
9 / 11
C R
5.7: Electromagnetic Induction 1
Z
RC circuit: i ωC
φ
~ · dS
~
H
Magnetic flux: φ = B
p ˜
e0 sin ωt
1
R
+ √ ωL
˜
e0 sin ωt
Z
Z= R2 + ω 2 L2 , tan φ = R
Motional emf: e = Blv l ~
v ⊗B
~
− L C R 1
ωC Z 1
LCR Circuit: i φ ωC − ωL
di
Self inductance: φ = Li, e= −L dt
q ˜
e0 sin ωt
ωL
1
R
ES
i
L R Power factor: P = erms irms cos φ
e
e 0.63 R
SS
t N1 e1 e1 N1 N2 e2
Transformer: = e2 , e1 i1 = e2 i2
S i L
R
N2
˜ i1 i2
˜
LA
t
− L/R √
Decay of current in LR circuit: i = i0 e Speed of the EM waves in vacuum: c = 1/ µ0 0
L R i
i0 C
0.37i0
t
S
S i L
R
IC
di
Mutual inductance: φ = M i, e = −M dt
C
i
Alternating current: t
T
N
i = i0 sin(ωt + φ),
T = 2π/ω
KI
RT
Average current in AC: ī = T1 0 i dt = 0
h R i1/2 i2
1 T i0
RMS current: irms = T 0
i2 dt = √
2
t
Energy: E = irms 2 RT
1
Capacitive reactance: Xc = ωC
Inductive reactance: XL = ωL
Imepedance: Z = e0 /i0
10 / 11
6 Modern Physics N0
N
O t1/2 t
Photon’s energy: E = hν = hc/λ
Threshold freq. in photo-electric effect: ν0 = φ/h Population after n half lives: N = N0 /2n .
ES
6.2: The Atom
Energy in nth Bohr’s orbit: 6.4: Vacuum tubes and Semiconductors
SS
mZ 2 e4 13.6Z 2 D
En = − , En = − eV Half Wave Rectifier:
80 2 h2 n2 n2 R Output
LA
Radius of the nth Bohr’s orbit:
˜
rn =
0 h2 n2
, rn =
n2 a0
, a0 = 0.529 Å
C
Full Wave Rectifier:
πmZe2 Z ˜ Output
S
nh
IC
E2 E2
hν hν
∆Vp
E1 E1 Plate resistance of a triode: rp =
PH
1 2 1 1 ∆V
Amplification by a triode: µ = − ∆Vpg
I
= RZ − 2
ET
λ n2 m ∆ip =0
I Kα
Kβ
KI
hc
X-ray spectrum: λmin = eV
Ie Ic
Current in a transistor: Ie = Ib + Ic
λmin λα λ
Ib
√
Moseley’s law: ν = a(Z − b)
Ic
α and β parameters of a transistor: α = Ie , β =
X-ray diffraction: 2d sin θ = nλ Ic α
Ib , β = 1−α
11 / 11