‫المملكة العربية السعودية‬

‫و ازرة التعليم‬
‫جامعة أم القرى‬
‫كلية الهندسة والعمارة اإلسالمية‬

Scientific Material Summary Form

Remote Summer Training 1441 H

Name Abdulaziz Mohammed Alharazi Student # 438017590

◼ Virtual Field Training  Specialized Course
Material Type  Skill Development Course  Training Exercise
Title Basics of the iron and steel industry Hrs Earned 12

Scientific Material Summary

Iron is a chemical and metallic element, and it is one of the oldest discovered
minerals. Its symbol Fe and atomic number (26) are in the eighth group and the
fourth cycle of the periodic table.
It is necessary for human and animal life as it enters into the formation of
hemoglobin, as well as for plant life being one of the necessary elements for the
formation of chlorophyll, and it enters into almost everything.
It is the fourth element found in the Earth's crust, often found in nature in the form of
oxides. Iron and its alloys are the most widely used mineral materials. Iron is also the
most stable chemical element of all time due to the balance of the electromagnetic
force and the strong nuclear force within the nucleus of an atom. Lighter elements
through nuclear fusion - and the heavier elements through nuclear fission - can
become closer in their traits to iron. Meteorites falling to the ground contain amounts
of iron that may reach 90% of the mass of meteorites or meteors.
Iron is originally silver in color, but it is oxidized in the air. Iron is the strongest metal
ever and most important for engineering purposes as long as it is protected from rust
(i.e. reaction with oxygen). There are several ways to protect iron from rust and the
simplest of all is to prevent contact with oxygen or moisture from iron by covering
the iron with an insulating material such as using dyes or PVC insulators, for
example. One of the best ways to protect it is to use a cathodic protection system to
protect iron from rust and corrosion.
Iron in its pure state is softer than aluminum, and its hardness increases with the
addition of some alloy elements such as carbon in certain proportions, so the steel
alloy is made, which is a thousand times stronger than pure iron. The valence of iron
ranges between (-2) and (6+), but in its most famous cases it is equivalent (2+) or
(3+). in general steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. And its carbon content does not
exceed 2%. Most types of steel, in addition to carbon, contain mostly a quantity of
manganese, and a number of steel ingots also contain a number of other elements
besides these elements. The properties of any type of iron and steel depend to a large
extent on the chemical composition of the alloy. These properties can be changed
significantly by heating and forming processes.
Historical Background
A prehistoric person obtained iron from meteorites, and then used it to make tools,
weapons and other components. And the word iron means in many ancient languages
a metal from the sky. Meteorite has been used in very ancient periods, believed to be
as high as four thousand years BC. However, there is no confirmed evidence to show
the beginning of the use of iron extracted by smelting and reduction from earth ores,
or to indicate where the iron was first extracted.
It is believed that the Hittites were the first to know iron in huge quantities. They
lived in what is now Turkey. In ((1400 BC)) the Hittites discovered how to
manufacture iron and methods of hardening tools and iron weapons. Around this
same period, the people of China and India developed methods for extracting iron.
When the world reached the tenth century B.C., most of the ancient civilizations of
that time had come to the techniques of iron making, and this is how the Iron Age
began.
Primary iron recovery furnaces were shallow. Its coals were similar to the dish, and
iron ore was heated with charcoal in the oven kiln. After several hours after the start
of heating, the iron ore loses its oxygen to the hot carbon surrounding it, and the ore
turns into an iron metal in glossy form. The resulting iron metal was not used
directly, but was reheated repeatedly and every time it was disposed to get rid of the
remaining hard shell impurities, especially the carbon that makes the iron brittle.
Ironmongers managed around 1200 CE to reheat, shape, and cool the extracted iron
to produce and manufacture wrought iron. The properties of the produced wrought
iron were very similar to those of carbon steel produced in modern times as it
contained a small amount of carbon.
Soon, iron makers learned that blowing air through bronchi or plastic to the furnace
greatly raised the temperature, and that discovery had a major impact in improving
the quality of the iron produced. Later, iron makers used a device called a bellows to
push air through the bronchus into the oven. About 700 years ago, iron makers in the
Catalonia region - which is now in northeastern Spain - managed to find the best
image of an iron extraction furnace. This furnace was then known as Courctelane,
and the air was compressed at the base of the furnace and pushed inward using
hydropower. The production capacity of Corctlan reached about (160 kg) of fibrous
iron every five hours. This production is much greater than the production of
previous ovens.
Yaqoub bin Ishaq Al-Kindi (d. 260 A.H. 873 A.D.) prepared types of steel iron in the
method of mixing and melting. Iron contains a percentage of carbon ranging between
(0.5 and 1.5%). When Ibn Sina (d. 428 AH, 1037 AD) spoke of meteorites, he
divided them into two types of stone and iron, which is the same division used at the
present time.
In Europe, the methods and methods of forming molten iron in the form of consumer
products satisfactorily did not develop until the year 1500 AD. At the beginning of
the eighteenth century AD, British iron makers began to use coke instead of charcoal
in high furnaces due to the lack of wood, which is the main source of charcoal.
Abraham Darby was the first to coke coal and produce coke, and then coke was used
in iron production in (1709 AD) in the town of Culbrockdale in Shropshire in
England. In the late eighteenth century, both Abraham Darby and his grandson were
able to improve the coking technique initiated by the head of the family. The actions
of this family led to the industrial revolution that started in Britain to produce cast
iron and then use it in buildings and machines. These industries were transported by
European immigrants and subsequently published around the world.

Types of steel products

Carbon steel: It is the most used type of steel, and its properties depend entirely on
what it contains of carbon. And most types of carbon steel often contain a carbon
ratio less than 1 &. Carbon steel manufactures various products, including
construction bars, car bodies, kitchen equipment, and cans

Alloy steel: It is steel containing some carbon, but its properties mainly depend on
other chemical elements added to the alloy. Each of the added elements improves the
improvement of one or more properties of steel, for example, adding manganese to
steel increases its hardness, durability and resistance to land. The addition of nickel
helps raise durability, especially for steel used at very low temperatures, and
molybdenum works To increase the hardness and improve the resistance of corroded
steel, tungsten addition from the resistance of steel to heat, and adding the
aforementioned elements to steel there are other elements added to it and include
aluminum, chrome, copper, silicon, titanium and vanadium

Stainless steel: It is the best type of steel in corrosion resistance. Chrome is the main
component of stainless steel casting. And all types of stainless steel alloys contain at
least 12% chromium, and this percentage rises to reach in some alloys to 30%. Also,
large numbers of stainless steel alloys also contain nickel, and made of stainless steel
many tools. Household items such as knives, spoons, dishes, bowls and pots; Various
types of stainless steel are also used in the production of many other important
products such as auto parts, hospital equipment and sharp blades.

Tool steel: the highest hardness of all types of steel. Its hardness is very high, and it
is mainly used in the manufacture and production of the number of forming of
metallic materials, and steel number is manufactured through heat treatment of some
special types of carbon steel or alloy steel; treatment is carried out by heating the
steel to a high temperature, then cooling it in a specific cooling medium (whether Oil,
brine or water) quickly.

Smelting procedure
The first stage
It is a stage in which some holes are melted on the surface of the solid so that the
electrode can penetrate the solid surface of the metal safely and during which the
electrode comes close to the surface and thus the electric arc is generated which is
very dangerous and causes severe vibration of the furnace and its components and the
purpose of this step is to melt the scrap That are just below the electrodes and thus the
electrodes are dipped down. At this stage, the electrical transformer is operated with a
maximum of only 60% of the effective energy for it, in order to obtain the maximum
possible amount of current and thus obtain a short electrical arc and all of this in
order to reduce any possibility to destroy the ceiling cooling storage, which may
occur as a result of the reflection of any electrical arc In the direction of the tank and
continue that stage until the electrodes are fully immersed through the solid metal .

The second stage

It is the main melting stage in which the temperature raised by electrical energy, and
at this stage the electrical transformer is operated at its maximum and thus obtaining
a long electric arc in order to obtain the highest melting rate in the least possible time,
and we need a long electrical arc To melt parts of the metal far from the electrodes
and parts on the far sides of the furnace that were not melted in the previous step.
Gradually, the degree of homogeneity of the smelting process increases, so that we
obtain a complete melting in both the far and middle sides, and here we can gradually
reduce the length of the arc.

The third stage

It is the purification stage where the electrical transformer is operated on only 70-
80% of the effective energy in order to obtain the maximum possible value of the
current and thus obtain a short electric arc because we need sufficient time to
complete the purification process.

Bessemer's method
is the first inexpensive industrial process to produce quantities of molten steel ore.
This method is attributed to its inventor Henry Bessemer, who obtained a practical
patent in 1855. It was also independently discovered in 1851 by William Kelly. The
process was also used outside Europe hundreds of years ago, but for non-industrial
purposes.
The basic idea of the method is to remove impurities from the iron by oxidation by
pushing the air through the molten iron, so that the impurities are oxidized and the
temperature of the iron rises and remains molten due to the heat produced by the
oxidation.

Bessemer method revolutionized the steel industry by reducing the cost of tonnes
production from 40 pounds to 6-7 pounds per ton, as well as reducing the number of
workers required to produce steel. Before the invention of the method, the use of steel
was very expensive to construct bridges or for use in construction, so the focus was
on the use of wrought iron in the era of the Industrial Revolution. After the invention
of the method, steel and wrought iron became equal in price, and most manufacturers
chose to produce steel. With the availability of cheap steel, facilitate the construction
of large bridges and the construction of railways, skyscrapers and large ships. Other
important steel products using this method are steel cables, steel bars, and steel plates
that have facilitated the manufacture of high-pressure boilers and high-tension steel
that have enabled us to manufacture many of the most powerful motors, gears and
axles. With the increase in steel production, it has become possible to manufacture
guns, military vehicles, tanks, armored fighting vehicles and marine ships. Steel also
enabled us to build giant turbines and generators, making the use of water vapor and
electricity production possible. Thus, this invention opened the way to a
comprehensive industrial revolution in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Among the disadvantages of the Bessemer method were the following:
• Its speed requires 10-20 minutes to pour, which allows only alloy elements to
integrate well into steel.
• The method does not efficiently remove phosphorous from molten steel, while
low-phosphorous materials have become more expensive.
• The use of scrap is only suitable in limited quantities in this method, which
increases the cost of the process.

Technical stage
At the beginning of the technique, it is very important to take a sample from the
molten to perform its chemical analysis, and this sample is taken at a temperature
from 1570 to 1580 ° C. And you must adhere to the standard instructions for the way
the sample is taken, the time it was taken and the location from which it is taken, in
order to ensure the correctness of the chemical analysis and that the eye is
representative of the situation The true molten metal, as the sample is a good
indicator of the final composition of the metal, and it becomes clear from them is
there any need for any additional requirements (such as removing carbon, phosphorus
or oxygen) etc. There are elements that cannot be removed from the metal, the most
famous of which is copper, cobalt and nickel, and therefore these elements must be
removed before shipping. The process of removing the elements by oxidation may
take place through the slag layer, or by directly reacting the oxygen to the element in
the metal, and this can be controlled by adjusting the angle of oxygen injection, the
distance of the injector, and the injection pressure to the extent appropriate to
complete this, otherwise the injected oxygen will be lost during the furnace
atmosphere or during Slag layer.

First: remove phosphorous

And the presence of phosphorous in the installation of steel increases its durability
and its ability to operate on operating machines (such as lathe, scraper, freeze ... etc),
so it is somewhat high in the Free Cutting Steel, but on the side, phosphorus reduces
the resistance of steel to shocks and its ability For pulling and tapping, phosphorus is
removed from the metal
The following are the standard conditions for efficient phosphorous removal from
molten metal:
1- The temperature of the metal is between (1540) to (1580) Celsius: the reaction of
removing the basic phosphorous is exothermic, so the rise in temperature over this
range may lead to the reaction going in the opposite direction (in the sense of
depositing phosphorous and not removing it).
2- Providing an oxidizing atmosphere, meaning there is an atmosphere rich in
oxygen, whether in its free form [O] dissolved in the metal, or in the form of FeO in
the slag, so the injection of oxygen as well as the neutral interaction between the slag
and the metal helps in removing phosphorus from the metal efficiently, and the best
ratio of FeO in slag from 10 to 15% maximum, increasing it more than 15% reduces
the slag viscosity and reduces metal yield.
3- Slag with a base of 2.2 to 2.5 with moderate viscosity.
4- Good contact between the slag layer and the molten metal, and this can be
achieved with the help of sparkling slag as a result of the formation of CO bubbles
that allow greater areas of communication between the slag and the metal as well as
allow to achieve a good flipping process between the slag and the metal.
4- Continuous grinding, which reduces the chance of phosphorous recoil and
precipitate from slag to metal, especially when slag is saturated with amounts of
P2O5CaO.

Second: remove the silicone

The reaction of oxidation or removal of silicon is exothermic, obtained through the
oxygen present in the atmosphere of the furnace, and the oxygen that may arrive if
Iron Ore is used in the mineral (as it contains a high percentage of oxides), but it is
not preferred for the following:
Adding iron ore in the oven increases the amount of impurities, and this leads to an
increase in the energy consumed and the time required for the technique.
Iron ore needs more energy in melting it.
And because the silicon removal reaction is exothermic, it helps in the smelting
process and reduces its time and thus reduces the electric energy consumed. , t each
kilogram of silicon needs in its removal to 0.8 Newton m3 of oxygen, meaning that
we need (theoretically) 0.08 Newton m3 oxygen to remove 0.01% Silicon from the
metal, but the efficiency of this process is only about 80%, and that The efficiency of
the reactions is affected by the properties of the injected oxygen (such as flow rate
and injection pressure (no more than 8 bar) as well as the right angle). Note that high
silicon scrap may have a negative effect on phosphorous removal, especially because:
The phosphorus reaction is exothermic, thereby raising the metal temperature and
thereby reducing the phosphorous removal rate.
Silicon removal reaction results in an increase in the amount of silica in the slag, and
an increase in silica (an acid compound) reduces the base of the slag, and this reflects
the conditions for removing phosphorous.
Silicon has a higher ability than phosphorous to react with oxygen, thus consuming a
large percentage of oxygen needed to oxidize phosphorous.
Third: Chromium removal:
In order to remove chromium from the molten metal, the following conditions are
preferred:
A relatively low temperature, from 1570 to 1580 ° C, because it is an exothermic
reaction.
Slag with a relatively low base, from 1.8 to 2.1.
Continuous grinding (removal of slag).
Slag with a low percentage of silica and magnesia (because silicon and manganese
have a higher ability than chromium to react with oxygen.

Fourth: Sulfur removal:

To remove sulfur from the molten metal, the following conditions are preferred: a
relatively high temperature, above 1,600 ° C, because it is an endothermic reaction.
Slag with a relatively high base, from 2 to 2.5.
Continuous grinding (removal of slag).
Availability of reduced atmosphere in oven (low oxygen and FeO levels)
Therefore, the process of removing sulfur is carried out better during the technical
stage where these conditions are available, but it is noted that if the percentage of
sulfur in the mineral is relatively high, then a higher amount of lime is added, but if
the increase is large we add a quantity of silicon, manganese and carbon for the
purpose of reaction With oxygen and reducing its percentage while raising the
temperature of the metal as a result of these reactions, and this all improves the
conditions of removing the sulfur from the metal. ). The desulfurization process is
more efficient during the crucible furnace.

Energy used
The energy used during this stage is melting inside the electric arc furnace with the
help of two types of the first energy: the electric energy derived from the second tri-
polar electrical source: the chemical energy produced or emitted from exothermic
oxidation reactions that occur inside the furnace

First the electric power

Where the arc furnace is supplied with a three-electrode source of high voltage and
low current, to reduce the amount of energy loss as possible. And electrical energy is
supplied to the oven through several steps where we get energy from the main power
source which is the power station and through the cables the energy is transmitted to
the electrical transformer for the furnace and this transformer consists of two files
(primary and secondary) and the value of the energy entering the primary file is
controlled By controlling the number of his windings using a rust, and so the voltage
value is controlled at the ends of the secondary winding and the current passing:
Np Vs = Ns Vp
Then the energy is transferred to the electrodes, and we note that in the oven
operating system electrically that it is run by a short arc at the beginning of the
casting in the dipping stage as well as in the final stage of the casting, which is called
the purification phases and this reduces the consumption of the electrodes and the
smelting process is done easily and easily, but if This is accompanied by the presence
of large scrap pieces. The refrigerant storage and other components in the oven
expose to the dangers of splash in addition to increasing the failure time, which is
necessary to repair these damages by welding or changing them. In the melting stage,
it is operated by a long electric arc, which is characterized by a lower rate of
corrosion of refractories.

Second chemical energy

It is the energy generated by exothermic chemical reactions and often oxidation
reactions and this heat greatly helps in melting the mineral and purification processes.
One of the most famous reactions is the interaction of oxygen with carbon, which
generates gas products that are carbon monoxide, which in turn helps in the formation
of sparkling slag Or foaming, which greatly improves the conditions of smelting and
purification, as well as preserving furnace refractories and reduces the consumption
of electrodes as well. To gain insight into this type of reaction, There are two ways to
supply carbon and oxygen:

The first use of stoves: through which carbon and oxygen are injected and the thermal
energy generated by the chemical reaction is used while smelting the mineral that is
in the way of the oxygen stream leaving the injectors, thus creating a sufficient
vacuum to complete the oxygen injection process safely, while avoiding the rebound
of the oxygen stream which has A destructive effect on the body of the injector
preparation itself and the cold storage and the body of the furnace as well.

The second is the use of the injection system: and this system follows the operation of
the burner system during the operation process, and it achieves heat resulting from
the interaction of the oxygen separation that contributes to the scrap melting process.
Injected oxygen may be used to oxidize some unwanted elements or to control their
percentage in the molten during the purification stage.

Fifth: Carbon removal:

The decarbonization process achieves the following:
1-Oxygen consumption and removal from the metal.
2-Stimulating the desulfurization process (as previously mentioned).
3-The formation of bubbles of CO and CO2 gases, which improve the rates of
removal of sulfur, phosphorus, hydrogen and nitrogen from the metal, as it helps to
make thermal and chemical uniformity of the molten metal (by the effect of flipping).

Casting stage
The casting process is carried out from the oven after confirming the installation and
the temperature, during a crucible that is pre-heated to (1000) ° C under the preheater.
This preheating achieves the following purposes.
Avoid the thermal shock of the crucible lining materials while pouring the metal.
Ensure that the crucible is free of moisture and gases such as oxygen, as it may cause
explosion hazards, as well as increasing the rate of corrosion of the crucible, and
affect the quality of the final steel.
The following arrangement shall be taken into consideration during the metal casting
phase from the oven to the crucible:
Grinding (removal of slag from the oven by slag pulp)
1- Ensure that the chemical analysis of the metal is adjusted according to the type of
steel.
2- Ensure that the metal temperature is approximately 1640 ° C. This value varies
according to the type of steel according to the chemical composition.
3- Make sure to pour a slag-free metal as much as possible, because the slag is rich in
unwanted elements (such as silicon and phosphorus) as well as to avoid bouncing
these elements again.

Crucible furnace
The crucible furnace is an intermediate stage between the arc furnace and continuous
casting and it consists of:
The crucible itself is a metal body lined inside and outside with a thermal brick, and
has a porous part at the bottom where the inert gas is pumped through.
Three electrons from graphite are connected to electrical current.
Water-cooled roof.
Cart to transport the crucible to and from the crucible furnace.
The crucible furnace is used to carry out the secondary treatment operations:
The work of thermal and chemical uniformity by stirring with an inert gas.
Removing both oxygen and sulfur.
Adjust chemical analysis and temperature.
Get rid of non-metallic impurities.

Steel formation
Operation of the melting furnace: stirring begins with argon, and the electric arc,
which is preferably short in this stage, begins by working with a medium voltage
difference, and the treatment operations begin in three stages:
Firstly, the abrasive stage, in which lime is added for the purpose of increasing the
base and protecting the heat of the crucible, as well as the addition of fluospar and
calcium carbide to get rid of oxygen and increase the abrasive liquidity. Secondly, the
stage of controlling the chemical analysis by taking a sample of the slag to verify iron
reduction and calculating the required additives. Thirdly, the basic heating stage
where lime and calcium carbide are added, the temperature is raised by a long electric
arc and then the metal is transferred to the continuous casting stage.
Continuous casting process: The continuous casting process is a basic process in steel
production factories where more than 90% of steel production depends on its
production on the continuous casting process. The continuous casting process is a
process that aims to reach a high-quality product, and relies mainly on metallurgical
science.
The casting process can be summarized in the following steps:
The crucible filled with the steel immediately moves to the turntable.
The crucible is managed to shift from the receiving place to the casting place after
being heated to a temperature from 1100 to 1200 degrees.
Steel is poured from the large crucible to the intermediate crucible through a valve.
When the molten steel is leveled in the intermediate crucible to a suitable depth (30 -
40 cm) the casting is started to the casting molds.
In the casting mold, the initial freezing is performed by indirect freezing.
The blocks are then pulled by the drawing rollers to the secondary cooling zone.
The blocks are then transferred to the shear unit where they are cut to the required
length.
The blocks are then transferred by a group of dolphins to the cooling bed, where they
are cooled in the air.