Chapter III Horizontal

CHAPTER III
Basic Survey Measurements

Horizontal Distance Measurement
Tewodros N.
www.tnigatu.wordpress.com
tedynihe@gmail.com
Introduction
• One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination
of the distance between two points on the earth’s surface for use
in fixing position, setout and in scaling.
• Methods
– Pacing
– Odometer of a vehicle
– Taping (chaining)
– Tachometry
– Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
1. Methods of making linear measurements
 Direct methods
 Optical methods
 E.D.M methods
• In the direct method, the distance is actually measured during field work
using a chain or a tape. This is the most commonly used method for linear
measurements.
• In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. The distance is not
actually measured in field but it is computed indirectly. The instrument used
for making observations is called tachometer.
Optical Methods
• Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been

developed quite recently.
• These are practically replacing the measurement of distances

using chains or tapes. There is a large variety of such
instruments and depending upon the precision required the
instruments should be used.
Electronic Distance
Measuring (E.D.M)
λ λ λ λ
EDM
P λ λ λ
• Approximate methods
• The methods given below may be used in reconnaissance or for detecting
major mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a chain or a tape.
Pacing
A distance between two

points can be
approximately be
determined by counting the number
of paces and multiplying it with
average length of the pace.
Passometer:
• It is a small instrument which counts the number of paces.
Pedometer
This instrument
directly gives the
distance by
multiplying the
number of paces
with the average
pace length of the
person carrying the
instrument.
Odometer
• An odometer is a simple
device which can be
attached to the wheel of a
bicycle or any such vehicle.
The odometer registers the
number of revolution made
by the wheel. The distance
covered is equal to the
product of the number of
revolutions and the
perimeter of the wheel.
Speedometer
• This is used in automobiles for measuring distances.
Measuring Wheel
It is a wheel fitted with a
fork and handle. The
wheel is graduated and
shows a distance per
revolution. There is a dial
which records the
number of revolution.
Thus the distance can be
computed.
The degree of
accuracy
obtained by
different distance
measurement
methods
Chain Surveying
• Is a method of land surveying in which only linear
quantities are measured.
– Formerly ropes, lines and chords for linear measurements
– Then chains were invented in the 17th century.
– Nowadays steel tapes most commonly graduated in ft or m with
decimal fractions
– Linen or cloth tapes, fiberglass tapes can be used for low precision
– Invar tapes- extreme precision, alloy of steel and nickel; too
expensive to afford for ordinary work; low coefficient of thermal
expansion cf. steel tapes (1/30 of steel)
Measuring Tapes
Tapes are used for more accurate measurement. The tapes are classified based on the
materials of which they are made of such as:
• Cloth or linen tape
• Fibre Tape
• Metallic Tape
• Steel tape
• Invar Tape
Cloth or linen Tape
• Linen tapes are closely woven linen
and varnished to resist moisture.
They are generally 10 m, 20 m, 25 m
and 30 m long in length and 12 to 15
mm wide. They are generally used for
offset measurements. These tapes are
light and flexible.
Fiber Glass Tape

• These tapes are similar to linen
and plastic coated tapes but these
are made of glass fibre. The tapes
are quite flexible, strong and non-
conductive. These can be used in
the vicinity of electrical
equipment. These tapes do not
stretch or shrink due to changes
in temperature or moisture. These
tapes are available in length of 20
m, 30 m and 50 m length.
Metallic Tape
• A linen tape reinforced with brass or
copper wires to prevent stretching or
twisting of fibres is called a metallic
tape. As the wires are interwoven and
tape is varnished these wires are
visible to naked eyes. This is supplied
in a lather case with a winding
device. Each metre length is divided
into ten parts (decimetres) and each
part is further sub-divided into ten
parts. It is commonly used for taking
offset in chain surveying.
Steel Tape
The steel tape is made of steel
ribbon of width varying from 6 to
16 mm. The commonly available
length are 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, 30. m
and 50 m. It is graduated
decimeters, in meters, and
centimeters Steel tapes are used
for of measurement accurate
distances.
Invar Tape
• Invar tape are made of alloy of nickel
36 % and steel 64 % having very low
co-efficient of thermal expansion.
These are 6 mm wide and generally
available in length of 30 m, 50m,
100m. It is not affected by change of
temperature therefore, it is used
when high degree of precesion is
required.
Chain Surveying
Accessories:
– Ranging poles-most of the time painted in red & white, 2-3m long used
to align a straight line between two points.
– Taping pins –for marking ends of tapes or intermediate points when
required
– Plumb bobs – to indicate vertical direction
– Hand levels- for establishing horizontal line of sight on sloping ground
Ranging Rods and Offset Rods
Ranging rods are used for ranging some
intermediate points on the survey line.
Ranging rods are generally 2 to 3 m in length and
are painted with alternate bands of black or white or
red and white colour with length of each equalizing
20 cm. The location of any survey station can be
known from long distances only by means of
ranging rods. If the distance is too long, a rod of
length 4.0 to
6.0 m is used and is called ranging pole.
• The offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the
exception that instead of the flag, a hook is provided
at the top for pushing and pulling the chain or the
tape. It is also used for measuring small offsets
Arrows
• Arrows are made of tempered steel
wire of diameter 4 mm. one end of
the arrow is bent into ring of
diameter 50 mm and the other end
is pointed. Its overall length is 400
mm. Arrows are used for counting
the number of chains while
measuring a chain line. An arrow
is inserted into the ground after
every chain length measured on
the ground.
Pegs
• Pegs are made of timber or steel and
they are used to mark the position of
the station or terminal points of a
survey line. Wooden pegs are 15 cm
long and are driven into the ground
with the help of a hammer.
Plumb Bob
• Plumb-bob is used to transfer points
on the ground. It is also used for fixing
the instruments exactly over the
station point marked on the ground by
the checking the center of
instrument whether coincides with the
center of the peg or station not, by
suspending the plumb-bob exactly at
the center of the instrument under it.
Plumb bob is thus used as centering
aid in theodolites and plane table.
Systematic Errors in Taping and Corrections
1. Tape is not of standard length
A tape may be too short or too long when compared to a standard
tape under specific conditions of tension, temperature and method
of support.
 When the tape is too short the surveyor will actually measure a distance
less than that shown on the graduations. Hence, a negative correction
is needed.
 Similarly, when the tape is too long, a distance greater than that shown
on the graduations is measured, hence a positive correction is applied.
1. Tape is not of standard length
If C is the absolute correction per tape length, Lm is the total
distance measured and ln is the nominal tape length, the
absolute correction Ca is given by
and
where Lt is the actual distance measured. Alternatively, the
total true distance can be calculated as
where
2. Tape is not horizontal
If the tape is inclined, an error, which is cumulative in nature, is
introduced. Errors from this source may be considerable when
measuring slope distances over hilly ground. Where considerable
slopes exist, this error will be large and slope correction is required.
If the slope distance is S, and the slope angle (vertical angle) is α,
the corrected horizontal distance H is
H= S cos α and the correction
DC= Cslope = S cos α- S = S (cos α - 1)
2. Tape is not horizontal
If the elevation difference between A and B is known and is h,
then H= (S2 - h2 ) ½ By binomial expansion:
For relatively short lines involved in taping the first term will
generally suffice.
3. Variations in temperature
This causes expansion or contraction of the material of which the tape is
made.
If The standard temperature (Ts) and field temperature (T) are different the
amount of correction for temperature, Ct is
Ct = L α (T - Ts)
Where
α= the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape, 1/Co
L = the total measured distance or the nominal tape length,
3. Variations in temperature
Determination of temperature: On cloudy days- overage

air temperature with a thermometer can give the
temperature of tape. But on sunny days the temperature
of the tape can be obtained by attaching thermometer or
the ends of the tape.
4. Variations in tension / pull
If the pull used in the field is different from that used during calibration, the tape
changes its length slightly according to the relationship between stress and strain.
The correction for pull Cp is
Where
L is the measured length,
P is the pull applied in the field (kg or N),
Po is the pull used for standardization,
A is the cross sectional area of the tape (cm2 or mm 2 ) and
E is the modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape (kg/cm2 or N/mm2
5. Sag
5.1 If standardized on the flat and used in catenary, the general equation for
correction is applied.
Where,
Cs is the correction (m),
n is the number of unsupported lengths,
w is the weight per unit length of the tape (kg/m, N/m),
l is the unsupported length (m),
L is the total measured length (m),
W is the total weight of tape (kg) and
P is the tension applied at the time of measurement (kg, N).
5. Sag
5.1 If standardized on the flat and used in catenary, the general
equation for correction is applied.
The effect of this sag may be eliminated by increasing the pull on the
end of the tape in the case of light tapes. The required tension, Pn,
called the normal tension for the tape can be found from:
5. Sag
5.1 If standardized in catenary
a) If the tape is used on the flat, a positive correction is applied.
b) If the tape is used in catenary at a tension P, the correction will be
the difference between the two relative corrections
If P > Ps, the correction will be positive.
5. Sag
5.1 If standardized in catenary
If the heads of the tape are at considerably different levels,

the sag correction should be
5. Misalignment and deformation of tape
If the end of the tape is out of line by a distance d in a

length L, error will be:
the correction will be negative

5. Misalignment and deformation of tape
If the tape is not pulled straight & the center of the tape is
out of line by a length d, then
the correction will be negative.

6. Reduction to Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)
In the case of long lines in triangulation surveys the relationship
between the length AB measured on the ground and the equivalent
length A′B′ at mean sea level has to be considered . Determination of
the equivalent mean sea level length of the measured length is known
as reduction to mean sea level.
6. Reduction to Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)
The reduced length at mean sea level is given by
where R = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km), and H = the

average elevation of the line. When H is considered small
compared to R, the correction to L is given as and The sign of
the correction is always negative.
Thank You!

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Chapter III Horizontal

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CHAPTER III

Basic Survey Measurements

• Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been

• These are practically replacing the measurement of distances

A distance between two

• Cloth or linen tape

Fiber Glass Tape

Determination of temperature: On cloudy days- overage

5.1 If standardized in catenary

If the heads of the tape are at considerably different levels,

If the end of the tape is out of line by a distance d in a

the correction will be negative

the correction will be negative.

where R = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km), and H = the

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