Introduction to Principles of Hydraulics

1. Introduction
Today, hydraulic systems are used extensively almost in all of the industries-
such as in road vehicles, heavy equipments, earthmoving, and construction
equipment.
Hydraulic systems are versatile, efficient and simple in power transmission. It
changes power from one form to another.

1.1 What is Hydraulics?

Hydraulics comes from the Greek word “hydros” which means “water”.
Pascal discovered the Law of Hydraulics.
Pascal Law said:
“Pressure exerted on a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions and acts with equal force on all areas.”

1.1.1 Basic Principles of Hydraulics

The basic principles of hydraulics are few and simple:
 Liquids have no shapes of their own.
 Liquids are practically incompressible.
 Liquids transmit applied pressure in all directions.
 Liquids provide great increases in work force.

LIQUIDS HAVE NO SHAPE OF THEIR OWN.

They acquire the shape of any container Fig.1. Because of this, oil in a
hydraulic system will flow in any direction and into a passage of any size or shape.

Fig.1. Liquids have no shape of their own

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 LIQUIDS ARE PRACTICALLY INCOMPRESSIBLE.
This is shown in Fig.2. For safety reasons, we obviously wouldn’t perform the
experiment shown. However, if we were to push down on the cork of the tightly
sealed jar, the liquid in the jar would not compress. The jar would shatter first.
(Note: Liquids will compress slightly under pressure, but for our purposes they are
incompressible.)

Fig.2. Liquids will not compress

LIQUIDS TRANSMIT APPLIED PRESSURE IN ALL DIRECTIONS.

Take two cylinders of the same size (one square inch) and connect them by a
tube. Fill the cylinders with oil to the level shown. Place in each cylinder a piston
which rests on the column of oil. Now press down on one cylinder with a force of one
pound. This pressure is created throughout the system, and an equal force of one
pound is applied to the other piston, raising it as shown.

Fig.3. Liquids transmit applied pressure in all directions

LIQUIDS PROVIDE GREAT INCREASES IN WORK FORCE.

Now let’s take two more cylinders of different sizes and connect them as
shown in Fig.4. The first cylinder has an area of one square inch, but the second has
an area of ten square inches. Again use a force of one pound on the piston in the small

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cylinder. Once again the pressure is created throughout the system. So a pressure of
one pound per square inch is exerted on the larger cylinder. Since that cylinder has a
piston area of ten square inches, the total force exerted on it is ten pounds. In other
words, we have a great increase in work force.
This principle helps you to stop a large machine by pressing a brake pedal.

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1

1 SQ IN 10 SQ IN

Fig.4. Liquids provide great increases in work force

1.2 Pressure in Confined Fluids

If you push on a confined liquid, pressure results, like the air in the tire. This
pressure is equal at every point.
If the pressure is increased in the container it may break at the weakest point
in it. And not where pressure in greatest, because the pressure in the same on every
point.

Gases

Gases are compressible

Liquid

Liquids are almost incompressible

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1.3 Transmission of Power
Confined liquids are useful in transmitting power through pipes, bents, up,
down and so on, because liquids are almost incompressible, and power is transmitted
immediately.
Because oil is almost incompressible, most of the systems use oil and at the
same time it serves as a lubricant.

2. Pressure and Force Relationships

2.1 Pressure and Force Relationships
Pressure is expressed as force exerted on a unit area.
Pressure = Force / Area
P=F/A
Force = Pressure _Area
F = P _A

P A

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2.2 Hydraulic Levers and Mechanical Levers Comparison
In the piston model shown below, a small weight on a small piston could
balance a larger weight on a larger piston, provided that the piston areas are in
proportion to the weights.
You will see a 2 kg weight and a 10 kg weight sitting on two different surface
areas. 2 kg sits on 1 cm2 so the pressure exerted is 2 kg/cm2. 100 kg sits on 50 cm2 and
the pressure is 100 kg/50 cm2 = 2 kg/cm2.

100 kg
2kg

2 2
1 cm 50 cm

The result is that the two weights balance each other, and proves
Pascal’s Law, “Pressure exerted on a confined liquid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force on all areas.”

If we take a look at Mechanical Levers as illustrated below we will see the

same situation as in hydraulic levers.

5kg
1kg

5m 1m

Moment at 1 kg weight balances 5 kg weight, that is,

1 kg _5 m = 5 kg _1 m
5 kg-m = 5 kg-m
These two comparisons will make you understand the use of hydraulic lever in
hydraulic systems. It is important to remember that fluids act with equal force on
equal areas. In working conditions, this helps very much.

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2.3 Energy Transfer in Hydraulic Lever
We had stated that fluids act with equal force on equal areas. Let us take a
look at two cylinders with the same size.
If we push down one piston with a force of 10 kg, it makes the other piston
moves up with a force of 10 kg because the area of each piston is equal.
If the areas are not equal the forces are not equal.

10kg 10kg

We take two cylinders with different cross-sectional areas 1 cm2 for small
cylinder and 50 cm2 for larger cylinder. Applying 10 kg at the smaller cylinder will
make 10 kg/cm2 to every part of the larger cylinder. Then according to Pascal’s Law
the larger piston will receive 500 kg.
In this way we use pressure to transfer energy and make it work for us.
There is one very important point in this energy transfer which is the
relationship between force and distance.
Remember the lighter weight of 1 kg required longer lever to balance 5 kg
weight. Also to raise heavy weight of 5 kg to 10 cm, the lighter load will need to press
down 50 cm.
5kg

1kg 10cm
50cm

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 Let’s look at the example of the hydraulic lever again. Look at the distance
smaller piston moves. A 50 cm stroke by the smaller cylinder is required to transmit
enough fluid to move larger cylinder a distance of 1 cm.

500 kg
10kg

1cm
50cm

3. Flow makes it move

3.1 What is Flow?
When there are different pressures at two points in a hydraulic system, fluid
moves to the point with lower pressure.
This fluid movement is called Flow.
Water supply reservoir or head in our water pipes creates pressure, and when
we turn on the tap, the difference in pressures forces out the water.

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 The pump in the hydraulic system causes flow. This device pushes on the
hydraulic fluid continuously.

3.2 Velocity and Flow Rate

Velocity and flow are both ways of measuring flow.

3.2.1 Velocity
Velocity is the speed at which fluid moves past a given point.
Velocity= m/min

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3.2.2 Flow Rate
Flow rate is how much fluid moves past a certain point in a given amount of
time.

3.2.3 Flow Rate and Speed

It is easy to see the relationship between Flow Rate and Speed in a hydraulic
cylinder.
Shall we look at two different sizes of cylinders? Cylinder A is two meters
long and holds 10 liters, and cylinder B is just one meter long and it also holds 10
liters.
If we pump 10 liters of fluid per minute into each cylinder, both pistons will
move their full travel distances in one minute.
Piston A moves twice as fast, because it has twice as far to travel in the same
amount of time than B which means small diameter cylinder moves faster than a
larger one when the flow rate into both is the same.
Again if we increase flow rate to 20 l/min, both cylinder chambers will be
filled in half time. The speed will be twice as fast.
So we have two ways to make cylinders go faster. One is to decrease the size
of the cylinder; the other one is to increase the flow rate to the cylinder.

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 “The speed of the cylinder is thus proportional to flow rate and inversely
proportional to the piston area.”

A
2m
P

10 liter

B
1m

10 liter

4. Summary

4.1 Pressure and Force

4.1.1 The Formation of Pressure
If you push on a tight fitting plug in a container full of liquid, the plug will be
stopped by the liquid. The liquid will resist by pressing against the plug as well as
against all the sides. If you keep pushing harder and harder you can break the
container.

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4.1.2 The Path of Least Resistance
If you have a container full of liquid, and you make a hole at the side of it, the
liquid will run out as you press the container from top. It happens because this hole is
the only point does not resist.
When force is applied to a confined liquid, the liquid will take the path of least
resistance.

4.1.3 Trouble in Equipment Using Oil Pressure

The above characteristic of hydraulic fluids is very useful in hydraulic
equipment and it is also the source of most hydraulic troubles.
For example, if you have a leak anywhere in your system, the hydraulic will
run out from the leak, because the fluid is always searching for the easiest direction to
move out.
Oil leakages from loose fittings or through damaged seals are typical
examples.

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4.1.4 Natural Pressure
We talked about pressure and flow, but pressure often exists without flow.
Gravity is a good example. If we have three containers connected at different
levels, as shown below, the gravity will make the liquid inside to rest at the same
levels.
This is another principle we can use in hydraulic systems.

A B C

4.1.5 The Role of Gravity

The pressure of gravity forces oil from a reservoir into a pump. It is not
‘sucked’ in by the pump as many people think. A pump works to push oil out. Suction
of a pump means the force of gravity is pushing oil into the pump.

Oil is not sucked in by the pump

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4.1.6 The Weight of a Fluid
The pressure increases in proportional to depth. We can calculate the pressure
at any depth. In the illustration, you will see a one square meter column of water 10
meters high.
One cubic meter of water weighs 1000 kg.
Multiply this by the height of the column, 10m, you will get the total weight of
10000kg. At the bottom, there is one square meter. The weight is thus distributed over
10000 square centimeters. If we divide the total weight 10000kg by 10000 square
centimeters, we will find that the pressure at this depth is 1 kg per cm2.

10 m

2
1m

4.1.7 What Causes Pressure?

When pressure combines with flow, we have hydraulic power. Where does
this pressure come from in a hydraulic system? Some is the result of gravity, but
where does the rest come from?

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4.1.8 Loads Create Pressure
Most of the pressure comes from the load itself. In the illustration below,
pump supply oil all the time. The oil from the pump seeks out the path of least
resistance which takes it through the hose, to the working cylinder. The weight of a
load creates pressure, the amount of which depends upon the size of the load.

4.1.9 Pressure in Parallel Connection

We have three different loads connected in parallel to the same hydraulic
system as shown. The oil will, as always, find the path of least resistance. The lightest
load B will be lifted first, because cylinder B requires the least pressure. When the
lightest load is lifted all the way, pressure will rise just high enough to lift the next
lightest load. When cylinder A reaches the end of its stroke, pressure will rise to lift
the heaviest load. So the cylinder C will be lifted last.

A B C A C

A B A B C

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4.1.10 Hydraulic Power in the Working Cylinder

(1) The law of inertia tells us that things which are settled tend to remain still. This is
one reason why the piston in the working cylinder does not want to move.

Pressure gauge

Pump

(2) Another reason why the piston does not want to move is that there is a load on it.

Load

Pressure gauge

Pump

(3) When the pump starts pushing oil into the cylinder the working piston and the load
resist the oil flow. So pressure against them increases. When this pressure is greater
than the force holding the piston in place, the piston has to move.

Pressure
incresases

Pressure gauge

Pump

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(4) When the piston moves upward, it lifts the load. Pressure and flow have been used
together to do work. This is hydraulic power in action.

Pressure gauge

Pump

4.2 Flow
Earlier we said that the job of flow was to make things move. Remember
another key point- “How does the flow rate relate to work done with a hydraulic
system?”
The answer is that if flow rate is constant, the smaller the diameter of the
hydraulic cylinder, the faster the piston will move.

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4.2.1 Increasing the Flow Rate Brings Increase Speed
Many people think that increasing the pressure will increase speed, but this is
not true. You cannot move a piston faster by increasing pressure. If you want to make
a piston move faster, you must increase the oil flow rate into the cylinder.

4.2.2 Closing Relief Valves Will Not Increase Speed

One example of a common mistake in trouble-shooting the hydraulic systems
is when the cylinder speed gets slow, some mechanics go to the relief valve right
away because they think more pressure will increase work speed. They attempt to
increase the relief valve setting, which raise the maximum pressure in the system.
This does not increase the speed of action.
The relief valve is provided to protect hydraulic system against excessive
pressure.
The pressure setting should never be increased over the specified pressure.
Instead of increasing the pressure setting, mechanics should look elsewhere to
some defect in the system.

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