Intr Uction To The Human Body: Cells

Introduction to the
Human Body
Tenth Edition
Gerard J. Tortora • Bryan H. Derrickson
Chapter 3
Cells
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cells
◼ A generalized view of the cell
◼ The plasma membrane
◼ Transport across the plasma membrane
◼ Cytoplasm
◼ Nucleus
◼ Gene action: protein synthesis
◼ Somatic cell division
◼ Cellular diversity
◼ Aging and cells
A GENERALIZED
VIEW OF THE CELL
A Generalized View of the Cell
◼ Each cell is a living structural and

functional unit that is enclosed by a
membrane.
◼ All cells can be divided into three main parts:
❑ Plasma membrane
❑ Cytoplasm – cytosol and organelles
❑ Nucleus
A Generalized View of the Cell
THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
The Plasma Membrane
◼ The plasma membrane forms a cell’s
flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s
internal environment from its external
environment.
◼ It regulates the flow of materials into and out
of a cell to maintain the appropriate
environment for normal cellular activities.
◼ The plasma membrane also plays a key role
in communication among cells and between
cells and their external environment.
The Plasma Membrane
◼ The basic framework of the plasma membrane is
the lipid bilayer, two tail-to-tail layers made up
of three types of lipid molecules:
phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids.
◼ The proteins in a membrane are of two types-
integral and peripheral.
◼ Integral proteins extend through the lipid
bilayer. These proteins allow small and medium-
sized water-soluble materials to cross the
membrane.
◼ Peripheral proteins are loosely attached to the
exterior or interior surface of the membrane.
The Plasma Membrane
◼ The plasma membrane is selectively
permeable—it allows some substances to
move into and out of the cell but restricts the
passage of other substances.
◼ The lipid bilayer part of the membrane is
permeable to water and to nonpolar (lipid-
soluble) molecules (fatty acids, O2, CO2, etc.)
◼ The lipid bilayer is not permeable to ions and
large, uncharged polar molecules such as
glucose and amino acids.
The Plasma Membrane
◼ Large molecules, such as proteins, are
unable to pass through the plasma
membrane except by transport within
vesicles.
◼ Most functions of the plasma membrane
depend on the types of proteins that are
present: Integral proteins called receptors;
proteins that form ion channels; carrier
proteins (transporters), which change shape;
proteins that act as enzymes; and cell
identity markers.
The Plasma Membrane
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Transport Across the Plasma
Membrane
◼ Movement of materials across its plasma
membrane is essential to the life of a cell.
◼ Certain substances must move into the cell
to support metabolic reactions. Other
materials must be moved out because they
have been produced by the cell for export or
are cellular waste products.
◼ About two-thirds of the fluid in your body is
contained inside body cells and is called
intracellular fluid.
Membrane
Types of Body Fluids:
◼ Intracellular fluid (ICF) – fluid in body cells
◼ Extracellular fluid (ECF) – fluid outside cells
◼ Interstitial fluid – ECF between cells in tissues
◼ Blood plasma – ECF in blood vessels
◼ Lymph – ECF in lymphatic vessels
◼ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) – surrounds the

brain and spinal cord
◼ Solute – any material dissolved in a fluid
◼ Solvent – fluid that dissolves materials
Membrane
◼ Two methods for substances to move
across the plasma membrane:
❑ Passive processes – substance moves down its
concentration gradient through the membrane,
using only its own energy of motion (kinetic
energy), include simple diffusion and osmosis.
❑ Active processes – cellular energy, usually in the
form of ATP, is used to “push” the substance
through the membrane “uphill” against its
concentration gradient. An example is active
transport.
Membrane
◼ Diffusion is a passive process in which a
substance moves due to its kinetic energy.
Areas of high concentration move to areas of
low concentration.
◼ Simple diffusion, when substances diffuse
across a membrane through the lipid bilayer.
Lipid-soluble substances that move across
membranes by simple diffusion through the
lipid bilayer include fatty acids, sterioids, fat-
soluble vitamins, oxygen, carbon dioxide.
Cells
Cells
Membrane
◼ Facilitated diffusion is when substances
that cannot move through the lipid bilayer by
simple diffusion cross the plasma membrane
by a passive process.
◼ In this process, an integral membrane
protein assists a specific substance to move
across the membrane. The membrane
protein can be either a membrane channel or
a carrier.
Cells
Cells
Membrane
◼ Osmosis is a passive process in which there
is a net movement of water through a
selectively permeable membrane.
◼ Water moves by osmosis from an area of
higher water concentration to an area of
lower water concentration (or from an area of
lower solute concentration to an area of
higher solute concentration).
Cells
Membrane
◼ Any solution in which cells maintain their
normal shape and volume is called an
isotonic solution (the concentrations of
solutes are the same on both sides).
◼ Hypotonic solution is a solution that has a
lower concentration of solutes (higher
concentration of water).
◼ Hypertonic solution has a higher
concentration of solutes (lower concentration
of water).
Cells
Membrane
◼ Active transport is an active process in
which cellular energy is used to transport
substances across the membrane against a
concentration gradient (from an area of low
concentration to an area of high
concentration).
◼ Energy derived from splitting ATP changes
the shape of a carrier protein, called a pump,
which moves a substance across a cellular
membrane against its concentration gradient.
Cells
Membrane
◼ A vesicle is a small round sac formed by
budding off from an existing membrane.
◼ Vesicles transport substances from one
structure to another within cells, take in
substances from extracellular fluid, and
release substances into extracellular fluid.
1. Endocytosis – in which materials move into a
cell in a formed vesicle.
2. Exocytosis – in which materials move out of a
cell by the fusion of a vesicle.
Membrane
◼ Two types of endocytosis:
◼ Phagocytosis is “cell eating”. Large solid
particles, such as whole bacteria or viruses or
dead cells, are taken in by the cell.
◼ Bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis) is
“cell drinking.” The cells take up tiny droplets
of extracellular fluid.
◼ Exocytosis results in secretion or the
liberation of materials out of a cell.
Cells
Cells
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm: Cytoskeleton
◼ Cytosol (intracellular fluid) is the liquid
portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds
organelles and accounts for about 55 percent
of the total cell volume.
◼ The cytoskeleton provides a structural
framework for the cell and generates
movements. It is composed of a network of
three different types of protein filaments:
❑ Microfilaments
❑ Intermediate filaments
❑ Microtubules
Cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm: Centrosome
◼ Organelles are specialized structures inside
cells that have characteristic shapes and
specific functions.
◼ The centrosome, an organelle located near
the nucleus, has two components—a pair of
centrioles and pericentriolar material.
◼ The centrosome is the organizing center for
growth of the mitotic spindle, which plays a
critical role in cell division, and for
microtubule formation in nondividing cells.
Centrosome
Cytoplasm: Ribosomes & ER
◼ Ribosomes are the sites of protein
synthesis. Ribosomes are named for their
high content of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
◼ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of
folded membranes of flattened tubules.
◼ Rough ER extends from the nuclear
envelope and is studded with ribosomes.
The function is to synthesize proteins.
◼ Smooth ER extends from the rough ER lacks
ribosomes. Fatty acids and steroids such as
estrogens and testosterone are synthesized.
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoplasm: Golgi Complex
◼ After proteins are synthesized on a ribosome

attached to rough ER, most are usually
transported to another region of the cell.
◼ The first step in the transport pathway is
through an organelle called the Golgi
complex.
◼ The main function of the Golgi complex is to
modify and package proteins. Then, they
are sorted and packaged into vesicles.
Golgi Complex
Cytoplasm: Lysosomes, Peroxisomes,
and Proteasomes
◼ Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed
vesicles that may contain digestive enzymes.
◼ Peroxisomes contain several oxidases,
which are enzymes that can oxidize various
organic substances.
◼ Proteasomes continuously destroy
unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins.
Cytoplasm: Mitochondria
◼ Because they are the site of most ATP

production, the “powerhouses” of a cell are
its mitochondria.
◼ A cell may have as few as 100 or as many as
several 1000 mitochondria, depending on
how active the cell is.
◼ A series of inner folds called mitochondrial
cristae and a large central fluid-filled cavity is
the mitochondrial matrix.
Mitochondria
NUCLEUS
Nucleus
◼ The nucleus is a spherical or oval structure
that usually is the most prominent feature of a
cell. Most body cells have a single nucleus,
some, such as mature red blood cells, have
none. Skeletal muscle cells and a few other
types of cells have several nuclei.
◼ A double membrane called the nuclear
envelope separates the nucleus and
cytoplasm.
◼ Nuclear pores pierce the nuclear envelope
and control the movement of substances
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Nucleus
◼ Inside the nucleus are one or more spherical
bodies called nucleoli. These clusters of
protein, DNA, and RNA are the sites of
assembly of ribosomes.
◼ Within the nucleus are most of the cell’s
hereditary units, called genes, which control
cellular structure and direct most cellular
activities.
◼ The nuclear genes are arranged along
chemical chromosomes. Human somatic
(body) cells have 46 chromosomes, 23
inherited from each parent.
Nucleus
Cell Parts and Their Functions
Cell Parts and Their Functions
GENE ACTION: PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
Gene Action: Protein Synthesis
◼ Cells constantly synthesize large numbers of
diverse proteins. The proteins determine the
physical and chemical characteristics of
cells and, on a larger scale, of organisms.
◼ To synthesize a protein, the information
contained in a specific region of DNA is first
transcribed (copied) to produce a specific
molecule of RNA. RNA then attaches to a
ribosome, where the information in the RNA
is translated into specific amino acids to
form a new protein molecule.
Gene Action: Protein Synthesis
SOMATIC CELL DIVISION
Somatic Cell Division
◼ As body cells become damaged, diseased,
or worn out, they are replaced by cell
division, the process whereby cells
reproduce themselves. The two types of cell
division are reproductive cell division and
somatic cell division.
◼ Reproductive cell division or meiosis is
the process that produces gametes- sperm
and oocytes.
◼ In somatic cell division, a cell divides into
two identical cells.
◼ The cell cycle is the name for the sequence
of changes that a cell undergoes from the
time it forms until it duplicates its contents
and divides into two cells.
◼ In somatic cells, the cell cycle consists of two
major periods: interphase, when a cell is not
dividing, and the mitotic phase, when a cell
is dividing.
◼ During interphase the cell replicates its DNA.
◼ Mitosis of the cell cycle consists of division
of the nucleus then the cytoplasm into 2 cells.
◼ During mitosis the duplicated chromosomes

become exactly segregated, one set into
each of two separate nuclei.
◼ The mitotic process is divided into 4 stages:
❑ Prophase
❑ Metaphase
❑ Anaphase
❑ Telophase
Somatic
Cell Division
CELLULAR DIVERSITY
Cellular Diversity
◼ The body of an average human adult is
composed of nearly 100 trillion cells. Cells
vary considerably in size.
◼ The largest cell, a single oocyte, has a
diameter of about 140 μm (micrometers) and
is barely visible to the unaided eye. A red
blood cell has a diameter of 8 μm.
◼ The shapes of cells also vary considerably.
They may be round, oval, flat, cube-shaped,
column-shaped, elongated, star-shaped,
cylindrical, or disc-shaped. A cell’s shape is
related to its function in the body.
Cellular Diversity
AGING AND CELLS
Aging and Cells
◼ Aging is a normal process accompanied by a

progressive alteration of the body’s
homeostatic adaptive responses. It produces
observable changes in structure and function
and increases vulnerability to environmental
stress and disease.
◼ Gerontology is the scientific study of the
process and problems associated with aging.
TYPES OF TISSUES
Types of Tissues
◼ Body tissues are classified into four basic types
based on their structure and functions:
1. Epithelial tissue – covers body surfaces; lines body
cavities, hollow organs, and ducts; and forms glands.
2. Connective tissue – protects and supports the body
and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy
reserves as fat, and provides immunity.
3. Muscular tissue – generates the physical force
needed to make body structures move.
4. Nervous tissue – detects changes inside and
outside the body and initiates and transmits nerve
impulses that coordinate body activities to help
maintain homeostasis.
End of Chapter 3
Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this
work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976
United States Copyright Act without express
permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.
Request for further information should be addressed
to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for
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The Publishers assumes no responsibility for errors,
omissions, or damages caused by the use of these
programs or from the use of the information herein.

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Intr Uction To The Human Body: Cells

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Introduction to the

Gerard J. Tortora • Bryan H. Derrickson

◼ Each cell is a living structural and

◼ Extracellular fluid (ECF) – fluid outside cells

◼ Interstitial fluid – ECF between cells in tissues

◼ Blood plasma – ECF in blood vessels

◼ Lymph – ECF in lymphatic vessels

◼ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) – surrounds the

◼ Solvent – fluid that dissolves materials

◼ After proteins are synthesized on a ribosome

◼ Because they are the site of most ATP

◼ During mitosis the duplicated chromosomes

◼ Aging is a normal process accompanied by a

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