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233 Sample Chapter
233 Sample Chapter
2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fourier series is used to get frequency spectrum of a time-domain signal, when signal is a periodic function of
time. We have seen that the sum of two sinusoids is periodic provided their frequencies are integer multiple
of a fundamental frequency, w0 .
Consider a signal x(t), a sum of sine and cosine function whose frequencies are integral multiple of w0
x(t) = a0 + a1 cos (w0t) + a2 cos (2w0t) + · · ·
b1 sin (w0t) + b2 sin (2w0t) + · · ·
∞
x(t) = a0 + ∑ (an cos (nw0t) + bn sin (nw0t)) (1)
n=1
94
96 • Basic System Analysis
Multiply eqn. (1) by sin (mw0t) and integrate over one period
0 +T
tZ 0 +T
tZ 0 +T
tZ
∞
x(t) sin (mw0t)dt = a0 sin (mw0t)dt + ∑ an cos (nw0t) sin (mw0t)dt +
t0 t0 n=1 t0
0 +T
tZ
∞
∑ bn sin (mw0t) sin (nw0t)dt
n=1 t0
0 +T
tZ
2
bn = x(t) sin (nw0t)dt (4)
T
t0
Example 1:
1.0 −
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
− −1.0
Fig. 2.1.
an = 0
Z1 1
−t cos πnt cos πnt
bn = t sin πntdt = −
nπ nπ −1
−1
−1 1
= [t cos πnt + cos πnt]1−1 = − [2 cos π + cos π − cos π]
nπ nπ
−2 2 −(−1)n
bn = cos nπ =
nπ π n
b1
b2 b3 b4 b5 b6
−2
2 2 −2 2 −2 · · ·
π2π 3π 4π 5π 6π
∞ n
2 −(−1)
x(t) = ∑ sin nπt
n=1 π n
2 1 1 1
= sin πt − sin 2πt + sin 3πt − sin 4πt + · · ·
π 2 3 4
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 97
Example 2:
1.0
−2π 0 2π 4π 6π t
Fig. 2.2.
t 2π
x(t) = T = 2π w0 = =1
2π T
Z2π
1 1 1 2 2π 1
a0 = x(t)dt = 2 t =
T 4π 2 0 2
0
Z2π
2 1 t sin t sin nt 2π
an = 2 t cos ntdt = 2 +
4π 2π n n 0
0
1 2π sin 2nπ sin 2nπ
= 2 + =0
2π n n
Z2π
2 −1 h t cos nt cos nt i2π
bn = 2 t sin ntdt = +
4π 2π2 n n 0
0
−1 2π cos 2nπ cos 2nπ 1
= + −
2π2 n n n
−1
bn =
nπ
∞
1 1 ∞ 1
1 −1
x(t) = + ∑ sin nt = + ∑ cos (nt + π/2)
2 n=1 nπ 2 π n=1 n
1 1 sin 2t sin 3t
= − sin t + + +···
2 π 2 3
Example 3:
A x(t)
Figure shows a periodic rectangular waveform which is symmetrical to the vertical axis. Obtain its F.S.
representation.
∞
x(t) = a0 + ∑ (an cos nw0t + bn sin nw0t)
n=1
∞
x(t) = a0 + ∑ an cos (nw0t) bn = 0
n=1
−T −T
x(t) = 0 for <t <
2 4
−T T
+ A for <t <
4 4
T T
0 for < t <
4 2
T /4
Z
1 A
a0 = Adt =
T 2
−T /4
T /4
Z
2 2A T T
an = A cos (nw0t)dt = sin nw0 + sin nw0
T T nw0 4 4
−T /4
4A nπ 2A nπ 2π
an = sin = sin w0 =
2πn 2 πn 2 T
4A 2A
a1 = =
2π π
a2 = 0
2A 3π 2A −2A
a3 = sin = (−1) =
3π 2 3π 3π
A 2A 1 1
x(t) = + cos w0t − cos 3w0t + cos 5w0t + · · ·
2 π 3 5
Example 4: Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic signal x(t).
x(t)
1.0
−9 −7 −5 −3 −1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 t
Fig. 2.4.
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 99
S OLUTION:
(
1 −1 < t < 1
bn = 0 x(t) =
−1 1<t <3
Z3 Z1 Z3
1 1
a0 = x(t)dt = dt + (−1)dt T =4
T T
−1 −1 t
1 2π 2π π
= [2 − 2] = 0 ∴ w0 = = =
T T 4 2
Z1 Z3
2
an = cos (nw0t)dt + cos (nw0t)dt
T
−1 1
h
2 πn i 3nπ nπ
= 2 sin − sin − sin
2πn 2 2 2
1 nπ 3nπ 3nπ nπ nπ
= 3 sin − sin sin = sin π + = − sin
nπ 2 2 2 2 2
4 nπ
an = sin
nπ 2
0
n = even
4
an = n = 1, 5, 9, 13
nπ
−4 n = 3, 7, 11, 15
nπ
π 4
4 3π 4 5π 4 7π
x(t) = cos t − cos t + cos t − cos t +···
π 2 3π 2 5π 2 7π 2
4 π 1 3π 1 5π
x(t) = cos t − cos t + cos t ···
π 2 3 2 5 2
x(t)
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
−1.5
Fig. 2.5.
100 • Basic System Analysis
S OLUTION:
2π
T= = 2, w0 = π
w0
a0 = an = 0
Z1 Z2
bn = 1.5 sin nπtdt − 1.5 sin nπtdt
0 1
1.5 n o
= [− cos nπ + 1] + [cos 2nπ − cos nπ]
nπ
3
bn = [1 − cos nπ]
nπ
3 2 2
x(t) = 2 sin πt + sin 3πt + sin 5πt + · · ·
π 3 5
6 1 1
sin πt + sin 3πt + sin 5πt + · · ·
π 3 5
Z1 Z2
1
C0 = 1.5dt − 1.5 dt = 0
2
0 1
OR
By using complex exponential Fourier series
Z1 Z2
1
Cn = 1.5e− jnπt dt − 1.5 e− jnπt dt
2
0 1
2
1
3 − jnπt − jnπt
Cn = e −e
−4 jnπ 0
1
−3 − jnπ
= e − 1 − e− j2nπ + e− jnπ
4 jnπ
3 3
= 1 − e− jnπ = [1 − cos nπ]
2 jnπ 2 jnπ
∞
x(t) = ∑ Cn e− jnπt
n=−∞
∞
3
∑
1 − e− jnπ e jnπt
n=−∞ 2 jnπ
∞
3 jnπt
∑
= e − e jnπt cos πn
n=−∞ 2 jnπ
102 • Basic System Analysis
for n = 1
Zπ Zπ
A A
= sin t sin tdt = (1 − cos 2t)dt
2π 2π
0 0
A A
= [π] =
2π 2
When n is even
A 2 2 2A
= − =
2π n + 1 1 − n π(1 − n2 )
Example 7:
x(t)
2 b
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 t
a −2
Fig. 2.7.
S OLUTION:
2π
T = 2 w0 = =π
T
2t − 1 < t < 1
x(t) =
0
Point (a) (−1, −2)
Point (b) (1, 2)
2 − (−2)
y − (−2) = (x − (−1))
1 − (−1)
4
y + 2 = (x + 1)
2
y + 2 = 2x + 2
y = 2x
x(t) = 2t
Since function is an odd function
Z1
1 1
an = 0, a0 = ×0 = 0
2tdt =
T 2
−1
1 1
Z1
2 2 −t cos nπt 1
bn = t sin (nπt)dt = + 2 2 cos nπt
T T nπ n π
−1 −1 −1
104 • Basic System Analysis
0 +T
tZ Z Z
1 A B
an = [Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t)] e− jnw0 t = x1 (t)e− jnw0 t dt + x2 (t)e− jnw0 t dt
T T T
t0 T T
an = ACn + BDn
(2) Time shifting: If the F.S.C. of x(t) are Cn then the F.C. of the shifted signal x(t − t0 ) are
FS [x(t − t0 )] = e− jnw0 t0 Cn
Let t − t0 = τ
dt = dτ
Z
1
Bn = x(t − t0 )e− jnw0 t dt
T
T
Z Z
1 1
= x(τ)e− jnw0 (t0 +τ) dτ = x(τ)e− jnw0 τ dτ · e− jnw0 t0
T T
T T
Bn = e− jnw 0 t 0 ·Cn
(3) Time reversal: FS[x(−t)] = C−n
Z Z
1 1
Bn = x(−t)e− jnw0 t dt = x(−t)e− j(−n)w0 T dt
T T
T T
−t = τ
dt = −dτ
Z
1
= x(τ)e− j(−n)w0 τ dτ = C−n
T
−T
106 • Basic System Analysis
x(t)
2.0
1.0
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t
Fig. 2.8.
S OLUTION:
π
T =4 w0 =
2
ZT Z1 Z2
1 1 3
C0 = x(t)dt = 2dt + dt =
T 4 4
0 0 1
πt
Z1 Z2
1 − jn πt
Cn = 2e 2 dt + e− jn 2 dt
4
0 1
π
1 −4 − jn 2 h π
i
= e 2 − 1 − e− jnπ − e− jn 2
4 jnπ jnπ
π π π
−1 − jnπ − jn −1 − jn − jn
= 2e 2 − 2 + e− jnπ − e 2= e 2 +e 2 − 2
2 jnπ 2 jnπ
∞
1 1 1 − jn π 3 1 jn π2 1 n jn π2 1
=− n
1 − (−1) − e 2 x(t) = + ∑ e − (−1) e −
jnπ 2 2 4 n=−∞ jnπ 2 2
Example 9:
x(t)
1.0
a b
↓
↓
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t
Fig. 2.9.
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 107
S OLUTION:
2π
T = 5 w0 =
5
t + 2 − 2 < t < −1
x(t) = 1.0 −1 < t < 1
2−t 1<t <2
3
C0 =
5
−1
Z Z1 Z2
1 2nπ 2nπ 2nπ
Cn = (t + 2)e− j 5 dt + e− j 5 dt + (2 − t)e− j 5 dt
5
−2 −1 1
| {z } | {z } | {z }
A B C
Z−1 Z−1
− j 2nπ 2nπ t
A= e 5 t dt + 2e− j 5 dt
−2 −2
Z−1 Z−1 Z−1
1 − jφ 1 − jφ 2 j 2nπ
A=− te + e + e
jφ φ2 − jφ 5
−2 −2 −2
5
2nπ 25 2nπ
4nπ
4nπ
10
= −e j 5 + 2e j 5 + 2 2 e j 5 − e j 5 −
j 2nπ 4n π 2nπ j
5 2nπ 4nπ
25 2nπ 4nπ
A= −e j 5 + 4e j 5 + 2 2 e j 5 − e j 5
j2nπ 4n π
2nπ2nπ
ej− e− j 5
5 5 j 2nπ 2nπ
B= = e 5 − e− j 5
j 2nπ
5
j 2nπ
−10 − j 4nπ 2nπ
10 − j 4nπ 5 − j 2nπ 25 4nπ 25 n2π
C= e 5 − e− j 5 + e 5 − e 5 − 2 2 e− j 5 + 2 2 e j 5
j 2nπ j 2nπ j 2nπ 4n π 4n π
108 • Basic System Analysis
1 25 j2nπ j4nπ
25 − j4nπ j2nπ
Cn = e 5 −e 5 − e 5 − e− 5
5 n2 4π2 4n2 π2
5 2πn 4πn
Cn = 2 2 cos − cos
2n π 5 5
S OLUTION:
Given
2π 5π
x(t) = 2 + cos t + 4 sin t
3 3
The time period of the signal cos 2π
3 t is
2π 2π
T1 = = π = 3 sec
w1 23
The time period of the signal sin 5 π2 t is
π 2π 6
T2 = 2 = π = sec
w2 53 5
T1 3 5
= 6 = ratio of two integers, rational number, hence periodic.
T2 5
2
2T1 = 5T2
The fundamental period of the signal x(t) is
T = 2T1 = 5T2 = 6 sec
and the fundamental frequency is
2π 2π π
w0 = = =
T 6 3
2π 5π
x(t) = 2 + cos t + 4 sin t
3 3
= 2 + cos (2w0t) + 4 sin (5w0t)
e j2w0 t + e− j2w0 t 4 e j5w0 t − e− j5w0 t
= 2+ +
2 2j
= 2 + 0.5 e j2w0 t + e− j2w0 t − 2 j e j5w0 t − e− j5w0 t
Zπ Z0
2 4 2t
an = x(t) cos ntdt = + 1 cos nt dt
T T π
−π −π
Z0
4 2t sin nt 2
= sint + − sin nt dt
2π nπ n π
−π
Z0
1 2t 2
= sin nt + sin nt + cos nt
ππ n2 π
−π
( )
2 2 2 4 n o 4
= + cos nt = 1 − cos nπ = 2 2 (1 − (−1)n )
π n π n π
2 2 n π
2 2 n π
(
0 n even 2, 4, 6, 8, · · ·
an = 8
n 2 π2
n odd 1, 3, 5, 7, · · ·
Since w = 2π f
Similarly, x(t) can be recovered from its Fourier transform X( jw) by using Inverse Fourier transform
Z∞
1
x(t) = X( jw)e jwt dw (3)
2π
−∞
Z∞
x(t) = X(i f )e j2π f t dt (4)
−∞
Fourier transform X( jw) is the complex function of frequency w. Therefore, it can be expressed in the
complex exponential form as follows:
|X( jw)
X( jw) = |X( jw)|e j
|X( jw)
Here |X( jw)| is the amplitude spectrum of x(t) and is phase spectrum.
For a real-valued signal
(1) Amplitude spectrum is symmetric about vertical axis c (even function.)
(2) Phase spectrum is anti-symmetrical about vertical axis c (odd function.)
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 111
The following conditions should be satisfied by the signal to obtain its F.T.
(1) The function x(t) should be single valued in any finite time interval T .
(2) The function x(t) should have at the most finite number of discontinuities in any finite time interval T .
(3) The function x(t) should have finite number of maxima and minima in any finite time interval T .
(4) The function x(t) should be absolutely integrable, i.e.
Z∞
|x(t)|dt < ∞
−∞
• These conditions are sufficient, but not necessary for the signal to be Fourier transformable.
• A physically realizable signal is always Fourier transformable. Thus, physical realizability is the
sufficient condition for the existence of F.T.
• All energy signals are Fourier transformable.
d
j X( jw) = FT (tx(t))
dw
d
FT (tx(t)) = j X( jw)
dw
Example 12: Obtain the F.T. of the signal e−at u(t) and plot its magnitude and phase spectrum.
S OLUTION:
x(t) = e−at u(t)
Z∞ Z∞
− j2π f t
X( f ) = x(t)e dt = e−(a+ j2π f )t dt
−∞ 0
1
X( f ) =
a + j 2π f
To obtain the magnitude and phase spectrum:
a − j 2π f a 2π f
|X( f )| = 2 = A− j 2 B
a + (2π f )2 a2 + 4π2 f 2 a + 4π2 f 2
p 1 1
|X( f )| = A2 + B2 = p =√
a2 + 4π2 f 2 a2 + w2
w
−2π f
|X( f )| = tan−1 = − tan−1
a a
1 |X( f )
for a = 1, |X( f )| = √ , = − tan−1 w
1+w2
w 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 25 8
| X(w) 0 45◦ −63.4 −71.5 −75.9 −78.6 −84.2 −86.2 −87.7 −90◦
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 113
e−at t > 0
(ii) x(t) = e−a|t| =
eat t > 0
e−a|t|
1 1 2a
x(w) = + = 2
a + jw a − jw a + w2
2
for a = 1 X(w) =
1 + w2
2 |X(w)
|X(w)| = 2
=0
1+w
w (in radians) −∞ −10 −5 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 ∞
|X(w)| 0 0.019 0.0769 0.2 0.4 1 2 1 0.4 0.2 .1176 0.0769 0.019 0
|X(w)|
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
−10 . . . . −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 . . . . 10 w
1.0
−1.0
(ii) x(t) = 1
Z∞
X(w) = e− jwt dt = ∞
−∞
This means Dirichlet condition is not satisfied. But its F.T. can be calculated with the help of duality
property.
FT
δ(t) ←→ 1
FT
Duality property states that: x(t) ←→ X(w) then
FT
X(t) ←→ 2πx(−w)
Here X(t) = 1, then x(−w) will be
x(t) = δ(t); X(w) = 1
FT
then X(t) = 1; 1 ←→ 2πδ(−w)
We know that δ(w) will be an even function of w, since it is impulse function.
Hence, δ(−w) = δ(w). Then above equation becomes
FT
1 ←→ 2πδ(−w)
Thus, if x(t) = 1, then X(w) = 2πδ(w)
1 t >0
(iii) x(t) = sgn(t) sgn(t) =
−1 t <0
sgn(t)
0 t
−1
x(t) = 2u(t) − 1
Differentiating both the sides
d d
x(t) = 2 u(t) = 2δ(t)
dt dt
Taking the F.T. of both sides
d
F x(t) = 2F[δ(t)]
dt
jwX(w) = 2
2
X(w) =
jw
Z∞ Z0
X(w) = e− jwt dt − e− jwt dt
0 −∞
116 • Basic System Analysis
Z∞
(5) x(τ)δ(t − x)dt = x(t)
−∞
(6) δ(t) = d
dt u(t)
Example 15: Obtain the F.T. of a rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 2.18.
x(t)
1
−T/2 0 T/2 t
S OLUTION:
T
Z2
−1 h − jw T T
i 2 wT
X(w) = e− jwt dt = e 2 − e jw 2 = sin
jw w 2
−T
2
sin π wT sin π wT
2π wT 2π
X(w) = T = sin c =T
π wT
2π
2π π wT
2π
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 117
Sampling function or interpolating function or filtering function denoted by Sa (x) or sin c(x) as shown in
figure.
sin πx
sin c(x) =
πx
(1) sin c(x) = 0 when x = ±nπ
(2) sin c(x) = 1 when x = 0 (using L’Hospital’s rule)
(3) sin c(x) is the product of an oscillating signal sin x of period 2π and a decreasing signal 1x . Therefore,
sin c(x) is making sinusoidal of oscillations of period 2π with amplified decreasing continuously as 1x .
sin c(x)
1.0
sin πx 0
sin cx = ; sin c(0) = = 1 L’Hospital rule
πx 0
sin π
sin c(1) = = 0; sin c(−1) = 0
π
sin c(2) = 0; sin c(−2) = 0
sin c(1/4) = 0.9 sin c(−1/4) = 0.9
sin c(2/4) = .6366 sin c(−0.5) = .6366
sin c(3/4) = 0.3 sin c(−7.5) = .3
sin c(1.5) = −.2122 sin c(−1.5) = −.2122
sin c(2.5) = .1273 sin c(2.5) = .1273
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −.75 −.5 −.25 0 .25 .5 .75 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 t
S OLUTION:
(i) 1 1
x(t) = cos w0t = e jw0 t + e− jw0 t
2 2
FT 1 FT
1 ←→ 2πδ(w); ←→ πδ(w)
2
FT
Frequency shifting property states that e jβt x(t) ←→ X(w − β)
1 jw0 t FT
e ←→ πδ(w − w0 )
2
1 − jw0 t FT
e ←→ πδ(w + w0 )
2
1 jw0 t 1 − jw0 t
F [x(t)] = FT e + e
2 2
| X(w) |
−w0 w0 w
| X(w) |
π
−ω0
w0 w
S OLUTION:
(i) A B
X(w) = + ; 2 jw + 1 = A( jw + 2) + B A = 2 2A + B = 1 B = −3
jw + 2 ( jw + 2)2
2 3
X(w) = −
jw + 2 ( jw + 2)2
x(t) = 2e−2t u(t) − 3te−2t u(t)
(ii) 1 1
X(w) = 2
= = X1 (w)X2 (w)
(a + jw) (a + jw)(a + jw)
1 1
X1 (w) = , X2 (w) =
a + jw a + jw
x1 (t) = e−at u(t), x2 (t) = e−at u(t)
Using convolution property
x(t) = x1 (t)∗ x2 (t)
FT
x(t) ←→ X(w)
FT
x1 (t)∗ x2 (t) ←→ X1 (w)X2 (w)
Z∞
(
u(τ) = 1 τ ≤ 0
x(t) = e−at
u(t)e −a(t−τ)
u(t − τ)dτ
−∞
u(t − τ) = 1 t ≤ τ
Zt
= e−at dτ = te−at u(t)
0
122 • Basic System Analysis
S OLUTION:
If F[x(t)] = X(w)
then FT[x(t − t0 )] = e− jwt0 X(w)
1
F e−t u(t) =
1 + jw
h i e− jwt0
F e−(t−t0 ) u(t − t0 ) =
1 + jw
S OLUTION:
j2πt
e + e− j2πt
FT(cos 2πt) = FT
2
FT[1] = 2πδ(w)
FT[e jw0 t ] = 2πδ(w − w0 )
F[cos 2πt] = πδ(1w − 2π) + πδ(w + 2π) (1)
Z1
1 − jw 2 sin w
F[u(t + 1) − u(t − 1)] = e− jwt dt = − e − e jw = (2)
jw w
−1
Example 22: Determine the Fourier transform of a triangular function as shown in figure.
x(t)
A
−T T t
S OLUTION:
x(t)
(0, A)
a→ b
→
(−T,0) (T,0) t
1 − 21 < t < 1
Π(t) = rect(t) = 2
0 otherwise
1 − 12 ≤ t − 5 < 1
2
rect(t − 5) =
0 otherwise
( 9 11
1 2 ≤t ≤ 2
rect(t − 5) =
0 otherwise
Z∞ Z∞
− jwt
X( jw) = x(t)e dt = rect(t − 5)e− jwt dt
−∞ −∞
11/2 11/2
e− jwt
Z
− jwt
= e dt =
− jw 9/2
9/2
j11w 9 jw w −11 j w
e− 2 − e− 2 e−9 j 2 −e 2
= =
− jw jw
e−5 jw e jw/2 − e−5 jw e− jw/2 2e−5 jw e jw/2 − e− jw/2
= =
jw w2 j
2e−5 jw w sin w2
= sin = e−5 jw w
w 2 2
w
X( jw) = e−5 jw Sa
2
Z∞
= x(τ)e− j(−w)τ dτ
−∞
Z∞
R( jw) = FT(x(t − t0 )) = x(t − t0 )e− jwt dt
−∞
Let t − t0 = τ dt = dτ
Z∞
FT (x(t − t0 )) = x(τ)e− jw(t0 +τ) dτ
−∞
Z∞
= x(τ)e− jwt e− jwt0 dτ
−∞
Z∞
− jwt0
=e x(τ)e− jwτ dτ
−∞
FT (e jw 0 t x(t)) = X( j(w − w0 ))
Z∞
FT (r(t)) = FT e jw0 t
x(t) = R( jw) = e jw0 t x(t)e− jwt dt
−∞
∞
Z
FT e jw0 t
x(t) = x(t)e− j(w−w0 )t dt
−∞
128 • Basic System Analysis
Let w − w0 = w0
Z∞
0
= x(t)e− jw t dt
−∞
FT e jw0 t x(t) = X( jw0 ) = X( j(w − w0 ))
Proof:
1 R∞ jwt dw
We know that x(t) = 2π −∞ X( jw)e
Replacing t by −t, we get
Z∞
1
x(−t) = X( jw)e− jwt dw
2π
−∞
Z∞
2π
2π x(−t) = X( jw)e− jwt dw
2π
−∞
Z∞
2π x(−t) = X( jw)e− jwt dw
−∞
Interchanging t by jw
Z∞
2π x(− jw) = X(t)e− jwt dt
−∞
Proof:
Z∞
∗
r(t) = x1 (t) x2 (t) = x1 (τ)x2 (t − τ)dτ
−∞
Z∞
FT(r(t)) = R( jw) = r(t)e− jwt dt
−∞
Z∞ Z∞
= x1 (τ)x2 (t − τ)dτ e− jwt dt
−∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞
= x1 (τ)x2 (t − τ)dτ e− jwt dt
−∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞
= x1 (τ)dτ x2 (t − τ) e− jwt dt
−∞ −∞
Let t − τ = ∝ so dt = d ∝
Z∞ Z∞
FT [x1 (t)∗ x2 (t)] = x1 (t)dτ x2 (∝) e− jw(∝+τ) d ∝
−∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞
= x1 (τ)dτ x2 (∝) e− jw∝ e− jwτ d ∝
−∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞
= x1 (τ) e − jwτ
dτ x2 (∝) e− jw∝ d ∝
−∞ −∞
∗
FT [x1 (t) x2 (t)] = X1 ( jw) X2 ( jw)
Z∞
d 1 d jwt
x(t) = X( jw) e dw
dt 2π dt
−∞
Z∞
1
= jwX( jw)e jwt dw
2π
−∞
Z∞
1
=j (wX( jw))e jwt dw
2π
−∞
d
x(t) = j FT−1 (wX( jw))
dt
n
yields FT dtd x(t) = jwX( jw). On generalizing we get FT dtd n x(t) = ( jw)n X( jw)
Proof:
Z∞ Z∞
x(t) dt = x(t)x∗ (t)dt
2
E= (1)
−∞ −∞
Z∞
1
We know that x(t) = X( jw)e+ jwt dw
2π
−∞
Z∞
1
So x∗ (t) = X( jw)e− jwt dw (2)
2π
−∞
on putting (1)
Z∞ Z∞
1
= x(t) X ∗ ( jw)e− jwt dw dt
2π
−∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞
1
= X ∗ ( jw) x(t)e− jwt dt dw
2π
−∞ −∞
Z∞
1
= X( jw)X ∗ ( jw)dw
2π
−∞
Z∞ Z∞
x(t)2 dt = 1
= X( jw)2 dw
2π
−∞ −∞
Relation between Laplace Transform and Fourier Transform
Fourier transform X( jw) of a signal x(t) is given as
Z∞
X( jw) = x(t)e− jwt dt (1)
−∞
F.T. can be calculated only if x(t) is absolutely integrable
Z∞
= x(t)dt < ∞ (2)
−∞
Laplace transform X(s) of a signal x(t) is given as
Z∞
X(s) = x(t)e−st dt (3)
−∞
We know that s = σ + jw
Z∞
X(s) = x(t)e−(σ+ jw)t dt
−∞
Z∞
X(s) = x(t)e−σt e− jwt dt (4)
−∞
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 133
Comparing (1) and (4), we find that L.T. of x(t) is basically the F.T. of [x(t)e−σt ].
R∞
If s = jw, i.e. σ = 0, then eqn. (4) becomes X(s) = −∞ x(t)e− jwt dt = X( jw)
Thus, X(s) = X( jw) when σ = 0 or s = jw
This means L.T. is same as F.T. when s = jw. The above equation shows that F.T. is special case of L.T.
Thus, L.T. provides broader characterization compared to F.T., s = jw indicates imaginary axis in complex
s-plane.
Fig. 2.26.
S OLUTION:
↓ i1(t) ↓ i2(t) +
1
i(t) ↑ 1Ω 2F Vout(t)
−
2 2
V0 ( jw) = =
6( jw)2 + 7( jw) + 1 (6 jw + 1)( jw + 1)
1/3 A B
V0 ( jw) = = 1
+
( jw + 1/6)( jw + 1) 6 + jw 1 + jw
2 2
V0 ( jw) = 1
− (5)
5 6 + jw 5(1 + jw)
Taking inverse Fourier transform, we get
2 −t/6
V0 (t) = e − e−t u(t) (6)
5
Example 26: Determine the response of current in the network shown in Fig. 2.28(a) when a voltage having
the waveform shown in Fig. 2.28(b) is applied to it by using the Fourier transform.
1Ω v(t)
v(t) ∼ 1F
0 π wt
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.28.
S OLUTION:
Waveform V (t) is defined as
V (t) = sint(u(t) − u(t − π)) (1)
1Ω
u(t) ∼ i(t)
a 1F
1 + e− jπw
V ( jw) = (3)
( jw)2 + 1
1
V ( jw) = I( jw) + I( jw)
jw
1 jw + 1
V ( jw) = 1 + I( jw) = I( jw)
jw jw
jw
I( jw) = V ( jw) (4)
jw + 1
jw (1 + e− jπw )
I( jw) = · From (3)
jw + 1 (( jw)2 + 1)
jw 1 e− jπw
I( jw) = · +
jw + 1 ( jw)2 + 1 ( jw)2 + 1
jw 1 jw 1
= · + · · e− jπw
( jw + 1) (( jw)2 + 1) ( jw + 1) (( jw)2 + 1)
| {z }
I1 ( jw) I2 ( jw)
A B jw + c
I1 ( jw) = +
jw + 1 (( jw)2 + 1)
1
−1/2 ( jw + 1)
= + 2
( jw + 1) (( jw)2 + 1)
1 1 1 1
i1 (t) = − e−t u(t) + costut + sintδt + sintu(t)
2 2 2 2
n o
1
Since IFT ( jw)2 +1
= sintu(t)
jw d
so IFT ( jw)2 +1
= dt sintu(t)
i2 (t) = i3 (t − π)
1 1 1 1
= − e−(t−π) u(t − π) + cos(t − π)u(t − π) + sin(t − π)δ(t − π) + sin(t − π)u(t − π)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1h i
so i(t) = − −e−t + cost + sint u(t) + sintδ(t) + −e−(t−π) + cos(t − π) + sin(t − π) u(t − π)+
2 2 2
1
sin(t − π)δ(t − π)
2
i(t)
x(t) 1 C y(t)
Fig. 2.29.
S OLUTION:
Applying KVL in loop (1)
Zt
1
x(t) − Ri(t) − i(t)dt = 0
C
−∞
Zt
1
x(t) = Ri(t) + i(t)dt (1)
C
−∞
Since
VR = iR
R
Vc = C1 i(t)dt
Zt
1
and y(t) = i(t)dt (2)
C
−∞
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 139
A = B −C
H( jw) = √ 1
(8)
1 + w2
H( jw) = 1 − (1 + jw)
0
= tan−1 − tan−1 w = − tan−1 w (9)
1
For different values of w, we find H( jw) and H( jw)
1− −∞ 0 90◦
2− −50 0.0199 88.9◦
3− −20 0.0499 87.1◦
4− −10 0.099 84.3◦
5− −5 0.196 78.7◦
6− −2 0.447 63.4◦
7− −1 0.707 45◦
8− 0 1 0
9− 1 0.707 −45◦
10− 2 0.447 −63.4◦
11− 5 0.196 −78.7◦
12− 10 0.099 −84.3◦
13− 20 0.0499 −87.1◦
14− 50 0.0199 −88.9◦
15− ∞ 0 −90◦
| H(jw) |
1
∠H(jw)
90°
45°
−45°
−90°
Example 28: For the circuit shown in figure, determine the output voltage V0 (t) to a voltage source excitation
Vi(t) = e−t u(t) using Fourier transform
2Ω
+
Vin(t) +
− 1 1H V0(t)
−
Fig. 2.32.
S OLUTION:
Q3: (i) State and prove the following properties of Fourier series:
(a) Time shifting property (b) Frequency shifting property
(ii) What are Dirichlet’s conditions?
Q4: Find the fundamental period T , the fundamental frequency w0 and the Fourier series coefficients an of
the following periodic signal;
x(t)
1
t
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 t
−1
Fig. 2.3 P.
Q5: Obtain the Fourier series component of the periodic square wave signals.
x(t)
1
−1
Fig. 2.4 P.
x(t)
A
−T/2 T/2 t
Fig. 2.5 P.
∠X(w)
π/2
| X(w) |
1 w0
−w0 w
−π/2
−w0 w0 w
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.6 P.
Q12: Find the Fourier transform of the following waveform.
x(t)
−b −a 0 a b t
Fig. 2.7 P.
Q16: Find the Fourier transform of the signal x(t) shown in figure below.
x(t)
A
0 T 2T t
Fig. 2.8 P.
Q17: Determine the frequency response H( jw) and impulse response h(t) for a stable CTLTIS characterized
by the linear constant coefficient differential equation given as
Q18: Find the Fourier transform of the signal x(t) shown in figure below.
x(t)
K
−T 0 T t
Fig. 2.9 P.
Q19: If g(t) is a complex signal given by g(t) = gr (t) + jgi (t) where gr (t) and gi (t) are the real and
imaginary parts of g(t) respectively. If G( f ) is the Fourier transform of g(t), express the Fourier transform
of gr (t) and gi (t) in terms of G( f ).
Q20: Find the coefficients of the complex exponential Fourier series for a half wave rectified sine wave
defined by
A sin (w0t), 0 ≤ t ≤ T0 /2
x(t) =
0, T0 /2 ≤ t ≤ T0
with x(t) = x(t + T0 )
Q21: (a) Show that the Fourier transform of the convolution of two signals in the time domain can be given
by the product of the Fourier transform of the individual signals in the frequency domain.
(b) Determine the Fourier transform of the signal
1 1 1
x(t) = δ(t + 1) + δ(t − 1) + δ t + δ+ t −
2 2 2
146 • Basic System Analysis
1 − (−1)n
an =
n2 π2
1
bn =
nπ
Q3:
x(t)
1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 t
−1
T =1
w0 = 2π rad/ sec
y2 − y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
x(t) = −2t + 1
0 +T
tZ
2
an = x(t) cos n w0t dt
T
t0
an = 0
Q4:
x(t)
1.0
−1.0
T T 3T 2π 8π
− − = ; w0 = 3T =
2 4 4 4
3T
(
1 − T4 ≤ t ≤ T4
x(t) =
−1 T4 ≤ t ≤ T2
T T
Z4 Z2
1 4 T 1
a0 = 3T dt + (−1)dt = =
4 T
3T 4 3
−4 T
4
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 147
T T
Z4 Z2
8 8nπ 8nπ
an = cos dt − cos tdt
3T
3T 3T
− T4 T
4
1 2nπ 4nπ
an = 3 sin − sin
nπ 3 3
bn = 0, since even function
1 1 2π 4π 3 4π 1 8π
x(t) = + 3 sin − sin + sin − sin +···
3 π 3 3 2 3 2 3
Q5:
x(t)
A
−T/2 T/2 t
(
A − T2 ≤ t ≤ T
2
x(t) =
0 elsewhere
T
Z2
2A wT AT wT
X( jw) = A e− jwt dt = sin = wT sin
w 2 2
2
− T2
X(i f ) = AT sin c f T
Q6:
T0 = 2π;
w0 = 1;
Zπ
1 −π2
a0 = t − t 2 dt =
2π 3
−π
Zπ
1 −4(−1)n
an = t − t 2 cos nt dt =
π n2
−π
Zπ
1 −2(−1)n
bn = t − t 2 sin nt dt =
π n
−π
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 149
Z0
1 1 − e− jw0 t
x2 (t) = j e jwt dw =
2π 2πt
−w0
1
x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) = (1 − e jw0 t + 1 − e− jw0 t )
2πt
1 2 sin2 w20 t
= (2 − 2 cos w0t) =
2πt πt
Q11:
x(t)
1.0
−b −a 0 a b t
t+b
b−a for − b < t < −a
x(t) = 1 for − a < t < a
t−b
a−b for a<t <b
2
X( jw) = (cos wa − cos wb)
w2 (b − a)
Q12:
x(t) = tu(t)∗ [u(t) − u(t − 1)]
x1 (t) = tu(t) x2 (t) = u(t) − u(t − 1)
Differentiating in frequency domain property
d
FT(tx(t)) = j X( jw)
dw
1
X1 ( jw) =
( jw)2
Z1
1
X2 ( jw) = 1.e− jwt dt = (1 − e− jw )
jw
0
1
X( jw) = X1 ( jw)X2 ( jw) = (1 − e− jw )
( jw)3
150 • Basic System Analysis
Q14:
x(t)
(T,A)
A
0 T 2T t
(0,0)
A
Tt 0<t <T
x(t) =
A T < t < 2T
ZT Z2T
A
X( jw) = te− jwt dt + A e− jwt dt
T
0 T
ZT ZT − jwt − jwt
A te− jwt e e 2T
X( jw) = − dt + A
T − jw jw − jw T
0 0
− j2wT
A Te jwt 1 − jwT e − e− jwT
= + e −1 +A
T − jw w2 − jw
− jwt
e 1 A
=A + e− jwT − 1 − e− jwT e− jwT − 1
− jw w2 T jw
Ae− jw T A A A A
= + 2 e− jwT − 2 − e− j 2wT + e− jwT
jw w T w T jw jw
A 1 − jwT 1 −2 jwT
= e − + jTe
wT w w
Q15:
d 2 y(t) dy(t) dx(t)
+4 + 3y(t) = + 2x(t) (1)
dt 2 dt dt
T0
x(t) = A sin w0t for 0 ≤ t ≤
2
T0
=0 for ≤ t ≤ T0
2
T0
Z2
1 A − cos w0t T20
C0 = A sin w0tdt = 0
T0 T0 w0
0
A T0 A A
=− 2π
cos w0 · − 1 = − [cos π − 1] =
T0 · T0 2 2π 2
T0
Z2
1
Cn = A sin w0te− jnw0 t dt
T0
0
T0
Z2
A
= (e jw0 t − e− jnw0 t )e− jnw0 t dt
2 jT0
0
T0
Z2
A
= e jw0 t(1−n) − e− jw0 t(n+1) dt
2 jT0
0
!
A e jw0 t(1−n) e− jw0 t(n+1) T20
= −
2 jT0 jw0 (1 − n) − jw0 (n + 1) 0
T0 T0 !
A e jw0 (1−n) 2 e− jw0 (n+1) 2 1 1
= + − −
2 jT0 w0 1−n (n + 1) 1−n n+1
" #
A e jπ(1−n) e− jπ(n+1) 1 1
=− + − −
4π 1 − n n+1 1−n n+1
A e jπ e− jnπ e− jnπ · e− jπ 1 1
=− + − −
4π 1−n n+1 1−n n+1
− jnπ
A −e e− jnπ 1 1
=− − − − Since e jπ = −1
4π 1−n n+1 1−n n+1
A 2e− jnπ 2
= +
4π 1 − n2 1 − n2
A
= (e− jnπ + 1)
2π(1 − n2 )
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform • 153
Q19:
1 1 1
x(t) = δ(t + 1) + δ(t − 1) + δ t + +δ t −
2 2 2
Taking Fourier transform on both sides
Z∞
X( jw) = x(t)e− jwt dt (1)
−∞
Z∞
1 1 1
X( jw) = δ(t + 1) + δ(t − 1) + δ t + +δ t − e− jwt dt
2 2 2
−∞
Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
1 1 − jwt
X( jw) = δ(t + 1)e− jwt dt + δ(t − 1)e− jwt dt + δ t+ e dt
2 2
−∞ −∞ −∞
Z∞
1 − jwt
+ δ t− e dt
2
−∞
Since FT(δ(t)) = 1
Q1: If the Fourier transform of a function x(t) is X( jw), then X( jw) is defined as
R∞ R ∞ dx(t) − jwt
(a) −∞ x(t)e jwt dt (b) −∞ e dt
R∞ R ∞ dt − jwt
(c) −∞ x(t)dt (d) −∞ x(t)e dt
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS
Q1: Show that the Fourier transform of x(t) = δ(t + 2) + δ(t) + δ(t − 2) is (1 + 2 cos 2w).
Q2: Show that the inverse Fourier transform of X( jw) = 2πδ(w) + πδ(w − 4π) + πδ(w + 4π) is x(t) =
1 + cos 4πt.
Q3: Calculate the Fourier transform of te−|t| , using the F.T. pair, FT e−|t| = 1+w
2
2 . Also find the Fourier
4t
transform of (1+t 2 )2 using duality property.
Q4: X( jw) = δ(w) + δ(w − π) + δ(w − 5); find IFT x(t) and show that x(t) is non-periodic.
Q5: Find the Fourier transform of the triangular pulse as shown in figure.
x(t)
1
−T/2 0 T/2 t
Fig. 2.10 P.
T
Ans. X( jw) = 2 sin c2 ( wt
4 )
Q6: Find the Fourier transform of x(t) = rect(t/2). Ans. X( jw) = 2 sin cw
Q7: Find the Fourier transform of the signal x(t) = cos w0t by using the frequency shifting property.
Ans: X( jw) = π[δ(w − w0 ) + δ(w + w0 )]
jw
Q9: Find inverse Fourier transform of X( jw) = (1+ jw)2
Ans. x(t) = d
dt [te−t u(t)]
156 • Basic System Analysis
Q10: Sketch and then find the Fourier transform of following signals
x1(t)
(a) x1 (t) = π t + 23 +π t − 23
Ans. (a) −1 X1 ( jw) = 2 sin c w2 cos 3 w2
−2 −1 1 2 t
Fig. 2.11 P.
x2(t)
2
(b) x2 (t) = π t
+π t
Ans. (b) −1 X2 ( jw) = 4 sin c2w+2 sin cw
4 2
−2 −1 1 2 t
Fig. 2.12 P.
Q11: Find the frequency response x( jw) of the RC circuit shown in figure. Plot the magnitude and phase
response for RC = 1
y( jw) 1
x( jw) = =
x( jw) 1 + jwRC
↑ ↑
↑
x(t)
R −
−C y(l)
↑
Fig. 2.13 P.
1
Ans. |x( jw)| = √
1 + w2
x( jw) = − tan−1 w
1 1 2
x(tπ)t = + cos 5πt − cos 10
π 2 3π
2
− cos 15πt
8π