Lesson 2.

2
LM3
SETS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to
1. Define sets and related terms;
2. Enumerate different types of sets;
3. Perform operations on sets;
4. Represent sets in different ways;
5. Solve problems involving sets.

OK class, it is assumed that you

have a good background on
sets from high school math
...give me an example of a set.

C FAUCET, ma’am.

Oh well, let us review

key concepts then.

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Sets and related concepts together with their respective symbols, binary
operations and representations present a sound foundation to understand more
advanced concepts in math. This is the reason why many higher mathematics courses
start with sets introduction. Similarly, set is being introduced in the secondary education
to prepare students for college mathematics.

Sets and Related Terms

We begin by reviewing terms and concepts regarding sets.

A set is a well-defined collection of objects such as set of letters, set of numbers,

set of books, set of students, set of stars, sala set, etc.

An element, denoted by ∈ (Greek letter Epsilon), is any object that belongs to, or
a member of a set.

A set is written using the following conventions:

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 a) Use capital English letters to denote sets;
b) Enclose elements using curly braces; and
c) Use commas to separate elements.
Example 2.2.1

The set of letters may be denoted by L={a, b, c,…, x, y, z}. The choice of “L” to
represent the set is to remind readers that the elements are “letters” of the English
alphabet. The ellipsis indicates that there are letters in between those listed.

Example 2.2.2

The set of natural numbers may be represented as N={1, 2, 3,…}. The ellipsis after
the number 3 means that the list of numbers after 3 goes on indefinitely. Here are other
examples of sets of numbers.

ℝ
Set of Real numbers

ℚ ℚ′
Set of Rational Numbers Set of Irrational Numbers
൛𝜋, 𝑒, ξ2, … ൟ

ℤ 𝔽
Set of Integers Set of Fractions
{… − 3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } {… 1Τ2 , 2Τ3 … }

ℕ− 𝕎
Set of Negative Integers Set of Whole numbers
{… − 3, −2, −1} {0,1,2,3, … }

{0} ℕ
Set of Natural numbers
{1,2,3, … }

Example 2.2.3

The set of students may be written as

P={Christian, Justin, Mark, Angela, Michelle, Bea}. The set has only six elements.

Example 2.2.4

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 Consider the following expressions.

Mark ∈ P a∉N {a, b} ∉ L 6∈N

Note that we negate symbols with a slash to mean “not”. In example 2.2.4, a is not
an element of set N and {a, b} is not an element of set L.
Methods of Naming Sets

There are two common methods of naming sets. Each method has its own
advantage. Here are the two method.

Roster method is done by listing all the elements, as in example 2.2.3. This method
is also called tabular method.

Example 2.2.5

M = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}.

G ={Atok, Bakun, Bokod, Buguias, Itogon, Kabayan, Kapangan, Kibungan,

La Trinidad, Mankayan, Sablan, Tuba, Tublay}.

P = {3}

Rule method is done by describing what the set is about. It uses a variable to
represent the elements of the set accompanied by a descriptive phrase. The following
examples illustrate how sets M, G, and P in example 2.2.5 may be represented using the
rule method:

Example 2.2.6

M = {x |x is a day in the week} which is read as “M is the set of x such that x is a

day in a week.

G = {y | y is a municipality of Benguet} is read as “G is the set of y such that y is a

municipality of Benguet”.

P = {x| x2 + 4 = 13, x > 0} is read as “P is the set x such that x satisfies the equation
x2 + 4 = 13 and x is greater than 0”.

In ordinary language, sets M, G, and P are simply the “set of all days in a week”, the
“set of all municipalities of Benguet”, and the set of all positive real numbers that satisfy
the equation x2 + 4 = 13”, respectively.

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 Each method has its own advantage. The roster method has the advantage of
identifying the individual element of the set which is an information not provided in rule
method. Roster method is used when the identity of the individual element is important
to consider. Roster method may be used to answer the question “who can be qualified to
receive social amelioration fund from the government? who are the residents of Benguet?
etc.”. However, if the purpose is simply to know what the set is about and there is no need
to identify the individual element, then rule method is more efficient to use because the
identity of the set, regardless of its size, can be known with just a phrase

Cardinality of a Set

The cardinality of set A is the number of elements in set A. In symbol, the

cardinality of set A is written as n(A).

Example 2.2.7

The cardinality of a null set is 0. So if set B is a null set, then n(B) = 0.

The cardinality of a unit set is 1. So if Set C is a unit set, then n(C) = 1.

The cardinality of set M in example 2.2.5 is 7. In symbol, n(M) = 7.

The cardinality of set N in example 2.2.2 is unknown because its last element
cannot be identified. In symbol, n(N) = ∞.

The Universal Set and Subsets

The universal set, denoted by U, is the set that contains all the elements under
consideration. It is dependent on the limit put for its coverage. That is, the set of residents
of La Trinidad is the universal set if it is the limit of discourse. The set of faculty members
of Benguet State University, the set of flowers along the Balili river, the set of gasoline
stations in La Trinidad, etc. are examples of a universal set provided all discussions revolve
only on the elements of such sets.

Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by A ⊆ B, if all elements of A are also elements

of B. Set A is a “proper” subset of set B, denoted by A ⊂ B, if all elements of set A are also
in set B but some elements of set B are not in set A. For instance, the set of all freshman
students of Benguet State University is a subset of the set of all students in that University.

Types of Sets

Finite vs. Infinite Set. A finite set is a set with elements that are countable one by
one. Its cardinality can be assigned a certain number. Sets M, G, and P in example 2.2.6
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are finite sets. An infinite set on the other hand is a set that is not finite. In other words,
it is a set with elements that are not countable one by one. Set N in example 2.2.2 is an
infinite set.

Equal vs. Equivalent Sets. Set A is equal to B, denoted by A=B, if they have exactly
the same elements. For example, the sets A={a, e, i, o, u} and B={i, o, a, u, e} are equal
because both of these sets contain all the vowels of the English alphabet. Set A is
equivalent to set B, denoted by A ~ B, if they have the same cardinality. This means that
sets with the same number of elements, regardless of the nature of the elements are
equivalent. Sets A={a, e, i, o, u} and C={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a pair of equivalent sets because
the cardinality of both of them is 5.

Unit Set vs. Null Set. A unit set is a set that contains only one element. The set of
capitals of a province is an example of a unit set since each province has only one capital.
The set of all positive integers less than 100 that satisfy the equation x3 - 25 = 600 is
another example of a unit set because there is only one positive integer that makes the
equation true. An empty set, or a null set is a set that contains no elements. The Greek
letter phi, ∅, is used to symbolize the null set. An empty curly brace { } may also be used
to denote an empty set.

Practice Exercise

1. Consider the following sets:

U={a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3, 4}
A={a, b, c, d} B={1, 2, 3, 4} C={∅}
D={a, b, 1, 2} E={ } F={d, e, 5, 6}
G={d, c, b, a} H={x| x<5, x ∈ ℕ} I={x| x<5, x ∈ 𝕎}
a. Identify all the subsets of the universal set.
b. Identify all equal sets.
c. Identify all the equivalent sets.
d. Identify all the unit sets.
e. Identify all the null sets.

2. Which of the following is true? Explain your answer.

a. All equal sets are also equivalent
b. All equivalent sets are also equal.

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 Cardo, can you give
us an example of a
null set?

Brilliant Cardo!!! Class, the thoughts in

Cardo’s mind is an example of a null set.

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Operations on Sets

1. Set A union set B, denoted by A ⋃ B, is the set of all elements that belong to
set A, or set B, or to both set A and set B.

2. Set A intersection Set B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that belong
to both set A and set B.

Example 2.2.9

Consider the following sets.

W = {a, e, i, o, u}; X = {a, b, c, d, e}; Y = {xΤx is a consonant}

Thus,

W ⋃ X = {a, e, i, o, u, a, b, c, d, e, a, e} = {a, e, i, o, u, b, c, d,}. Since a set should

contain distinct elements, repeated elements are written once. Thus, set W ⋃ X should
contain only eight distinct elements instead of twelve.

W ⋃ Y = {a, b, c, …, x, y, z}. If U is the universal set that contains all letters of the
English alphabet, then W ⋃ Y = U.

W ∩ X = {a, e}. In layman’s terms, the intersection of two sets is the set that
contains the common elements of the given two sets.

W ∩ Y = 𝜙. Sets W and Y have no common elements. They are called disjoint sets.
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 Note how the words “or” and “and” are used in conjunction with “union” and
“intersection, respectively.

3. Set difference. The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A − B, is the set
of all elements that are in set A, but not in set B.

4. Complement of a set. The complement of set A, denoted by A' (or A-prime), is

the set of all elements of the universal set that are not in set A.

Example 2.2.10

Consider the following sets.

W = {a, e, I, o, u}; X = {a, b, c, d, e}

Y = {xΤx is a consonant}
U = {xΤx is a letter of the English alphabet}

Then,

W − X = {i, o, u}
X − W = {b, c, d}
Y − X = {f, g, h, …, x, y, z}
W' = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z}
U'= ∅
∅' = U.

Venn Diagrams

We may represent sets, their properties and operations by using enclosed

geometric figures such as circles, triangles, rectangles, squares, etc. These representations
are called Venn diagrams. Normally, we use a rectangle to represent the universal set
while ovals for subsets.

Example 2.2.11

Given the following sets,

L = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, then:

L ⋃ M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10} L ∩ M = {2, 4}

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 N
L M
6 10 2 1
4 3
8 5 7

M' = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} M − L = {1, 3, 5}

N N
L M L M
6 10 2 1 6 10 2 1
4 3 4 3
9 8 5 9 8 5 7
7

Application of Sets

Sets and other related concepts can be used to solve real life problems such as the
following:

Example 2.2.12

Ma’am Xinom and Ma’am August are very generous teachers. On a Friday ma’am
Xinom and ma’am August, decided to treat their math 21 students to a serving of French
fries each with the following choices of dips: catsup, mayonnaise, and mustard. Among
their 42 students, 26 wanted mustard as a dip, 19 wanted mayonnaise, 17 wanted catsup,
11 wanted mustard and mayonnaise, 10 wanted mustard and catsup, 7 wanted
mayonnaise and catsup and 6 wanted all three as dips. How many students wanted (a)
catsup dip only; (b) mustard but not mayonnaise; (c) mayonnaise but not mustard; (d)
catsup and mustard but not mayonnaise; (e) mayonnaise and mustard but not catsup;
and (f) none of the three dips?

Problems or situations similar to the above are solvable by using concepts related
to sets such as Venn diagram. A Venn diagram provides a visual representation of the
distribution of the elements among the given sets. By using Venn diagram, it becomes
easier to see how many elements belong to one set only, to either of any two sets only,
to both of any two sets, to all of the three sets, and to none of the given sets. Naming a
set is done arbitrarily, but naming a set with a particular letter that has relation with the
characteristics of the elements of a set may also be done especially if it facilitates memory
recall about the set. Use legend to identify what set a given letter represents by providing

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descriptive words about the set. Thus, in the example, R is used for catsup because it is
red, Y for mustard because it is yellow and W for mayonnaise because it is white.
Let: R Y U
R = Catsup 4
6 11
Y = Mustard
6
W = Mayonnaise 1 5
U = Math 21 students of Ma’am Xinom
and Ma’am August 7
2
W

So with the use of Venn diagram above, we can now answer the questions in the
problem. There are (a) 6 students who wanted catsup dip only; (b) 15 students wanted
mustard but not mayonnaise; (c) 8 students wanted mayonnaise but not mustard; (d) 4
students wanted catsup and mustard but not mayonnaise; (e) 5 students wanted
mayonnaise and mustard but not catsup; and (f) 2 students did not want any of the three
dips.

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 Exercise 2.3
Sets

Name:____________________________ Score:_____
Course and Year:___________________ Date:_______________________

Answer the following: Use extra sheets for your solutions.

1. Draw one Venn diagram to represent the relationship of the following sets of numbers.
Irrational Numbers ℚ’ Rational Numbers ℚ Real Numbers ℝ
Integers ℤ Whole Numbers 𝕎 Counting Numbers ℕ

2. From Example 2.2.12, represent the sets described in questions a, b, c, d, e, and f using the
following symbols: ∪, ∩, −, ′.

3. The following are some properties of real numbers under addition and multiplication (recall
your high school math): Closure, Commutativity, Associativity, and Distributivity. Verify if
these properties hold or not under union and intersection by using the following sets: A =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; C = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

4. Given the following sets: U = {g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o} A = {g, h, i, j, k}

B = {j, k, l, m} C = {k, l, m, n, o} D = {g, i, k, m, o} E = {h, j, l, n}
)

Complete the table:

Determine: Answer
a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

b) 𝐵 ∪ 𝐷

c) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) – (𝐵 ∩ 𝐷

d) 𝐶 ∩ 𝐸

e) (𝐵 ∪ 𝐷)’

f) 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷’

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 Exercise 2.3
Sets

Name:____________________________ Score:__________________
Course and Year:___________________ Date:_________________________

1. Doctor Armel and Doctor Nike have twenty-four patients. Twelve of the patients have symptom
alpha, six of the patients have symptom beta, and fifteen of the patients have symptom
gamma. There is only one patient who has all the three symptoms. Two of the patients show
symptoms alpha with beta, but do not have symptom gamma. Two of the patients have
symptom beta and gamma but do not have symptom alpha. If all of the patients of Doctor
Armel and Doctor Nike have at least one of the mentioned symptoms, how many patients are
sick with disease Omega, if disease Omega is manifested by symptoms alpha and gamma but
not beta? Draw a complete Venn diagram to represent the problem situation.

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2. Complete a Venn diagram to represent the following:
There are 208 students under the new BS Math course. The Mathematics-Physics-Statistics
Department offers math subjects under Prof. Annie, Prof. Ennet and Prof. Yano.
 4 students take math subjects under all three professors.
 48 students are enrolled under Prof. Ennet.
 There are twice as many students who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof. Yano
(but not Prof. Annie) as those who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof. Annie
(but not Prof. Yano), and 4 times as many as those who are enrolled under all 3 professors.
 124 students join the math classes of Prof. Yano.
 27 poor misguided BS Math students do not study any math subject.
The group of students who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof. Yano (but not
Prof. Annie) is exactly the same size as the group made up of students who are enrolled
under both Prof. Annie and Prof. Yano.

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