PMA

Materials & Composites

1. Describe in details the classification of composites

Classification of composites

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix phase
and dispersed phase) and having bulk properties significantly different from those of any
of the constituents.

 Matrix phase
The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is
usually more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and
shares a load with it.

 Dispersed (reinforcing) phase

The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous
form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is
usually stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing
phase.

Many of common materials (metal alloys, doped Ceramics and Polymers mixed with
additives) also have a small amount of dispersed phases in their structures, however
they are not considered as composite materials since their properties are similar to those
of their base constituents (physical properties of steel are similar to those of pure iron).

There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on
the matrix material (metal, ceramic, and polymer) and the second is based on the
material structure:

Classification of composites I
(Based on matrix material)

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum,
magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or
metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded
fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset
(Unsaturated Polyester (UP), Epoxiy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate (PC),
Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polysterene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or
Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).

Classification of composite materials II

(Based on reinforcing material structure)

 Particulate Composites
Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in
form of particles.

i. Composites with random orientation of particles.

ii. Composites with preferred orientation of particles. Dispersed phase of
these materials consists of two-dimensional flat platelets (flakes), laid
parallel to each other.
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 Fibrous Composites
o Short-fiber reinforced composites. Short-fiber reinforced composites
consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of
discontinuous fibers (length < 100*diameter).
i. Composites with random orientation of fibres.
ii. Composites with preferred orientation of fibres.
 Long-fiber reinforced composites. Long-fiber reinforced composites consist of a
matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of continuous fibers.
i. Unidirectional orientation of fibers.
ii. Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).
 Laminate Composites
When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber
orientations, it is called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.

2. Describe the differences between glass reinforced and carbon reinforced

composites

Weight
Carbon fibre is lighter than fiberglass, it’s 70% lighter than steel, 40% lighter than
Aluminum. The nature of carbon fibre is low in weight, rigid, and strong.

Strength vs Rigidity
Rigidity is also known as stiffness. Carbon fibre and fiberglass are both very strong, but
Carbon fibre is more rigid. Carbon fibre is about 3 times stiffer than steel and aluminum
for a given weight.

In applications where a small amount of flexibility is allowed, carbon fibre is a top choice.
Fiberglass is better suited to extreme flex patterns, while carbon fibre has a relatively
small flex window.

Toughness
The shape of Carbon fibre doesn’t deteriorate over time. That means the shape of
carbon fibre doesn’t change when consistent and constant force is applied on it.

Fibreglass however being more flexible, it means that glass-fibre typically has a higher
ultimate breaking point than a similarly shaped carbon fibre product, therefore having
higher strength-to-weight ratio. In general it is a “tougher” material. The incredible rigidity
of carbon makes it less capable of enduring certain abuses than fiberglass

Thermal and Electrical Characteristics

As opposed to most other materials, carbon fibre has a negative coefficient of thermal
expansion which means they don’t expand or shrink as much as fibreglass when the
temperature changes. This is a desirable quality for applications that have to operate in
a wide range of temperatures.

Fiberglass composites are insulators, which means they do not respond to an electric
field and resist the flow of electric charge. Fiberglass composites are very radiolucent, which
means they allow radiation to pass through it freely. This makes fiberglass rods a useful
material for antennas.

Price
Fiberglass is more cost effective. Long strands of carbon fibres are very difficult and
expensive to manufacture, while fiberglass processes much easier. As a result,
fiberglass is considerably less expensive than carbon fibre. Fiberglass composites are less
expensive than carbon composites in most cases.
3. Describe the filament winding manufacturing process for matrix composites
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Filament winding is a fabrication technique mainly used for manufacturing open

(cylinders) or closed end structures (pressure vessels or tanks). This process involves
winding filaments under tension over a rotating mandrel. The mandrel rotates around the
spindle (Axis 1 or X: Spindle) while a delivery eye on a carriage (Axis 2 or Y: Horizontal)
traverses horizontally in line with the axis of the rotating mandrel, laying down fibers in the
desired pattern or angle. The most common filaments are glass or carbon and are
impregnated in a bath with resin as they are wound onto the mandrel. Once the mandrel
is completely covered to the desired thickness, the resin is cured. Depending on the resin
system and its cure characteristics, often the rotating mandrel is placed in an oven or placed
under radiant heaters until the part is cured. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed
or extracted, leaving the hollow final product. For some products such as gas bottles, the
'mandrel' is a permanent part of the finished product forming a liner to prevent gas
leakage or as a barrier to protect the composite from the fluid to be stored.

Schematic illustration of the conventional wet-filament winding process. The key

components are coded as follows:

A. fibre creels
B. fibre guide
C. tensioning systems
D. guide pins
E. drum-impregnator with a doctor-blade
F. resin bath
G. impregnated fibre bundles
H. traversing carriage
I. D-eye
J. rotating mandrel.

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Schematic illustration of the clean filament winding concept. The key components are
coded as follows:

i. resin dispensing unit;

ii. resin reservoir;
iii. hardener reservoir;
iv & v precision gear pumps;
vi. manifold;
vii. static mixer;
viii. resin impregnation unit located on the traverse carriage;
ix. rotating mandrel;
x. tensioning and fibre spreading stations
xi. creels or bobbins; and
xii. feedback control system to enable synchronisation between the mandrel and the
resin dispensing unit.

4. Explain in detail the common ingredients of concrete

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Concrete and cement are not the same thing; cement is actually just a component of
concrete. Concrete is made up of three basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand,
or gravel) and Portland cement. Cement, usually in powder form, acts as a binding agent
when mixed with water and aggregates. This combination, or concrete mix, will be
poured and harden into the durable material with which we are all familiar.

There are three basic ingredients in the concrete mix:

i. Portland Cement
ii. Water
iii. Aggregates (rock and sand)

Portland cement : The cement and water form a paste that coats the
aggregate and sand in the mix. The paste hardens and
binds the aggregates and sand together.

Water : Water is needed to chemically react with the cement

(hydration) and too provide workability with the
concrete. The amount of water in the mix in pounds
compared with the amount of cement is called the
water/cement ratio. The lower the w/c ratio, the stronger the
concrete. (higher strength, less permeability)

Aggregates : Sand is the fine aggregate. Gravel or crushed stone is the

coarse aggregate in most mixes.

5. Highlight the properties of concrete and their implications during construction

Properties of Concrete

i. Grades (M20, M25, M30 etc.)

ii. Compressive strength
iii. Characteristic Strength
iv. Tensile strength
v. Durability
vi. Creep
vii. Shrinkage
viii. Unit weight
ix. Modular Ratio
x. Poisson’s ratio

i. Grades of concrete

Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in which letter
M refers to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the specified compressive
strength (fck) of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm2.

Thus, concrete is known by its compressive strength. M20 and M25 are the most
common grades of concrete, and higher grades of concrete should be used for
severe, very severe and extreme environments.

ii. Compressive strength of concrete

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Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies considerably for
the same concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative value, known as
characteristic strength is used.

iii. Characteristic strength of concrete

It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more than 5% of the test
results are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving this value only
5% of not achieving the same)

Characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member

The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67 times the
strength of concrete cube.

Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength

The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as design
strength and is given by

Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for material
strength
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the
type of limit state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for
concrete and 1.15 for steel.

Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck

iv. Tensile strength of concrete

The estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the cracking
strength of concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by the relations

fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2. The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained
experimentally by split cylinder. It varies between 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive
strength.

v. Creep in concrete
Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustained load. Creep strain
depends primarily on the duration of sustained loading. According to the code, the
value of the ultimate creep coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of loading.

vi. Shrinkage of Concrete

The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and hardening is
termed Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure. If this strain is
prevented, it produces tensile stress in the concrete and hence concrete develops
cracks.

vii. Modular ratio

Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of
elasticity of concrete.

Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec

Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2 x 10 5 N/mm2)

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Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000 x SQRT(fck) N/mm2)

As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading etc the
modular ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the effects of creep and
shrinkage partially IS code gives the following expression for the long term modular
ratio.

Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)

Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm2.

viii. Poisson’s ratio

Poisson’s ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for weak
mixes. It is normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for serviceability
criteria.

ix. Durability of concrete

Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. One of the
chief characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its permeability to increase of
water and other potentially deleterious materials.

The desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate cement,

sufficient low water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of concrete and by
adequate curing.

x. Unit weight of concrete

The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of

aggregate, amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26 kN/m 2. The unit weight of plain
and reinforced concrete as specified by IS:456 are 24 and 25 KN/m3 respectively.

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