lubricants

Article
Misalignment-Induced Micro-Elastohydrodynamic
Lubrication in Rotary Lip Seals
F. Xavier Borras * , Matthijn B. de Rooij and Dik J. Schipper
University of Twente, Surface Technology and Tribology, 7522NB Enschede, The Netherlands;
m.b.derooij@utwente.nl (M.B.d.R.); d.j.schipper@utwente.nl (D.J.S.)
* Correspondence: f.borrassubirana@utwente.nl; Tel.: +31-053-489-5300




Received: 15 January 2020; Accepted: 29 January 2020; Published: 10 February 2020


Abstract: In literature the lubrication of rotary lip seals is explained by hydrodynamic action on a
microscopic scale. This theory assumes perfect concentricity between the seal and the shaft which in
reality seldomly occurs. Focusing on the stern tube seals application, an analysis is performed on
the phenomena distorting the axisymmetric operation of rotary lip seals. Radial and angular shaft
misalignments together with pressure and temperature gradients have been modelled. The model
predictions are validated using a dedicated setup. Additionally, applying the soft-EHL film thickness
expressions at the asperity level, an equivalent film thickness along the circumferential direction is
estimated. The Reynolds PDE is solved to predict the misalignment-induced hydrodynamic pressure
build-up. The film thickness variation derived and accompanying non-uniform contact pressure
distribution was shown to be sufficient for hydrodynamic action and, depending on the minimum film
thickness, the hydrodynamic pressure build-up can exceed the static contact pressure. Additionally,
significant differences were observed between the radial and angular misalignment configurations.

Keywords: EHL; film thickness; rotary; lip seal; misalignment; stern tube; seal

1. Introduction
The working mechanism of lubricated rotary lip seals have been the subject of discussion for the
past decades. The presence of some sort of hydrodynamic action is repeatedly reported in literature.
Jagger [1] was the first one to notice that the frictional torque of rotary lip seals included a viscous
component, i.e., the friction between the shaft and the seal was inherently coupled to the turning
velocity. His findings could explain the extremely low wear rates observed in some rotary lip seals [2].
Later Stakenborg [3] observed air bubbles arising from the sealing contact when running. The location
of the cavitation area varied with the shaft angular speed. Wennehorst [4], among others, measured
the lift-off of the seal lip with increasing shaft speed. While it is a given that a hydrodynamic film
(partial or full) is present, the following two questions posed by Salant [5] prevail: what is the origin of
the fluid hydrodynamic pressure built-up? If surface separation partially or fully develops, why does
the seal not leak?
Contrasting with journal bearings and thrust bearings, lip seals do not present a convergent
gap profile, i.e., a wedge, in the direction of motion in the absence of misalignment. Therefore,
no pressure build-up is expected from the operation of a perfectly concentric seal [4]. Lip seals
resemble mechanical shaft seals in the sense that both require deviations from nominal parallelism
to generate an hydrodynamic load support. Ever since the presence of hydrodynamics was first
documented, researchers have theorized about the mechanism behind rotary lip seals. Several theories,
both macroscopic and microscopic [6], able to explain the almost leak-less and wear-less operation of
lubricated rotary lip seals have been presented in literature.

Lubricants 2020, 8, 19; doi:10.3390/lubricants8020019 www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

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Up to now, the generally accepted theory relies on the hydrodynamic action on the microscopic
Up to now, the generally accepted theory relies on the hydrodynamic action on the microscopic
level to explain the performance of rotary lip seals. When the shaft rotates, the microscopic wedges
level to explain the performance of rotary lip seals. When the shaft rotates, the microscopic wedges
between the seal and shaft surface asperities generate a hydrodynamic fluid load carrying capacity
between the seal and shaft surface asperities generate a hydrodynamic fluid load carrying capacity
capable of partially or fully supporting the radial force of the seal lip. Furthermore, the compressed
capable of partially or fully supporting the radial force of the seal lip. Furthermore, the compressed
asperities are tangentially distorted in the circumferential direction due to friction leading to a shaft-seal
asperities are tangentially distorted in the circumferential direction due to friction leading to a shaft-
topography resembling a micro-screw pump [5] (see Figure 1). Consequently, in a similar fashion
seal topography resembling a micro-screw pump [5] (see Figure 1). Consequently, in a similar fashion
as a visco-seal, the rotation of the shaft induces a flow in one direction preventing the leakage in
as a visco-seal, the rotation of the shaft induces a flow in one direction preventing the leakage in the
the opposite direction. This sealing mechanism is known as the reverse, upstream or back pumping
opposite direction. This sealing mechanism is known as the reverse, upstream or back pumping of
of rotary lip seals [6]. When running on an oil–air interface, the ingress of air is often described in
rotary lip seals [6]. When running on an oil–air interface, the ingress of air is often described in
literature [7].
literature [7].

Figure 1. Characteristic reverse pumping mechanism or rotary lip seals.

Figure 1. Characteristic reverse pumping mechanism or rotary lip seals.

Although the
Although the microscopic
microscopic theorytheory cancan explain
explain many
many of of the
the phenomena
phenomena observed
observed in in rotary
rotary liplip
seals[5],
seals [5],ititdisregards
disregardsthe theshaft-seal
shaft-seal misalignment
misalignment which
which hashas repeatedly
repeatedly shownshown to play
to play a significant
a significant role
when it comes to wear rate, contact temperature, and the lifespan of sealing components [8]. The lossThe
role when it comes to wear rate, contact temperature, and the lifespan of sealing components [8]. of
lossseal–shaft
the of the seal–shaft concentricity
concentricity is usuallyis usually classified
classified betweenbetween
radial andradial and angular
angular misalignments
misalignments [9].
[9]. Radial
Radial misalignment
misalignment refers torefers to the
the offset offset between
between the bore the
andbore
shaftand
axesshaft axes (parallel
(parallel misalignment),
misalignment), i.e., keepingi.e.,
keeping the axes parallel. The second type of misalignment, also known
the axes parallel. The second type of misalignment, also known as skewness, cocking, cant or slant,as skewness, cocking, cant
or slant,
refers refers
to the to the difference
difference in orientationin orientation
between the between thebore
shaft and shaftaxes.
and Both
bore radial
axes. Both radial
(ε) and (𝜀) and
angular (θ)
angular (𝜃) misalignments can be constant (static) or variable in time (dynamic).
misalignments can be constant (static) or variable in time (dynamic). The four possible configurations The four possible
configurations
are shown in Figure are shown
2. The in Figure
loss of 2. The lossparallelism
nominal of nominalbetween
parallelism thebetween
seal andthetheseal and
shaft theresult
can shaft
can result
from from the
the bearings bearings
internal internal and
and mounting mounting
clearances, theclearances, the shaft out-of-roundness,
shaft out-of-roundness, the manufacturing the
manufacturing tolerances, the radial vibrations, the shaft loading or the speed-induced
tolerances, the radial vibrations, the shaft loading or the speed-induced wobbling of the shaft [10]. wobbling of
The viscoelasticity of the seal material affects the followability of the seal [11] and it will also lead to ait
the shaft [10]. The viscoelasticity of the seal material affects the followability of the seal [11] and
will also lead
misaligned to a misaligned
operation [12]. Poll [13]operation
presented [12]. Poll measurements
torque [13] presentedoftorque measurements
a seal oscillating at theof a seal
rotation
oscillating at the rotation frequency of the shaft. This is a clear consequence
frequency of the shaft. This is a clear consequence of dynamic misalignment between the seal and of dynamic misalignment
between
the shaft. the seal and the shaft.
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Figure 2. Classification bore-to-shaft misalignment in lip seals.

Figure 2. Classification bore-to-shaft misalignment in lip seals.
Figure 2. Classification bore-to-shaft misalignment in lip seals.
While there are methods to measure the sealing force of a radial seal [14], there is not a standard
While there are methods to measure the sealing force of a radial seal [14], there is not a standard
way to measure
While there areit when the to
methods seal and thethe
measure shaft are offset.
sealing forceThe
of aoverall reaction
radial seal [14],force
theretoisanot
set aofstandard
radial
way to measure it when the seal and the shaft are offset. The overall reaction force to a set of radial
way to measure it when the seal and the shaft are offset. The overall reaction force to a set ofgood
misalignments were measured by Tasora [15] and Pinedo [16]. Their measurements show radial
misalignments
agreement withwerethemeasured by Tasora
loads obtained [15]Finite
using the and Pinedo [16]. Their measurements show good
misalignments were measured by Tasora [15] and Elements (FE) models.
Pinedo [16]. Van Babel [17]show
Their measurements sketched
good
agreement with the
the resultant loadsarea
obtained using the Finite Elements (FE) models. Van Babel [17]tip
sketched
of the the
agreement withcontact
the loads from both
obtained radial
using theand angular
Finite misalignments
Elements showing
(FE) models. Van that,
Babelthe [17] sketched
resultant contact
seal is axiallyarea from as
displaced both radial
a result and
of it. angular
This misalignments
phenomenon is shown inshowing
Figure 3.that, the tip of the seal is
the resultant contact area from both radial and angular misalignments showing that, the tip of the
axially
seal isdisplaced as a result
axially displaced as aofresult
it. This phenomenon
of it. is shown
This phenomenon in Figure
is shown 3.
in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Tip axial displacement induced by the shaft offset.

Figure3.3.Tip
Figure Tipaxial
axial displacement
displacement induced
inducedby
bythe
theshaft
shaftoffset.
offset.
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Here a particular type of a stern tube seal of 200 mm nominal diameter is analysed. For this
application, the large dimensions
Here a particular type of a stern of thetube components
seal of 200of mm thenominal
propulsion system,
diameter the manufacturing
is analysed. For this
accuracy of the
application, the elastomeric
large dimensions parts together with the inherent
of the components of the offset with the
propulsion shaft the
system, bearings [18] make
manufacturing
the bore-seal
accuracy of themisalignment
elastomeric more than probable.
parts together with theNevertheless,
inherent offset less with
obvious effectsbearings
the shaft might also [18]lead
make to
a non-concentric
the shaft operation.
bore-seal misalignment Sternprobable.
more than tube seals operate below
Nevertheless, lessthe seawater
obvious level
effects thereby
might alsosubjected
lead to a
to hydrostatic shaft
non-concentric pressure. Furthermore,
operation. Stern tube as seals
the seals
operateare below
vertically positioned,
the seawater there
level is a subjected
thereby hydrostatic to
pressure gradient
hydrostatic pressure.from the highest as
Furthermore, to the
the seals
lowest arepoint of each
vertically seal. The pressure
positioned, there is a difference
hydrostaticispressure
directly
related tofrom
gradient the the
diameter
highest oftothe
theseal.
lowest As point
a result of it, seal.
of each sternThe tubepressure
seals can present is
difference a skewed contact
directly related
profile. Ultimately, Arai [10] showed the sensitivity of the seal to temperature
to the diameter of the seal. As a result of it, stern tube seals can present a skewed contact profile. variations due to the
large thermal
Ultimately, expansion
Arai [10] showed of elastomers.
the sensitivity He reported
of the seal about seals whichvariations
to temperature were onlydue tightto beyond
the largea
particular
thermal temperature.
expansion Sinzara [19],
of elastomers. He using
reported an IR camera,
about seals showed
which were a significant
only tighttemperature gradient
beyond a particular
along the perimeter
temperature. Sinzaraof[19],
the seal
using contact when theshowed
an IR camera, shaft was intentionally
a significant offset. gradient along the
temperature
The actual
perimeter of thefilm
seal thickness
contact when of rotary lip seals,
the shaft which wouldoffset.
was intentionally clarify their actual lubrication regime,
still remains
The actual difficult to measure.
film thickness Thelip
of rotary film thickness
seals, valuesclarify
which would shown in literature
their span from
actual lubrication 0.1 tostill
regime, 10
µm anddifficult
remains significant changesThe
to measure. to the
filmtribo-system
thickness values are required
shown in to make the
literature span measurements
from 0.1 to 10 feasible.
µm and
Organisciak
significant [20] fitted
changes to theatribo-system
function to the lubricanttofilm
are required make thickness measurements
the measurements of radial
feasible. shaft seals
Organisciak [20]
for gearboxes showing a fair resemblance to the iso-viscous elastic film thickness
fitted a function to the lubricant film thickness measurements of radial shaft seals for gearboxes showing expressions (soft-
aelastohydrodynamic
fair resemblance tolubrication
the iso-viscous[21]). elastic
Fowellfilm [22]thickness
measuredexpressions
the film thickness of fluoroelastomer
(soft-elastohydrodynamic
specimens [21]).
lubrication usingFowell
the laser [22]induced
measured fluorescence
the film thickness(LIF) technique and these
of fluoroelastomer showed using
specimens to be thein good
laser
agreement
induced with Hamrock
fluorescence (LIF)[21] and Nijenbanning
technique and these showed [23] elastohydrodynamic
to be in good agreement lubrication
with(EHL)
Hamrock models.
[21]
FirstNijenbanning
and Gabelli [24] and then
[23] Wennehorst [4] made
elastohydrodynamic use of the(EHL)
lubrication Chittenden
models. expressions
First Gabelli[25][24]
to predict
and then the
minimum film thickness on rotary lip seals by applying it at the microscopic
Wennehorst [4] made use of the Chittenden expressions [25] to predict the minimum film thickness on level, i.e., for a single
asperity
rotary lipcontact.
seals byWennehorst
applying it at recently managed level,
the microscopic to measure
i.e., forthe film thickness
a single on a rotary
asperity contact. lip seal
Wennehorst
using themanaged
recently LIF technique
to measure[4]. the film thickness on a rotary lip seal using the LIF technique [4].
The contact
The contact pressure and area resulting from different misaligned configurations are obtained.
Next, the effects
Next, effects ofof the
the temperature
temperature difference
difference over over the
the seal
seal asas well
well asas the
the presence
presence of of aa hydrostatic
hydrostatic
pressure gradient
pressure gradient willwill be
be analyzed.
analyzed. Further,
Further, the the authors
authors applied
applied the the soft-EHL
soft-EHL theory
theory to to estimate
estimate the the
equivalent gap profile between
equivalent between the shaft shaft andand the
the seal.
seal. Ultimately, the seal is modelled modelled as aa journaljournal
bearing to
bearing to estimate
estimate the the hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic pressure pressureexpected
expectedfrom fromaamisalignment-induced
misalignment-inducedgap gapprofile.
profile.

2.
2. Materials and Methods
The
The strategy
strategy for
for modelling
modelling thethe hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics developing
developing under
under aa non-concentric
non-concentric shaft-seal
shaft-seal
configuration
configuration counted with the three steps shown in Figure
three steps shown in Figure 4. 4. The first step consisted in estimating
first step consisted in estimating
the
the contact
contact pressure
pressure and
and contact
contact area
area on
on a misaligned configuration. Subsequently, specifying
configuration. Subsequently, specifying aa shaft
shaft
angular
angular velocity
velocityand
andaalubricant
lubricantviscosity, thethe
viscosity, soft-EHL
soft-EHLtheory waswas
theory applied resulting
applied in a lubricant
resulting film
in a lubricant
thickness along the circumferential direction. Ultimately, by solving the Elrod–Addams
film thickness along the circumferential direction. Ultimately, by solving the Elrod–Addams algorithm
in the film thickness
algorithm in the filmprofile obtained
thickness (i.e.,obtained
profile under the(i.e.,
same operating
under conditions),
the same theconditions),
operating hydrodynamic the
pressure build-up
hydrodynamic was predicted.
pressure build-up was predicted.

Figure 4. Scheme of the modelling strategy (see Nomenclature).

Figure 4. Nomenclature).

AA stern
stern tube
tube seal
seal FE
FE model
model was
was developed
developed to
to study
study the
the response
response of
of aa lip
lip seal
seal to
to various
various kinds
kinds of
of
misalignments. The commercial FE package COMSOL Multiphysics ® was used to model a 200 mm
misalignments. The commercial FE package COMSOL Multiphysics was used to model a 200 mm
®

stern
stern tube
tube seal. The contact
seal. The force, contact
contact force, contact area
area and
and pressure
pressure profile
profile under
under the
the seal
seal tip
tip were
were predicted
predicted
using the large strain theory and modelling the seal with the Saint Venant–Kirchoff constitutional
using the large strain theory and modelling the seal with the Saint Venant–Kirchoff constitutional
Lubricants 2020, 8, 19 5 of 19

material model with the properties listed in Table 1. The lack of axial symmetry of the loads required
the use of a three-dimensional model [15,16]. Therefore, the axisymmetric approach presented in a
previous publication of the authors [14] was extended along the circumferential direction. The initial
configuration was considered to be the one with the seal head already clamped between the seal
housing components (see Figure 1). It is essential to model the clamping stage as the inner diameter of
the seal lip decreases as a result of it. The seal head boundary nodes were consequently fixed leading
to a model with a single boundary contact (instead of four [14]).

Table 1. Material properties used in the three-dimensional stern tube seal FE model.

Stern Tube Seal Shaft Seal Housing

E [MPa] 14.0 2.0 ×105 1.065 × 105
ν h [−] i 0.49 0.27 0.35
ρ kg/m3 1900 7700 8800
Cp [J/(kg·K)] 1670 1909.7 376
k [W/(m·K)] 0.25 25 60
αT [1/K] 2.75 × 10−4 1.0 × 10−5 1.85 × 10−5

The frictionless penalty term method was used easing the overall convergence of the model.
This method allows for a certain body penetration leading to slightly lower maximum contact pressures
than when using the augmented Lagrangian method. Due to that, the stiffness listed in Table 1 was
obtained by matching the model predictions to the actual radial force measurements conducted using
the split-shaft setup shown in Figure 5 [14]. The tangential load at the contact was shown to not
significantly impact the contact pressure nor the contact width for a seal with the material properties
as given in Table 1.
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Figure 5. Split-shaft setup used for measuring the radial force exerted by the stern tube seal.
Figure 5. Split-shaft setup used for measuring the radial force exerted by the stern tube seal.

TheThe radialand
radial andangular
angularstatic
staticmisalignments
misalignments were
were implemented
implementedby byprescribing
prescribingthe displacement
the displacement
of a rigid shaft as depicted in Figure 2. The hydrostatic pressure was modelled as a true follower load
of a rigid shaft as depicted in Figure 2. The hydrostatic pressure was modelled as a true follower load
coupled to the 𝑥 direction in Figure 6. The symmetric nature of the components and the
coupled to the x direction in Figure 6. The symmetric nature of the components and the misalignments
misalignments allowed to only model half the seal. For the study of hot spots, the temperature at the
allowed to only model half the seal. For the study of hot spots, the temperature at the tip of the seal
tip of the seal was prescribed as a boundary condition and the energy equation was solved using the
was prescribed as a boundary condition and the energy equation was solved using the same convective
same convective coefficients as used by Stakenborg [3] while the surrounding temperature was set to
coefficients as used by Stakenborg [3] while the surrounding temperature was set to 20 ◦ C. A quad
20 °C. A quad element mesh was used for the seal and shaft sections. A high degree of mesh
element meshon
refinement wastheused for the seal direction
circumferential and shaftwas
sections. A high
required so thedegree of mesh
pressure refinement
profile on the
of the three-
circumferential direction was required so the pressure profile of the three-dimensional
dimensional model matched with the one obtained when using an equivalent axisymmetric model.model matched
with the one obtained when using an equivalent axisymmetric model.
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Figure
Figure 6. 6. Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional model
modelof the seal.seal.
of the Note the taper
Note theshaft partshaft
taper required
partfor its concentric
required for its
assembly.
concentric assembly.
Figure 6. Three-dimensional model of the seal. Note the taper shaft part required for its concentric
assembly.
TheThe dedicated
dedicated setupschematically
setup schematicallyshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 77 was
was developed
developedallowing
allowingtotomeasure the
measure the
contact
contact area
area betweenthe
between theseal
sealand
and the
the shaft.
shaft. The
The setup
setup is is
equipped
equipped with a glass
with shaftshaft
a glass which allows
which for
The dedicated setup schematically shown in Figure 7 was developed allowing to measure theallows
the
for the direct
direct inspection
inspection of the
ofseal contact
the and
contact area. A
area.The precision
A precision camera (Dino-Lite,
camerawith
(Dino-Lite, Taiwan,
Taiwan, China) andand 45
a
contact area between the the shaft. setup is equipped a glass shaft whichChina)
allows for a 45
degrees mirror are assembled on a turning table allowing to directly observe the contact area along
degrees mirror are assembled on a turning table allowing to directly observe the
the direct inspection of the contact area. A precision camera (Dino-Lite, Taiwan, China) and a 45 contact area along
the complete perimeter of the seal. The Frustrated Total Internal Reflection technique is used to ease
degrees mirror
the complete are assembled
perimeter on aThe
of the seal. turning table allowing
Frustrated to directly
Total Internal observe the
Reflection contact area
technique alongto ease
is used
the
thevisualization of the of
complete perimeter contact [4,14].
the seal. The
TheThe setup also
Frustrated allows
Totalallows
Internalthe housing technique
Reflection parts (andisthe
used seal) to slide
to ease
the visualization of the contact [4,14]. setup also the housing parts (and the seal) to slide
with
the respect to
visualizationtheofglass
the shaft
contact so a static
[4,14]. Theoffset
setup can
alsobe simulated.
allows the The
housingtest rig
parts was
(and used
the to
seal) validate
to slide the
with respect to the glass shaft so a static offset can be simulated. The test rig was used to validate the
predictions of the FE model.
with respect to the glass shaft so a static offset can be simulated. The test rig was used to validate the
predictions of the FE model.
predictions of the FE model.

Figure 7. Specialized seal setup to observe the seal contact under various misalignments and
Figure 7. Specialized seal setup to observe the seal contact under various misalignments and
Figure 7. Specialized seal setup to observe the seal contact under various misalignments and
pressurized
pressurized conditions.
conditions.
pressurized conditions.
Once
Once thethe reliability
reliability ofof the
the model
modelwaswasascertained
ascertainedand and
in in agreement
agreement withwith Gabelli
Gabelli [24] [24]
and and
Once
Wennehorstthe reliability of the model was ascertained and in agreement with Gabelli or [24] and
Wennehorst [4], [4], the iso-viscouselastohydrodynamic
the iso-viscous elastohydrodynamicfilm film thickness
thickness expression
expression (soft-EHL
(soft-EHL or I-EHL)I-EHL)
Wennehorst
introduced [4],
introduced by the iso-viscous
by Chittenden
Chittenden [25] elastohydrodynamic
[25] was
wasused
usedtotoestimate
estimatethefilm
the thickness
film
film thickness
thickness expression
profile
profile (soft-EHL
between
between the the or
seal seal I-EHL)
and and
introduced
the shaftbyunder
the shaft Chittenden
under [25] wasconditions
real operating
operating used to estimate
conditions the film
(Equations
(Equations thickness
(1)–(4)).
(1)–(4)). The
The profile
angle
angle between
between
between thethe
the seal and the
lubricant
lubricant
shaft under real
entraining
entraining operating
vector
vector theconditions
and the majoraxis
major (Equations
axisof
ofthe (1)–(4)).
theasperities
asperities was
was The angletobetween
considered
considered to be
be lowlowtheenough
enoughlubricant entraining
to disregard
to disregard
vector
its and the
itsimpact
impact tomajor
to axisfilm
the fluid
the of the
film asperities was considered to be low enough to disregard its impact to
thickness.
thickness.
the fluid film thickness.
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R y 2/3
!
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= 8.28 1 − e−0,86( Rx ) Ux0,65 Wx−0,21 (1)
Rx
/
ℎ ,
(E0, R𝑊
= 8.28 1 − 𝑒 Ux = ηux /𝑈 x)
,
(1) (2)
𝑅
Wx = F/(E0 R2x ) (3)
𝑈 = 𝜂𝑢 /(𝐸 𝑅 ) 2 (2)
E0 = 2
(4)
(1−v1 ) (1−v22 )
E + E2
𝑊 = 𝐹/(𝐸 𝑅1 ) (3)
Equation (1) predicts the central film thickness 2 h cen in elliptical conjunctions. Due to the lack of
a radius of curvature in the entrainment 𝐸′ = direction of rotary lip seals, no pressure can be generated
(1 − 𝑣 ) (1 − 𝑣 ) (4)
+
in circumferential directions. However, 𝐸 at the microscopic
𝐸 level, the radius of curvature can be
defined. In order
Equation to modelthe
(1) predicts micro-hydrodynamic ℎ
central film thicknesspressure generation,
in elliptical the I-EHLDue
conjunctions. formula
to theislack
applied
of at
the asperity
a radius level. The
of curvature sealentrainment
in the surface roughness
directionwas scanned
of rotary withno
lip seals, lateral sampling
pressure can be intervals
generatedin inboth
circumferential
directions of 0.217directions.
µm usingHowever, at themicroscope
a confocal microscopic(Sensofar,
level, the radius of curvature
Barcelona, Spain).can Frombe defined.
the surfaces
In order tomeasurements,
roughness model micro-hydrodynamic
the effective wavelength λx/y and the
pressure generation, theequivalent
I-EHL formula radiusis Rapplied
x/y were atobtained
the
asperity level. The seal surface roughness was scanned
by applying Equations (5) and (6) in agreement with Wennehorst [4]. with lateral sampling intervals in both
directions of 0.217 μm using a confocal microscope (Sensofar, Barcelona, Spain). From the surfaces
roughness measurements, the effective wavelength 𝜆S/q and the equivalent radius 𝑅 / were
λ = 2π (5)
obtained by applying Equations (5) and (6) inx/y agreement ∆x/ywith Wennehorst [4].
𝑆 (5)
𝜆 / = 2𝜋
Δ /1 λx/y 2
!
1 = 𝜆√/
Rx/y (6) (6)
𝑅 / = 2 Sq 2π
√2 𝑆 2𝜋
Neither the contact pressure nor
Neither the contact pressure nor the contact the contact area
area areare uniformly
uniformly distributed
distributed incircumferential
in the the circumferential
direction when the system is misaligned. Therefore, the number
direction when the system is misaligned. Therefore, the number of asperities in the axial of asperities in the axial direction
direction
becomes the ratio between the contact
becomes the ratio between the contact width 𝐿 and width L c and the effective wavelength
the effective wavelength 𝜆 . The λ . The loading
y loading of each of each
asperity is obtained
asperity is obtainedby byuniformly
uniformlydistributing
distributing thethe contact
contact pressure
pressure overover
the the number
number of asperities
of asperities in in
the
the axial direction (see Figure 8). The equivalent film thickness is defined as the I-EHL central film film
axial direction (see Figure 8). The equivalent film thickness is defined as the I-EHL central
thickness hℎcen . .ItItisisworth
thickness worthemphasizing
emphasizingthat thatfull film
full filmlubrication
lubrication is assumed
is assumed hence
hencedirect asperity
direct asperitycontact
does notdoes
contact occur not and the and
occur so-called asperityasperity
the so-called load is fully
load is carried by the micro-hydrodynamic
fully carried by the micro-hydrodynamic pressure.
pressure.

Figure 8.
Figure Distributionofofasperities
8.Distribution asperitiesonon
thethe contact
contact area
area profile
profile of aofslanted
a slanted
sealseal
(see (see Nomenclature).
Nomenclature).
Lubricants 2020, 8, 19 9 of 19

Ultimately, the two-dimensional mass-conservative Elrod–Adams Reynolds formulation

(Equations (7)–(9)) was solved on the gap profile obtained from the I-EHL film thickness expression.
In the simulations, the contact width, the lubricant viscosity and density were kept constant in the
computational domain. Further information on the strategy for solving the partial derivative equation
can be found in [26]. The hydrodynamic pressure built-up induced by a non-uniform pressure
distribution along the circumferential direction was then predicted. A sensitivity analysis of the
minimum film thickness and the contact width is shown in the results section.

p = pc + gβ ln(φ) (7)

∂ gβh3 ∂φ ∂ gβh3 ∂φ ux ∂(φh)

! !
+ = (8)
∂x 12η ∂x ∂y 12η ∂y 2 ∂x

φ>1 φ<1
( (
f ull f ilm zone cavitation zone (9)
g=1 g=0
The strategy described allows to predict the impact of operating with a non-uniform contact
pressure distribution in the circumferential direction for rotating conformal contacts. Note that the
additional deformation of the seal tip due to the hydrodynamic action is disregarded in the approach
discussed above and hence lower pressure values are expected in the real application.

3. Results
The deformed seal configurations as a result from the radial and angular misalignments are
presented in Figure 9. On the top plots, the black arrows indicate the displacement of the shaft. In the
figure, the seal is colored according to the magnitude of the seal displacement. On the bottom plots the
displacement of the seal in axial direction with respect to the assembled concentric situation is shown.
Figure 10 shows the magnitude of the displacements under various misalignments.
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Figure 9. Seal displacement due to radial (a) and angular (b) misalignments.
Figure 9. Seal displacement due to radial (a) and angular (b) misalignments.
The contact area profiles obtained under radial misalignment coincide with the schematic sketch
presented by Van Bavel [17] however the contact area under angular misalignment does not. As it was
The contact area profiles obtained under radial misalignment coincide with the schematic sketch
observed with O-rings [27], under angular misalignment, the sealing section becomes oval increasing
presented by Van Bavel [17] however the contact area under angular misalignment does not. As it
the diameter of the shaft on the direction of misalignment (see Figure 9). A negative axial displacement
was observed with O-rings [27], under angular misalignment, the sealing section becomes oval
ofincreasing
the lip occurred whereof
the diameter the
thediameter
shaft onwas enlarged of
the direction and a displacement
misalignment (see in the opposite
Figure direction
9). A negative axial
developed where the diameter remained constant. As shown in Figure 10 the
displacement of the lip occurred where the diameter was enlarged and a displacement in the opposite lip displacement
under angular
direction misalignment
developed wherewas thesmaller thanremained
diameter under radial misalignment.
constant. As shown Noteinthat while10a radial
Figure the lip
misalignment
displacementproduced one sinus-shaped
under angular misalignment profile, an angular
was smaller thanmisalignment
under radialled to two sinusNote
misalignment. shaped that
profiles
while aalong
radialthe circumference.
misalignment Using one
produced the sinus-shaped
setup shown in Figure
profile, an7angular
the contact area profile
misalignment ledunder
to two
radial
sinusmisalignment
shaped profiles wasalong
validated. The amplitudeUsing
the circumference. of thethe
contact
setupprofile
shown shows good7agreement
in Figure the contact with
area
the FE model
profile under predictions (see Figure 10).
radial misalignment was The calculated
validated. Theradial contact
amplitude of force along the
the contact circumferential
profile shows good
direction
agreementis shown
with thein FE
Figure
model11.predictions
It is shown(seethatFigure
the pressure
10). Thevariation
calculatedalong the
radial circumferential
contact force along
direction for the largest radial misalignment case (ε = 1.5 mm) oscillated by 20%
the circumferential direction is shown in Figure 11. It is shown that the pressure variation along with respect to its
the
aligned position. For the largest angular misalignment modelled (θ = 2 ◦ ) the pressure variation only
circumferential direction for the largest radial misalignment case (𝜀 = 1.5 mm) oscillated by 20% with
varied 1%.to its aligned position. For the largest angular misalignment modelled (𝜃 = 2°) the pressure
respect
variation only varied 1%.
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Figure10.
Figure Contactarea
10.Contact areaaround
aroundthe
theshaft
shaftfor
forvarious
variousradial
radialand
andangular
angularmisalignments.
misalignments.

When the
When thehydrostatic pressure
hydrostatic gradient
pressure was modelled
gradient as a boundary
was modelled as a condition
boundarythecondition
displacements
the
obtained were minimal even under frictionless conditions. Therefore, the seal–shaft misalignment
displacements obtained were minimal even under frictionless conditions. Therefore, the seal–shaft
due to the hydrostatic
misalignment pressure
due to the gradient
hydrostatic was found
pressure neglectable
gradient was foundforneglectable
this particular
for seal with a nominal
this particular seal
diameter
with of 200diameter
a nominal mm. of 200 mm.
 Lubricants
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Figure
Figure 11.11. Contact
Contact force
force around
around thethe shaft
shaft forfor various
various radial
radial and
and angular
angular misalignments.
misalignments.

Lastly,the
Lastly, the effect
effectofof
temperature
temperature differences alongalong
differences the circumference is analyzed.
the circumference Such temperature
is analyzed. Such
difference can possible occur due to local frictional hot spots, leading to localized
temperature difference can possible occur due to local frictional hot spots, leading to localized frictional heating.
If temperature
frictional heating.differences are present,
If temperature the consequences
differences are present, thewill be magnified
consequences due
will beto the large due
magnified thermal
to
expansion coefficients of elastomers. The presence of warmer points on the seal contact,
the large thermal expansion coefficients of elastomers. The presence of warmer points on the seal i.e., hot spots,
results i.e.,
contact, intohota non-uniform
spots, results thermal
into a expansion
non-uniform of the seal tip
thermal leading to
expansion of athe
distorted
seal tipgap profile
leading to[19].
a
distorted gap profile [19]. The thermal distortion of the seal lip when a temperature gradient a
The thermal distortion of the seal lip when a temperature gradient developed at the contact of
perfectly aligned
developed seal wasofmodelled.
at the contact a perfectlyHence the sole
aligned seal impact of temperature
was modelled. Hencewasthe captured
sole impact and ofit is
temperature was captured and it is shown in Figure 12. The temperature gradient was defined along a
shown in Figure 12. The temperature gradient was defined along the contact area of the seal as
the contact area of the seal as a temperature boundary condition while a heat convection to a 20 °C
surrounding was set for the rest of the seal boundaries. Figure 12 shows that with a temperature
Lubricants 2020, 8, 19 13 of 19

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8, x FOR PEER a heat convection to a 20 ◦ C surrounding was set for the13rest
REVIEWwhile
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◦
the seal boundaries. Figure 12 shows that with a temperature gradient of 20 C along the seal contact
gradient of 20 °C along the seal contact the thermal expansion only slightly distorted the seal
gradient
the thermalofexpansion
20 °C along
only the seal distorted
slightly contact the thermal
the seal expansion
alignment, both only slightly
the contact distorted
area the seal
and the contact
alignment, both the contact area and the contact pressure became larger at the warmest section of the
alignment,
pressure both larger
became the contact
at thearea and the
warmest contact
section pressure
of the seal. became larger at the warmest section of the
seal.
seal.

Figure 12. Impact of a contact temperature gradient along the seal perimeter.
Figure12.
Figure 12.Impact
Impactofofaacontact
contacttemperature
temperaturegradient
gradientalong
alongthe
theseal
sealperimeter.
perimeter.

Next,
Next, the film thickness along the circumferential direction was predicted for the 1.5 mm radial
Next,thethefilm
filmthickness
thicknessalong
alongthe
thecircumferential
circumferentialdirection
directionwas waspredicted
predictedfor forthethe1.5
1.5mmmmradial
radial
misalignment
misalignment case. The worn surface topography scanned presented the following surface roughness
misalignmentcase. case.The
Theworn
wornsurface
surfacetopography
topographyscanned
scannedpresented
presentedthethefollowing
followingsurface
surfaceroughness
roughness
parameters: 𝑆 = 1.24
1.24 µm,
μm , Δ =0.2170.217µmμmand,and, Δ 0.275
= 0.275µmμm (see Nomenclature). FigureFigure 13
parameters:Sq𝑆= =
parameters: 1.24 μm∆,x = Δ = 0.217 ∆y =
μm and, Δ = 0.275 μm Nomenclature).
(see (see Nomenclature). 13 shows
Figure 13
shows
the the
average average load
load that that
thethatthe micro-hydrodynamic
micro-hydrodynamic pressurepressure generated
generated at each
at eachatasperity asperity together
together with
shows the average load the micro-hydrodynamic pressure generated each asperity together
with
the the film
film thickness obtained by applying the I-EHL formulae (Equations (1)–(4)).
It isItshown
is shown thatthat
with thethickness obtained
film thickness by applying
obtained the I-EHL
by applying formulae
the I-EHL (Equations
formulae (1)–(4)).
(Equations (1)–(4)). It is shown the
that
the maximum
maximum hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic load load
was was approximately
approximately three threethe
times times the minimum
minimum one while one
the while the
difference
the maximum hydrodynamic load was approximately three times the minimum one while the
difference
between between
the maximum theandmaximum
minimum and
filmminimum
thickness film just
thickness was just 100ofnanometers.
the order of 100
difference between the maximum and minimumwas of the order
film thickness wasofjust of the order of 100
nanometers.
nanometers.

Figure13.
Figure Asperity loading
13. Asperity loading and
andfluid
fluidfilm
filmthickness forfor
thickness thethe
sealseal
with a 1.5amm
with 1.5 radial misalignment
mm radial offset.
misalignment
Figure 13. Asperity loading and fluid film thickness for the seal with a 1.5 mm radial misalignment
offset.
offset.
Lubricants 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
Lubricants 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
Lubricants 2020, 8, 19 14 of 19
Ultimately, the 2D Elrod–Addams equation (Equation (7)) was solved on the I-EHL film
Ultimately,
thickness profile shown the
in 2D Elrod–Addams
Figure equation (Equation
13 so the hydrodynamic pressure (7)) was solved
build-up on mm
for the 1.5 the radial
I-EHL film
thickness
misalignment profile
situation shown
was in Figure
predicted. 13 so
Figure the
14 hydrodynamic
shows that the pressure
resultant build-up for
hydrodynamic
Ultimately, the 2D Elrod–Addams equation (Equation (7)) was solved on the I-EHL film thicknessthe 1.5 mm radial
pressure
misalignment
profile
profilewas
shown situation
oneinorder was
Figureof13magnitudepredicted. Figure
smaller than
so the hydrodynamic 14 shows that
contactbuild-up
pressure the
pressureforand resultant
thehence
1.5 mm hydrodynamic
it radial
cannotmisalignmentpressure
be directly
profile
disregarded.
situation was was one order
predicted. of magnitude
Figure 14 shows smaller
that the than contact
resultant pressure and
hydrodynamic hence itprofile
pressure cannotwasbe one
directly
disregarded.
order of magnitude smaller than contact pressure and hence it cannot be directly disregarded.

Figure 14. Hydrodynamic pressure build-up under radial misalignment offset (𝜀 = 1.5 mm, 𝜂 =
Figure Hydrodynamic
14. 14. pressure build-up under radial misalignment offset (ε (𝜀== 1.5 mm, 𝜂 =
1.513mm,
100 mPa · s, 𝛽 = 1.0
Figure × 10 Pa, 7𝑢 pressure
Hydrodynamic = 1 m/s, build-up
𝐿 = 0.5 mm).
under radial
The I-EHL misalignment
film thicknessoffset
from Figure is
η = 100
100mPa·s,
mPa · s,β 𝛽==1.0
1.0 ×× 10 = 11m/s,
Pa, u𝑢x =
10 Pa, m/s,𝐿 Lc==0.50.5 mmThe
mm). ). I-EHL
The I-EHL film thickness
film thickness from 13 is
from Figure
magnified and shown in pink.
Figure 13 is magnified and shown in pink.
magnified and shown in pink.
To study the dependency of the lubricant film profile to the hydrodynamic pressure generation
To study the dependency of the lubricant film profile to the hydrodynamic pressure generation
To study the
both the minimum filmdependency of the lubricant
thickness (Figure filmcontact
15) and the profile to the hydrodynamic
width (Figure 16) arepressure generation
varied while
both the minimum film thickness (Figure 15) and the contact width (Figure 16) are varied while keeping
both
keeping thethe minimum
film thicknessfilm thickness
gradient (Figure
deduced 15) I-EHL
from and the contact
(see Figurewidth (Figure
13). Both the 16) are varied
minimum filmwhile
the film thickness gradient deduced from I-EHL (see Figure 13). Both the minimum film thickness and
keeping
thickness the contact
and the film thickness gradient
width were shown deduced
to be keyfrom I-EHL (see
parameters Figure
to the 13). Both the
seal operation. It is minimum
observed film
the contact width were shown to be key parameters to the seal operation. It is observed that, for some
that, thickness
for some and the contact
cases, width were shown
the hydrodynamic pressureto be key parameters
build-up to the seal
(disregarding theoperation. It is observed
lip deformation)
cases, the hydrodynamic pressure build-up (disregarding the lip deformation) overcame the static
that, the
overcame for static
somecontact
cases, pressure
the hydrodynamic
and hence pressure
it largely build-up
impacted (disregarding
the lubricationthe lip deformation)
mechanism of
contact pressure and hence it largely impacted the lubrication mechanism of rotatory lip seals.
overcame
rotatory lip seals.the static contact pressure and hence it largely impacted the lubrication mechanism of
rotatory lip seals.

Figure
Figure15.
15. Minimum film thickness
Minimum film thicknesssweep = =1.51.5
sweep(ε(𝜀 mm, η=
mm, 𝜂 100
= 100 mPa β· s,
mPa·s, 𝛽 =×1.0
= 1.0 107×Pa,
10uxPa,
= 5𝑢m/s,
=
5Lm/s, = 0.5
𝐿 mm
c = Figure
0.5 Minimum film thickness sweep (𝜀 = 1.5 mm, 𝜂 = 100 mPa · s, 𝛽 = 1.0 × 10 Pa, 𝑢 =
). mm).
15.
5 m/s, 𝐿 = 0.5 mm).
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16. Contact
Figure 16.
Figure widthLc𝐿sweep
Contact width sweepwithwith
the I-EHL film thickness
the I-EHL variation
film thickness variation ( 𝜀 = η1.5
(ε = 1.5 mm, = mm 𝜂=
100 ,mPa·s,
β =mPa
100 1.0 ·×s,10𝛽7 =
Pa,1.0
ux ×
=10 Pa, h𝑢min==5 1m/s,
5 m/s, µm ℎ). = 1 μm).

4. Discussion
4. Discussion
Various mechanisms leading to a non-concentric operation of stern tube seals were analyzed.
Various mechanisms leading to a non-concentric operation of stern tube seals were analyzed.
The radial misalignment was shown to distort the axial symmetry of the system more significantly than
The radial misalignment was shown to distort the axial symmetry of the system more significantly
the angular one (skewness). Under real operating conditions a combination of both misalignments is
than the angular one (skewness). Under real operating conditions a combination of both
to be expected. On the same line, the contact area and pressure did minimally vary for the canted seal.
misalignments is to be expected. On the same line, the contact area and pressure did minimally vary
An angular misalignment of 2◦ is several times larger than the maximum slope mismatch expected in
for the canted seal. An angular misalignment of 2° is several times larger than the maximum slope
the aft stern tube bearing under free-sailing condition [28]. However, the length and diameter of the
mismatch expected in the aft stern tube bearing under free-sailing condition [28]. However, the length
shaft is ship-dependent and the distance from the stern tube bearing to the sealing rings may lead to a
and diameter of the shaft is ship-dependent and the distance from the stern tube bearing to the sealing
larger angular misalignment. Additionally, assembling or manufacturing defects may also result in a
rings may lead to a larger angular misalignment. Additionally, assembling or manufacturing defects
shaft-seal non-concentric operation. The contact area measurements showed to be in good agreement
may also result in a shaft-seal non-concentric operation. The contact area measurements showed to
with the FE model predictions. The use of a linear elastic model for the seal and the simplification
be in good agreement with the FE model predictions. The use of a linear elastic model for the seal
of the seal boundary conditions can explain the slight differences observed between the model and
and the simplification of the seal boundary conditions can explain the slight differences observed
the experiments. The sinusoidal and double-sinusoidal contact profiles along the circumference will
between the model and the experiments. The sinusoidal and double-sinusoidal contact profiles along
lead to an axial flowrate promoting the lubrication of the seal. The swept contact area is in both cases
the circumference will lead to an axial flowrate promoting the lubrication of the seal. The swept
increased so lower contact temperatures are expected. Although time-dependent effects were out of
contact area is in both cases increased so lower contact temperatures are expected. Although time-
the scope of this research, the viscoelasticity of the material will play a significant role under dynamic
dependent effects were out of the scope of this research, the viscoelasticity of the material will play a
misalignment, e.g., wobbling [11,12,29]. The difference in pressure between the top and bottom part of
significant role under dynamic misalignment, e.g., wobbling [11,12,29]. The difference in pressure
the 200 mm seal, i.e., around 0.02 bar pressure difference, did not significantly distort the alignment
between the top and bottom part of the 200 mm seal, i.e., around 0.02 bar pressure difference, did not
of the system. Note that the hydrostatic pressure difference increases with the shaft diameter and its
significantly distort the alignment of the system. Note that the hydrostatic pressure difference
contribution to the seal slant must be then re-evaluated when working with larger seals. The large
increases with the shaft diameter and its contribution to the seal slant must be then re-evaluated when
thermal expansion coefficient of the seal material was shown to impact the position of the seal tip.
working with larger seals. The large thermal expansion coefficient of the seal material was shown to
Although the temperature of the seal is expected to even out on the long term, during its transient
impact the position of the seal tip. Although the temperature of the seal is expected to even out on
state, the temperature gradient promotes a wedge profile and therefore hydrodynamics.
the long term, during its transient state, the temperature gradient promotes a wedge profile and
The use of EHL film thickness expressions [21] for a conformal contact has its uncertainties and
therefore hydrodynamics.
limitations
The use[4]. Nevertheless,
of EHL theseexpressions
film thickness formulae is [21]
usedfor
toaevaluate
conformalthecontact
hydrodynamic potential arising
has its uncertainties and
from a misaligned shaft-seal situation. Furthermore, the magnitude of the film thickness
limitations [4]. Nevertheless, these formulae is used to evaluate the hydrodynamic potential predicted
arisingis
in fair
from agreement shaft-seal
a misaligned with the ones foundFurthermore,
situation. in literature. the
Formagnitude
the largestofcase
theof radial
film misalignment,
thickness predictedi.e.,
is
1.5 mm offset, the maximum hydrodynamic load per asperity is 2.82 times larger than
in fair agreement with the ones found in literature. For the largest case of radial misalignment, the minimumi.e.,
one.
1.5 mm The maximum
offset, film thickness
the maximum calculated
hydrodynamic with
load perEquation
asperity(1) becomes
is 2.82 timesonly 1.24
larger times
than the larger
minimumthan
one. The maximum film thickness calculated with Equation (1) becomes only 1.24 times larger than
the minimum one. That is because the loading of the junction does not significant impact the film
Lubricants 2020, 8, 19 16 of 19

the minimum one. That is because the loading of the junction does not significant impact the film
thickness according to the I-EHL formulations revised [21,23,25]. Note that, in some particular cases,
the contact area can increase further than the contact pressure on the loaded side of the seal. This leads
to the counterintuitive situation where the asperities on the uncompressed side of the seal bear the
largest loads.
The hydrodynamic pressures predicted from modelling a rotary lip seal as a slender journal
bearing (Equation (7)) showed to be of the same order of magnitude than the static contact pressures [14].
Note that such peak pressure values will not develop as the seal deforms as a result of it. Some
authors [5] suggested that a varying contact pressure, whether due to the coils separation of the Garter
spring or due to the molding of hydrodynamic ribs, generates a secondary load pressure build-up
mechanism. The same may occur due to the inherent viscoelasticity of the seal material [11,12].
The analysis shows that minute gap gradients suffice to generate a significant hydrodynamic action
and that, together with the minimum film thickness and the contact width, impacts the normal
operation of rotary lip seals. Furthermore, if such macroscopic hydrodynamic pressures develop,
the micro-elastohydrodynamic working principle behind rotary lip seals will be distorted. As it occurs
with visco-seals, the pumping ability vanishes with the alignment of the shaft. When it comes to
modelling, the widely used approach presented by Salant [4,5] analyzes a single patch (i.e., cell) of the
seal surface and the results are extrapolated to the rest of the contact, i.e., these cells are assumed to be
periodic along the circumferential direction. However, when the pressure is not uniformly distributed
along the circumferential direction, each surface patch operates under unique operating conditions
and hence each patch must be independently evaluated.
It is worth mentioning that the sinus-shaped contact area will further promote the hydrodynamic
action. The slant of the contact area unequivocally leads to a normal-to-the-contact shaft velocity
component (hereby omitted). Although an early model accounting for this velocity component is
available [8], a more advanced hydrodynamic model is required to accurately consider it.

5. Conclusions
Four different mechanisms distorting the axisymmetry of rotary lip seals were studied: radial
and angular misalignments, the hydrostatic pressure gradient and the presence of hot spots at
the seal contact. Both shaft misalignments and thermal expansion were found to contribute to
hydrodynamic pressure build-up. On the other hand, the hydrostatic pressure differences between
the top and the bottom of a stern tube seal do not significantly influence hydrodynamic effects for
the stern tube seal studied. The radial and angular misalignments showed substantial different
contact profiles. The misalignment-induced hydrodynamics arising from the equivalent film thickness
profile were shown to be significant. This pressure build-up was shown to be extremely sensitive
to the minimum film thickness and contact width. The results show that the assumption of
periodic cells on the circumferential direction when modelling rotary lip seals must be reviewed for
misaligned configurations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.X.B.; Investigation, F.X.B.; Supervision, M.B.d.R. and D.J.S.;
Writing—original draft, F.X.B.; Writing—review & editing, M.B.d.R. and D.J.S. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: Rob Dierink, Eric de Vries, Robert-Jan Meijer and Thomas Giorgio for their contribution to
the development of the contact area glass setup. Philippe Vergne, Kees Venner and Bengt Wennehorst for their
advice in I-EHL theory. Wojciech Litwin for providing data on the tail shaft dynamic behavior.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Lubricants 2020, 8, 19 17 of 19

Nomenclature
ω Shaft angular velocity [rad/s]
ε Radial misalignment (offset) [m]
θ Angular misalignment (slant) [◦ ]
Coordinate system in the circumferential and axial
x, y [m]
directions
Sq Root mean square roughness [m]
Root mean square wavelength in the circumferential
λx/y [m]
and axial directions
Root mean square slope in the circumferential and
∆x/y [−]
axial directions
Effective radius of curvature in the circumferential
Rx/y [m]
and axial directions
Amplitude of the equivalent sinusoidal roughness
A [m]
profile
Number of asperities in the circumferential and axial
Nx/y [−]
directions
ux Mean surface velocity in the circumferential direction [m/s]
wz Average normal load per asperity [N]
E0 Equivalent elastic modulus [Pa]
Wx Dimensionless load parameter [−]
Ux Dimensionless velocity parameter [−]
hcen Central film thickness [m]
hmin Minimum film thickness [m]
F Normal load (radial seal load) [N]
E Young modulus [Pa]
ν Poisson ratio h [−] i
ρ Density kg/m3
Cp Specific heat capacity [J/(kg·K)]
k Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)]
αT Thermal expansion coefficient [1/K]
η Dynamic viscosity of the lubricant [Pa·s]
h Fluid film thickness [m]
p Hydrodynamic pressure [Pa]
pc Cavitation pressure h [Pa] i
ρc Density of the lubricant in the cavitation region kg/m3
β Bulk modulus of the lubricant [Pa]
φ Dimensionless cavitation variable [−]
g Cavitation index [−]
Lc Width of the contact [m]
T Temperature [◦ C]
t Time [s]

References
1. Jagger, E.T. Rotary Shaft Seals: The Sealing Mechanism of Synthetic Rubber Seals Running at Atmospheric
Pressure. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J J. Eng. Tribol. 1957, 171, 597–616. [CrossRef]
2. Johnston, D.E.; Vogt, R. Rotary shaft seal friction, the influence of design, material, oil and shaft surface.
SAE Tech. Pap. 1995, 2, 1453–1466.
3. Stakenborg, M.J.L. On the sealing mechanism of radial lip seals. Tribol. Int. 1988, 21, 335–340. [CrossRef]
4. Wennehorst, B. On Lubrication and Friction in Soft Rough Conformal Sliding Contacts; Leibniz Universität
Hannover: Hannover, Germany, 2016.
5. Salant, R.F. Theory of lubrication of elastomeric rotary shaft seals. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J J. Eng. Tribol.
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