Cell Biology

Prepared

By

Dr. SAJJAD AKHTAR

PhD PLANT BREEDING (BOTANY) SOUTH AFRICA
 The study of cell is called cell biology or
cytology
An old saying “seeing is believing”. The best
example is the cell.
Cell is the structural and functional unit of
Cell Biology or life.
Cytology Cell organelles are combined together to
form a cell.
It is the smallest unit that can carry out all
activities of life.
Cells are building blocks of multicellular
organisms.
Cell Discovery
Robert Hook (1665)
➢He studied thin cork (dead plant material) cells
under his self made compound microscope.
➢He observed that cork is composed of small
honey comb like compartments i.e. cell
➢According to hook cell is an empty space
surrounded by thick walls.
➢He published his work in his famous
publication “Micrographia” in 1665.
Cell Discovery
Robert Brown (1831)

➢“Reported presence of nucleus in

the cell.”
➢Discover Nucleus in the cell.
Matthais Schleiden (1838)
➢German Botanist
Theodor Schwann (1839)
➢German Zoologist
Cell composed of 3 basic parts
1. Nucleus
2. the fluid surrounding the
nucleus (cytoplasm)
3. an outer thin covering or
membrane (Plasma
membrane/cell membrane).
➢Cell wall (only in plants)
➢Presented Cell theory
➢All living organisms are
composed of cells and cell
product.
 All living organisms are
composed of one or more cells
i.e. Unicellular and multicellular
Salient Cell is the structural and
features of functional unit of Life.
Cell theory
All cells originate from pre-
existing cells.
 It have wide range of effects in all fields of
biological research;

The concept of abiogenesis was rejected.

Effects of Cell
theory The function of an organism as a whole was
found to be the sum of all functions performed
by the cells of that organisms.

Although cells have fundamental similarities in

chemical composition, metabolic activities and
structures but they differ in various aspects.
Objections on Cell Theory
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane

➢ It is the outermost boundary of the cell OR a thin and flexible covering around the
cell that regulate in and out transport of the cell.
Chemical Composition
➢ Proteins Lipids Carbohydrate

➢ 60-80%, 20-40%, a small quantity

Structure
➢ Unit Membrane Model
➢ Fluid Mosaic Model
 Cell
Membrane/Plasma
Membrane

Unit Membrane Model

➢ Davison & Danielli (1935)
➢ Robertson (1959)
➢ Cell membrane is composed
of lipid bilayer sandwiched
between two (inner and
outer) layers of proteins.
➢ Less acceptable model
 Cell Membrane/Plasma
Membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model

➢ SJ Singer and GL Nicolson (1972)
➢ The protein layers are not continuous
and are not confined (limited) to the
surface of cell membrane but are
embedded (fixed firmly and deeply)
in lipid layers in a mosaic (distinct
picture) manner OR
➢ The protein layers are not
sandwiched between lipid bilayer
instead they are arranged in lipid
layers in a mosaic manner.
➢ The most acceptable model
 Functions

It maintains the shape of the cell.

Selectively permeable
Cell • It offers barrier between cell contents and their
Membrane/Plasma environment. It allows small molecules to pass
Membrane while larger molecules are unable to pass it.
• Lipid soluble substances can cross it more
easily than others.
• Neutral molecules like gas molecules, water,
glucose etc. can easily cross it.
• Charge ions have some difficulty to cross due
to charge pores present on the membrane
 Functions

Passive Transport
• The transport of the material from high
concentration to low concentration (across the
Cell gradient/downhill movement) is called passive
Membrane/Plasma transport.
Membrane • No energy is needed for this transport.
• Diffusion-Down hill movement e.g. CO2, O2
• Osmosis-Diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane.
• Facilitated diffusion- Diffusion with the help of
carrier proteins e.g. water, ions and large
molecules
 Functions

Active Transport
• The transport of the material from low
concentration to high concentration (against
Cell the gradient/uphill movement) is called
Membrane/Plasma active transport.
Membrane • Energy is needed for this transport and is
provided by ATP. e.g. Amino acids
Cytosis
• Movement of molecules/substances in & out
of the cell in the form of vacuoles
• Endo and exocytosis
 Functions

Endocytosis

The transport of the material into the cell by infolding of cell

membrane is called endocytosis.
Cell
Membrane/Plasma Phagocytosis-Cell eating or cell engulfs solid material.
Membrane
Pinocytosis-Cell drinking or cell take in liquid material.

Exocytosis

The transport of the material out of the cell by infolding of cell

membrane is called exocytosis.
 Functions

Cell
Nerve impulse transmission
Membrane/Plasma • In nerve cell i.e. neuron cell
Membrane membrane transmits nerve
impulses from one part to the
other part of the body to keep
coordination.
 Introduction
➢ It is the outer most boundary in most of the
plant, fungal and bacterial cells.
➢ It is secreted by protoplasm (living part of the
cell).
➢ It is a non-living structure.
Chemical composition
Cell Wall ➢ Plant cell wall is made up of cellulose.
➢ Fungal cell wall is made up of chitin.
➢ Prokaryotic cell wall lacks cellulose. Its
strengthening material is peptidoglycan
(murein).
➢ Its structure and chemical composition
different from eukaryotic cells.
 Structure

It consists of three layers

Middle Lamella

• first to be formed between neighbouring cells.

• It is made of pectin and calcium pectate.

Cell Wall Primary cell wall

• It is a true wall develops in newly growing cells.

• It is made mainly of cellulose.
• Also contain cutin, hemicellulose and pectin.
• Cellulose fibbers are arranged in crisscross manner.

Secondary cell wall

• Next to primary cell wall (on inner surface), thick and rigid.
• It is made of inorganic salts, silica, waxes, cutin, lignin etc.
 Functions It provides a definite shape to cell and keeps it
rigid.
It dose not act as a barrier to the materials passing
through it (permeable).
It prevents cells from swelling and bursting as a
result of osmotic pressure..
It promotes cell to cell signalling via
plasmodesmata for cell communication.
Cell Wall It sends signals for the cell to enter the cell cycle in
order to divide and grow
it provides a barrier to protect against plant
viruses and other pathogens.
It also helps to prevent water loss.

It stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth,

especially in seeds
 Introduction
The living contents of the eukaryotic cell are
divided into nucleus and cytoplasm, two
collectively form protoplasm.

Cytoplasm contain an aqueous ground

substance containing a variety of cell
organelles and other inclusions e.g. wastes
and storage products.
Cytoplasm The soluble part of the cytoplasm is cytosol
(Important MCQ).

Cytosol forms the ground substance of the

cytoplasm.
 Chemical composition
➢Chemically cytoplasm is about 90% of
water.
➢It forms a solution containing all the
fundamental molecules of life.
➢Small molecules and ions form true
Cytoplasm solutions.
➢Large molecules form colloidal
solutions.
➢Colloidal solutions may be a sol (non-
viscous) or a gel (viscous).
➢Peripheral parts of the cell are often
like a gel.
 Cytoplasm

Functions
➢ It act as s store house of the important chemicals.
➢ It is a site for certain metabolic processes like glycolysis.
➢ In living cells cytoplasm contains several cell organelles e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, nucleus, plastids, lysosomes, centriole etc.
➢ The free floating cell organelles like mitochondria, move in the cytoplasm due to
cytoplasm streaming movements (active mass movement of the cytoplasm)
 Structure Under electron microscope a network of
channels seen extending throughout the
cytoplasm is called endoplasmic reticulum.

These channels are often continuous with

plasma membrane and also appear to be in
contact with the nuclear membrane.
Endoplasmic
Reticulum These membranes are widely in appearance
from cell to cell.

The material present in these channels is

separated from the cytoplasmic material by
the spherical or tubular membranes called
cisternae.
 Types
• There are two morphological forms of
endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Reticulum • A rough form attached with ribosomes
• They are involved in the protein synthesis.
• After synthesis the proteins are either
stored in the cytoplasm or exported out of
the cell via these channels.
 Types

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

• A smooth form without ribosomes
• They help in the metabolism of different
Endoplasmic types of molecules particularly lipids.
Reticulum • They also help to detoxify harmful drugs.
• In some cells SER is responsible for the
transmission of impulses e.g. muscle and
nerve cells.
• SER also plays role in the transport of
materials from one part to other part of the
cell.
 Functions
➢Endoplasmic reticulum provides mechanical
support to the cell for the maintenance of the
cell shape.
➢It is mainly responsible for the transportation of
proteins and other carbohydrates to another
organelle, which includes lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus, plasma membrane, etc.
Endoplasmic ➢They provide the increased surface area for
Reticulum cellular reactions.
➢They help in the formation of nuclear
membrane during cell division.
➢They play a vital role in the formation of the
skeletal framework.
➢They play a vital role in the synthesis of
proteins, lipids, glycogen and other steroids like
cholesterol, progesterone, testosterone, etc.
 Cell contains many small granular structures
called ribosomes.

First time studied by Palade in 1955.

Ribosomes Chemical Composition

• Eukaryotic ribosomes are composed of an equal amount

of RNA and protein, hence they are ribonucleoprotein
particles.
• RNA present in the ribosomes is called ribosomal RNA.
• They exist in two forms
• Either freely dispersed in the cytoplasm or
• Attached with RER as small granules.
 Structure
➢Each eukaryotic ribosome has two subunits;
➢Larger subunit sediment at 60S (S=Svedberg
unit used in ultracentrifugation)
➢Smaller subunit sediments at 40S.
➢Tow subunits on attachment with each other
Ribosomes form 80S particle. (search for prokaryotes)
➢This attachment is controlled by the
presence of Mg2+ ions.
➢The ribosomes are attached to mRNA
through small ribosomal subunit.
➢A group of ribosomes attached to the mRNA
is called Polysome.
 Formation/synthesis
• Ribosomes are produced by the
nucleolus of nucleus from where
they are transported to cytoplasm
via nuclear pores.
Ribosomes • The factory of ribosomes is
nucleolus.

Functions
• Ribosomes are factories of protein
synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus
➢It was discovered by Camillo Golgi in
1898.
➢Present in all eukaryotic cells.
➢In plants it is present in the form of
vesicles called dictyosomes (Golgi body).
 Structure
➢Golgi body consists of Cisternae-Stacks of flattened, membrane bound sacs.
➢The cisternae are connected with vesicles called Golgi vesicles.
➢The cisternae and Golgi vesicles together called Golgi complex.
➢Golgi complex consists of interconnected tubules around central stacks.
Cisternae formation
➢They are formed by the fusion of vesicles and the vesicles are produced
from the budding of SER.
 Structure
Golgi apparatus has two faces;
Cis or forming face
➢Outer convex surface-incoming vesicles from budding of SER attach with
Golgi body through this side.
Trans or maturing face
➢Inner concave surface-secretory vesicles leave the Golgi body through this
side.
➢The whole stack consists of number of cisternae that move from outer to
inner surface.
Structure
 Chemical Composition

➢It’s chemical nature is similar to cell membrane.

➢It is filled with proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins and specific

enzymes
 Functions
It is mainly connected with cell secretions.
➢Secretions are the products formed within the cell on the ribosomes and then passed
out of the cell through endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
➢The secretions are converted into finished product and packed inside the membrane
before export.
➢Example- in mammals Golgi apparatus produce granules, which are secreted by
pancreas called zymogen (pro-enzyme) granules. These granules contain enzymes that
help in digestion.
➢The proteins or enzymes that need be transported out of the cell pass through Golgi
apparatus.
The most important function
➢Conversion/modification of proteins and lipids into glycoproteins and glycolipids by
adding carbohydrates to them
Lysosomes
➢ Lyso=splitting, Soma=body (Greek word)
➢ It was discovered by De-Duve in 1949.
➢ Cytoplasmic organelles and are
morphologically different from other
organelles.
➢ Present in most of the eukaryotic cells.
➢ The most abundant in those animal cells
that perform phagocytic activity (cell
eating).

Structure: Single membrane bounded

organelles and are in the form of simple sacs.
Lysosomes
Structure:
Single membrane bounded organelles
and are in the form of simple sacs.
Composition
➢They are rich in acid phosphatases
and many hydrolytic enzymes (acid
anhydrases).
➢They are synthesized in RER and are
processed in Golgi apparatus.
➢The processed enzymes are budded
off as Golgi vesicles, called primary
lysosomes (secretory vesicles)
Lysosomes
Functions:
1) Intra-cellular digestion
Lysosomes contain the enzymes that can digest the phagocytosed food particles.
a) Phagocytosis
Any foreign object that gets entry into the cell, immediately engulfed by the lysosomes
and completely broken down into simple digestible pieces via a process called
phagocytosis (eating process of the cell).
b) Autophagy
The process in which the old or warn out parts of the cell like old mitochondria are
digested by lysosomes is known as autophagy.
In this way materials of the cell are recycled or cell may be renewed.
c) Lysosomes are also responsible for apoptosis-Programmed cell death
 Lysosomes
Functions:
2) Extra-cellular digestion
a) Degeneration of the cell
Lysosomal enzymes also degenerate some cells during development e.g. development of
pad like hand into fingers and tail degeneration in frog.
3) Under abnormal conditions like starvation or as normal physiological process
(apoptosis) the parts of the cells are engulfed by primary lysosomes and digested to
generate energy.
The lysosomes which eats the part of their own cell are known as autophagosomes.
Secondary lysosomes
The digestive vacuoles and autophagosomes are called as secondary lysosomes.
 Lysosomes (storage Diseases)
Mutation: (sudden heritable change in the DNA)
➢Many congenital (by birth) diseases occurs due to mutation that affects the one of the lysosomal
enzymes involved in the catabolism of certain substances (e.g. glycogen or glycolipids).
➢In these diseases substances (e.g. glycogen or lipids) are stored in the cells due to the absences of
a particular enzyme.
Examples
Glycogenesis type II disease
➢The enzyme that catalyses glycogen to glucose is absent due to which glycogen stored in the liver
and muscles.
➢20 such diseases are known that occur due to absences of particular enzymes.
Tay-Sach’s disease
➢It is due to the absence of the enzyme which catalyse the lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
➢Storage of lipids in brain cells cause mental retardation or even death.
 Peroxisome
Discovery
➢They were isolated in 1965 from liver cells and other tissues by De-Duve and co-workers.
➢They are present in yeast, protozoa, animal and many cell types of higher plants.
Structure
➢Single membrane bounded cytoplasmic organelles.
➢They are approximately 0.5 μm in diameter.
Composition
➢They are enrich with oxidative enzymes e.g. peroxidase, catalase, glycolic acid oxidase
and some other enzymes.
➢They are characterised by containing H2O2-producing oxidases and catalases.
Function
➢They are involved in the formation and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in the cell.
 Glyoxysomes
Composition
➢They have glycolic acid oxidase and catalase.
➢They possess a number of enzymes that are not present in animal cells.
Occurrence and Functions
➢Most abundant in plant seedlings which contain stored fatty acids that provide them
energy and material essential to begin the formation of the new plant.
➢They have enzymes that convert stored fatty acids into carbohydrates in germinating
seedlings through glyoxylate cycle.
➢In Plants glyoxysomes play an important role in both catabolic and anabolic pathways.
e.g. in lipid rich seeds (castor beans and soybeans) they convert fatty acids to succinate.
➢They are present only during short period in the germination of lipid rich seeds and
absent in lipid poor seeds such as pea.
 Vacuoles
Occurrence
➢They are found in both animal and plant cells.
➢In plant cells they are large and occupy major portion of the cell volume. Due its large
size other intracellular organelles forced to move on peripheral sides of the cell.
Structure
➢Single membrane bounded organelle formed by the combination of small vacuoles
during plant growth and development.
Functions
➢Expand plant cell without diluting its cytoplasm.
➢Act as a site for storage of water and cell products or metabolic intermediates.
➢It provide support to the individual plant cells by maintaining the turgor pressure.
➢It also contribute to the rigidity of leaves and younger parts of the plants.
 Cytoskeleton
Occurrence
➢It is present in the cytosol.
Structure
➢It is composed of microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
➢The main protein in the cytoskeleton are tubulin, actin, myosin, tropomyosin.
Microtubules
➢They are long, unbranched and slender tubulin protein structure.
➢Function: they involve in assembly and disassembly of the spindle fibres during mitosis.
➢Many cell organelles such as cilia, flagella, basal bodies and centrioles are formed from
microtubules.
 Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
➢They are more slender cylinders than microtubules.
➢Composed of contractile actin proteins linked to the inner face of plasma membrane.
➢Function: they involve in internal cell motion.
➢Movement of cyclosis and ameboid movements are due to microfilaments.
Intermediate filaments
➢They diameter (10 nm) is in between of microtubules (6 nm) and microfilament (25 nm).
➢Function: they involve in the maintenance of cell shape.
➢Involved in the determination of cell shape and integration of cellular compartments.
 Centrioles
Occurrence
➢They are present in animal cells and cells of some micro-organisms and lower plants.
➢Absent in higher plants, fungi and prokaryotes.
Location in the cell
➢A pair of centriole is present near exterior surface of the nucleus.
➢They are present right angle to each other.
➢Centrioles are bounded by a gelatinous mass called centrosome.
Structure
➢In cross section each centriole consists of cylindrical array of 9 microtubules.
➢Each of the 9 microtubules are composed of three tubules.
 Centrioles
Functions
➢Just before cell divides, its
centrioles duplicate and one pair
move to the opposite side of the
nucleus.
➢Spindle fibres formed between
them that help in the separation
of chromatids (mitosis) and
chromosomes (meiosis).
➢Also have role in furrowing
(cleavage furrow formation)
during cell division.
➢Involved in cilia formation.
 Introduction
➢Very important organelles of the eukaryotic cells.
➢They are involved in the synthesis and supply of
energy.
➢Also known as powerhouse of the cell.

Morphology
Mitochondria Under compound microscope
➢Oval form (the most common form),
diameter=0.5-1.0 μm, length= 0.7 μm
➢Filamentous-very thin (diameter=0.2 μm).
➢Rod or sphere form-extremely thick,
diameter=2.0 μm
Under electron microscope
➢They show complex morphology.
 Localisation
➢Distributed uniformly throughout the cytoplasm.
➢Sometime gather
➢Around the nucleus or
➢In peripheral cytoplasm or
Mitochondria ➢Near the spindle during cell division-after cell
division completed, distributed equally between
the daughter cells.
➢In some cells mitochondria move freely in the
cytoplasm, carrying ATP’s where it is required.
➢Located permanently near the regions where more
energy is needed.
 Number and size
➢ Number, shape and internal structure varies widely.
➢ Number and size depend upon physiological activity of the cell.
➢ Intensity of metabolism- from 1-1000
➢ If large size-fewer number is equally effective as small ones with large
number.
Structure
➢ Bounded by two membranes-60 A˚ thick
➢ Outer membrane is smooth
Mitochondria ➢ space between two membranes contains watery fluid (40-70 A˚
width).
➢ Inner membrane forms infoldings into the inner chamber called cristae.
➢ Filled with relatively dense material called mitochondrial matrix
➢ Mitochondrial matrix is usually homogeneous and contains
filamentous material or dense small granules-binding sites for cations
such as Mg++ and Ca++.
➢ The inner surface of cristae in the mitochondrial matrix contains knob
like structures called F1 or elementary particles.
 Functions
➢ Self replicating organelles
➢ Mitochondria contains DNA and ribosomes that indicate some
proteins are synthesized in it.
➢ Have role in the inheritance-useful in the studies of maternal
lineage/relationships.
➢ Capable of carrying many metabolic process
➢ Mitochondrial matrix contains large number of enzymes, co-enzymes
and organic and inorganic salts which help in many metabolic
processes e.g. Kreb’s cycle, aerobic respiration, fatty acid metabolism
Mitochondria etc.
➢ Powerhouse of the cell
➢ Mitochondria extract energy from different components of food and
convert in in the form of ATP.
➢ This energy is used in various cellular activities.
➢ The spent energy, which is in the form of ADP is regenerated by
mitochondria into ATP.
➢ The F1 particles squeezes ADP + Pi together until they form ATP, then
releases the ATP.
➢ Therefore, called powerhouse of the cell.
 Plastids
➢Membrane bounded organelles which contain pigment bodies such
as chlorophyll present in the cell are called plastids.
➢They are present in plant cells only.
Plastids are of three types;
✓Chloroplasts

✓Chromoplasts

✓Leucoplasts
 Plastids
1) Chloroplasts
Membrane bound structures that contain green pigments.
Present in photosynthetic plant cells i.e. chlorenchyma cells
Chlorophyll: it is an organic compound of green colour.
✓It helps the cell to absorb light energy and utilize it to manufacture food

✓It is similar to haem group of haemoglobin, a protein used for the transport of oxygen.

✓The main difference is that chlorophyll ha Mg++ while haem has Fe++ as central atom.
Plastids
Chloroplasts
 Plastids
1) Chloroplasts
Structure:
➢Vary in their shape and size
➢Diameter= 4-6 μm.
➢Largest organelles in the plant cells.
➢Self-replicating organelles
Under light microscope
➢Appear as heterogenous structures with small granules known as grana embedded in
the matrix.
 Plastids
1) Chloroplasts
Structure: Under electron microscope
Chloroplast has three main components;
A) The envelope-double membrane structure
B) The Stroma-a fluid that surrounds the thylakoids.
➢It covers the most of the volume of the chloroplast
➢It contains proteins, some ribosomes and a small circular DNA
➢In it CO2 is fixed to manufacture sugars (Dark reaction of photosynthesis).
➢Some proteins are also synthesized in this part.
 Plastids
1) Chloroplasts
Structure: Under electron microscope
Chloroplast has three main components;
C) The thylakoid –the flattened vesicle/sacs which arrange themselves to make grana
and inter-grana.
✓Thylakoid membranes are stacked upon each other like coins to form a granum.
✓On an average, 50 thylakoid membranes piled form one granum.
✓Chlorophyll molecules are present on thylakoid membranes that is why grana appear as
green.
✓Each granum is interconnected with others via non-green part called inter-granum.
✓Membranes of the grana are the sites where sun light energy is trapped and converted into
ATP (Light reaction of photosynthesis.
 Plastids
2) Chromoplasts
Location
✓ They are present in the petals of the flower and in the ripened fruit.
Function
✓ They give colour to the plants other than green.
✓ They help in pollination and dispersal of seed.
3) Leucoplasts
Structure
✓ They are colourless. They are of tubular, triangular and or of some other shapes.
Location
✓ They are present in the underground parts of the plant.
Function
✓ Store food.
 Nucleus
➢It was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
Location
➢Animal cells-present in the centre.
➢Plant Cells-present on the peripheral side due to large vacuole in the centre.
➢Shape: may be irregular or spherical
➢Mononucleate cells-contain only one nucleus e.g. Nerve cells
➢Binucleate cells-contain two nucleus e.g. paramecium (A prokaryote).
➢Multinucleate/polynucleate cells-contain more than two nucleus e.g.
muscle cells
 Nucleus
➢It is visible only in non-dividing cells
➢It contain chromatin network and soluble sap called nucleoplasm.
➢In dividing cells the nucleus disappears and chromatin material is replaced
by chromosomes.
➢The heredity material is in the form of chromosome, which control all the
activities of cell.
Chemical composition
➢DNA, RNA and Protein and some enzymes
➢It is made of nuclear membrane, nucleoli, nucleoplasm and chromosomes.
 Nucleus
1) Nuclear Membrane
➢Outer most membrane of the nucleus which separate nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm.
It is composed of two layers;
➢Outer membrane is at places continuous with endoplasmic reticulum
➢Inner membrane enclose nuclear contents.
Nuclear pore- Nuclear membrane has pores at places where outer and inner
membranes join together called nuclear pores.
➢It allows exchange of material between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
➢Number of nuclear pore is highly variable.
➢Undifferentiated cells e.g. egg cell have almost 30, 000 nuclear pores/nucleus.
➢Differentiated cells e.g. erythrocytes (RBCs) have 3-4 nuclear pores/nucleus.
➢Each pore has a definite shape and control the traffic/material that passes through them.
 Nucleus
2) Nucleolus
➢It is darkly stained body within the nucleus.
➢It dose not have any membranous boundary that separate it from rest of the nuclear
material.
➢There may be one or more nucleoli in the nucleus.
➢The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and stored in the nucleolus.
➢Factory of ribosomes synthesis- ribosomes are assembled in nucleolus and are
exported out into the cytoplasm via nuclear pores.
➢It is composed of two regions;
➢Peripheral or granular area-composed of precursors of ribosomal subunits.
➢Central fibrill area-contain large molecular weight RNA and rDNA
 Nucleus
3) Chromosomes
➢Nucleus is often stained with deep dyes because of the chromatin material.
➢During cell division chromatin material is converted into darkly stained thread like structures
called as chromosomes.
➢They are composed of DNA and protein.
➢Structure under compound microscope;
➢Chromosomes are made up of arms and centromere.
➢Centromere is the area on the chromosome where spindle fibres are attached during cell
division.
➢Each chromosome has two identical chromatids at the beginning of the cell division which are
joined together at centromere.
➢Chromatid is the exact replica of chromosome.
➢All information essential to control cell activities are located on the chromosomes in the form
of genes which are transferred from one generation to the other.
 Nucleus
➢Chromosome number;
➢The number of chromosomes in all individuals of the same species remains constant
generation after generation.
➢The number of chromosome in normal body cells (somatic cells) is diploid (2n), while
in germ cells (egg and sperm cells) is haploid (n).
Species Diploid number (2n) Haploid number (n)
Humans 46 23
Chimpanzee and Potato 48 24
Onion 16 8
Frog 26 13
Fruit fly 8 4
Garden pea 14 7
 Chromosomes Presentations

Karyotype Ideotype

Arrangement/presentation of full/complete set of Arrangement/presentation of full/complete set of

chromosomes of an individual is called its karyotype chromosomes of an individual is called its ideotype
and the study of karyotype is called karyotyping. and the study of ideootype is called ideootyping.