9.12.

2020

Weathering

7. Weathering
• The minerals making up the igneous rocks
crystallize at relatively high temperatures and
sometimes at high pressures as magma and lava
cool
• Although these minerals are stable when they
form, most of them are not stable during prolonged
exposure at the earth’s surface
• The rocks are susceptible to mechanical weathering
(physical disintegration) and chemical weathering
(decomposition) as they are attacked by various
atmospheric agents

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• Rocks exposed at the earth’s surface are constantly
being altered by water, air, changing temperature,
and other environmental factors
• The term weathering refers to the group of
destructive processes, both mechanical and
chemical, that change the character of rock at or
near the earth’s surface

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• Mechanical weathering (or physical disintegration)
includes several processes that break rock into
smaller pieces
• The change in the rock is physical; there is little or
no chemical change
• Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rock
from exposure to water and atmospheric gases
(principally carbon dioxide and water vapor)
• As rock is decomposed by these agents, new
chemical compounds form
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• Mechanical weathering breaks up rock but does
not change the composition
• A large mass of granite may be broken into smaller
pieces by frost action, but its original crystals of
quartz, feldspar and mica unchanged
• On the other hand, if the granite is being chemically
weathered, some of the original minerals are
chemically changed into different minerals
• In nature, mechanical and chemical weathering
usually occur together, and the effects are
interrelated
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• Weathering is a relatively long, slow process
• Typically, joints or fractures are enlarged gradually by
frost action or plant growth (as roots pry into rock
crevices), and as a result, more surfaces are exposed to
attack by chemical agents
• Chemical weathering initially works along contacts
between mineral grains
• Tightly bounded crystals are loosened as weathering
products form at their contacts
• Mechanical weathering then proceeds, until a once
tough rock slowly crumbles into individual grains

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• Apart from the role of weathering in the development
of soils, it plays a significant role in altering the
engineering properties of intact rock and rock masses
• Weathering may influence all rock types, the degree
being depend on the rock type, the kind of weathering
processes, the new environment to which the rock is
subjected, the climate, and the time
• Because almost all engineering excavations are near
the surface, they involve rocks weathered to some
degree

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• Many engineering geologists have encountered a
situation where it is necessary to differentiate
between soil and bedrock
• In order to understand soil/bedrock contacts, it is
necessary to study weathering and soil–forming
processes
• The contact may be gradational or very sharp
• However, the gradational change of bedrock to soil
is due to weathering

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7.1. Mechanical Weathering
• When a rock undergoes mechanical weathering it is
broken into smaller pieces, each retaining the
characteristics of the original material
• In nature four important processes lead to the
fragmentation of rock; frost wedging, expansion
resulting from unloading, thermal expansion, and
organic activity

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• Frost wedging alternate freezing and thawing is one of
the most important processes of mechanical
weathering
• Water has the property of expanding about 9% as it
freezes
• Hence when water freezes it exerts tremendous
outward force
• In nature water works its way into cracks or voids in
rock and upon freezing, expands and wedges the rock
apart
• Frost wedging is most pronounced in mountainous
regions in the middle latitudes where a daily freeze-
thaw cycle often exists

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• Unloading During erosion, underlying rocks
experience reduced pressure as overburden is
removed
• The rocks expand as pressure is released, a process
called unloading
• Accompanying the unloading, the other layers
expand more than the rock below, and thus
separate from the rock body

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• In certain rocks, particularly massive intrusive
igneous rocks (e.g. granite) and massive sandstone,
the process of unloading causes large joints
(sheeting) to develop
• These joints tend to be oriented parallel to the
general slope of the terrain
• On slopes, gravity may cause the rock between
such joints to spall off or break loose in concentric
slabs from the underlying rock mass
• This process of spalling off is called exfoliation
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• Sheeting may have considerable engineering
significance
• For instance, in a vertical cut into a granite
mountainside, joints caused by unloading that dip
at an angle parallel to the slope of the
mountainside form perfect avenues along which
failure can occur

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• An engineering geologist should be aware that any
excavation can trigger unloading to occur
• Natural erosion of overlying rocks have already
induced unloading stresses in any exposed rocks
• Further removal of material by man can create
rapid strain
• Railroad cuts slowly heave together over the years
and quarries may shrink in size due to unloading
• During the construction of tunnels, unloading may
cause spalling rock or “popping rock”

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• Thermal expansion The daily cycle of temperature
change is thought to weaken rocks, particularly in
hot, dry regions where daily variations may exceed
30 °C
• Heating a rock causes expansion and cooling causes
contraction
• Repeated swelling and shrinking of minerals with
different expansion rates should exert some
stresses on the rock’s outer shell

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• Organic activity Weathering is also accomplished by the
activities of organisms, including plants, burrowing animals,
and man
• Plant roots in search of minerals and the water grow into
fractures, and as the roots grow, they wedge the rock apart
• Burrowing animals further break down rock by moving fresh
material to the surface, where physical and chemical
processes can more effectively attack it
• Further, decayed organisms produce acids which contribute
to chemical weathering
• Where rock has been blasted in search of minerals or for
road constructions, the impact of man is quite noticeable.

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7.2. Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering involves the complex process that
alter the internal structures of minerals by removing
and/or adding elements
• During this transformation, the original rock
decomposes into substances that are in equilibrium, or
balance with the surface environment
• Water is the most important agent of chemical
weathering
• The major processes by which water decomposes rock
are solution, oxidation and hydrolysis

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• Solution is the process of easiest type of
decomposition
• One of the most water – soluble minerals is halite
(composed of Na and Cl ions) which decomposes
into these ions in water
• The mineral calcite (CaCO3), which composes the
common building stones marble and limestone is
easily attacked by even a weakly acidic solution:
CaCO3 + 2[H(H2O)]  Ca + CO2 + 3H2O
Calcium Carbonate + Aqueous Acid  Calcium ion + Carbon Dioxide + Water
(insoluble)

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• During this process, the insoluble CaCO3 is transformed into
soluble products
• In nature, over periods of thousands of years, large
quantities of limestone are dissolved and carried away by
groundwater
• This activity is evidenced by the large number of subsurface
caverns
• Site exploration in such terranes must be designed to
located areas of potential subsidence, irregular bedrock
surfaces, or leakage problems if the place cannot be avoided
• Monuments and buildings made of limestone and marble
are also subjected to the corrosive work of acids,
particularly in industrial areas that have smoggy, polluted air

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• Oxidation is the process of rusting which occurs
when oxygen combines with iron to form iron oxide
as follows:
4Fe + 3 O2  2Fe2O3
Iron + Oxygen  Iron Oxide (Hematite)

• This type of chemical reaction called oxidation

occurs when electrons are lost from one element
during the reaction

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• Oxidation is very important in decomposing such
ferromagnesian minerals as olivine, pyroxene, and
hornblende, oxygen combines with the iron in these
minerals to form the reddish –brown iron oxide called
hematite (Fe2O3) or in more extreme cases a yellowish-
colored rust called limonite (FeO(OH))
• These products are responsible for the rusty color on the
surfaces of dark igneous rocks, such as basalt, as they being
to weather, another important oxidation reaction occurs
when sulfide minerals such as pyrite decompose, in a moist
environment chemical weathering of pyrite yields sulfuric
acid and iron oxide
• The acid may dissolve carbonate matrix of rocks, there by
weakening the rocks

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• Iron oxide structurally weakens the rocks and is
cosmetically distracting when exposed, as in
Portland cement concrete structures
• In many mining localities, this weathering process
creates a serious environmental hazard; particularly
in humid areas where abundant rainfall infiltrates
spoil banks (waste material left after coal or other
minerals are removed)
• This so called mine acid eventually makes its way to
streams, killing fish and making the water unfit for
human consumption

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• Hydrolysis is the reaction of any substance with water
• In nature water contains other substances that
contribute additional hydrogen ions, there by greatly
accelerating hydrolysis
• The most common of these substances is CO2, which
dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3
• Rain dissolves some CO2 as it falls through the
atmosphere, additional amounts, released by decaying
organic matter, are acquired as the water percolates
through the soil
• In water carbonic acid ionizes to form H ions and
bicarbonate ions (HCO3)

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• The chemical weathering of granite, consisting of quartz and K feldspar
is as follows:
2KAlSi3O8 + 2(H + HCO3) + H2O  Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K + 2HCO3 + 4SiO2
Potassium Feldspar + Carbonic Acid + Water  Kaolinite + (Potassium Ion + Bicarbonate Ion + Silica) in solution

• The most abundant by-product of the chemical breakdown of K-feldspar

is the clay mineral kaolinite
• Clay minerals are the end product of weathering and are very stable
under surface conditions
• Clay minerals make up a high percentage of the inorganic material in
soils
• Further the sedimentary rock shale, is also composed of clay minerals
• The weathering of K-feldspar generates a residual clay mineral, a soluble
salt (potassium bicarbonate), and some silica which enters into solution

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• Quartz is very resistant to chemical weathering;
hence it remains substantially unaltered when
attacked by weakly acidic solutions
• As a result, when granite weathers, the feldspar
turn to clay, releasing the quartz grains, which still
retain fresh, glassy appearance
• Although some of the quartz remains in the soil,
much is transported to the sea, where it becomes
the main constituent of sandy beaches and in the
time is converted to the sedimentary rock,
sandstone

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7.3. Rates of weathering
• Several factors influence the type and rate of rock
weathering
• Most important of these are;
⁻ Rock structure
⁻ Climate
⁻ Topography

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• Rock structure Rock structure encompasses all of the
chemical characteristics of rocks, including mineral
composition and solubility as well as physical features that
may be present, such as fractures, bedding planes and voids
• The variations in weathering rates attributable to the
mineral constituents can be demonstrated by comparing old
headstones carved from different rock types
• Headstones made of granite, which is composed of silicate
minerals, are relatively resistant to chemical weathering
• This is not true of the marble headstone which shows signs
of extensive chemical alteration over a relatively short
period
• Recall that marble is composed of calcium carbonate, which
readily dissolves even in a weakly acidic solution.

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• The most abundant mineral group the silicates weathers in
the order shown in Bowen’s Reaction Series
• The order in which the silicate minerals weathers is
essentially the same as their order of crystallization
• The minerals that crystallize first form under much higher
temperatures than those that crystallize last
• Consequently, the early-formed minerals are not as stable at
the earth’s surface, where the temperature and pressure
are drastically different from the environment in which they
formed
• By examining Bowen’s reaction series, we see that olivine
crystallizes first and is therefore the least resistant to
chemical weathering, while quartz, which crystallizes last is
the most resistant

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• Climate Climatic factors, particularly temperature
and moisture are of primary significance to the rate
of rock weathering
• These climatic elements largely determine the
weathering rate and indirectly determine the kind
and amount of vegetation present
• Regions with lush vegetation generally have a thick
mantle of soil rich in decayed organic matter from
which chemically active fluids such as carbonic and
humic acids are derived

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• The optimum environment for chemical weathering
is a combination of warm temperatures and
abundant moisture
• In polar regions chemical weathering is ineffective
because frigid temperatures keep the available
moisture locked up as ice, whereas in arid regions
there is insufficient moisture to foster rapid
chemical weathering

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• Topography greatly influences the amount of rock
exposed to the forces of weathering
• In addition, the topographic setting may indirectly
determine the amount of precipitation as well as
influence the kind and amount of vegetation
present
• Angular topography with large rock outcrops is
most prevalent in arid regions whereas more
subdued topography mantled with soil and
vegetation is found in humid areas

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• These differences are often attributed to the
predominance of chemical weathering in a humid
region and mechanical weathering in an arid region
• It is probably more correct to say that chemical
weathering is more important in both
environments while the effects of mechanical
weathering are relatively more significant and thus
more obvious in an arid setting

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7.4. Products of weathering
• The table list the weathering products of some of
the most common silicate minerals
• Remember that silicate minerals make up most of
the earth’s crust and that these minerals are
essentially composed of only eight elements
• When chemically weathered, the silicate minerals
yield, sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium
ions that form soluble products which may be
removed by groundwater
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• The element iron combines with oxygen, producing
relatively insoluble iron oxides, most notably
hematite and limonite which give soil a reddish –
brown or yellowish color
• Under most conditions the three remaining
elements, aluminum, silicon and oxygen, join with
water to produce residual clay minerals
• However, even the highly insoluble clay minerals
are very slowly removed by subsurface water

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7.5. Transport and Deposition
• Weathered debris and exposed rock at the earth’s
surface are subjected to erosive attack and
transport by various agent of erosion and
transportation whose tendency is always to move
material downslope and laterally
• The principal transporting agents, apart from
humans, are direct gravitational action resulting in
mass movement by falls, slumps, slides, and flows
and gravity induced fluid flows of air, water or ice
that erode and transport debris.

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• Gravitational mass movement includes all of those
downslope phenomena in which a fluid phase is usually
an important, but not necessarily a major component
of the moving mass
• Included are rock falls, which may accumulate as
fragments, or scree at the base of the slopes and often
form conical deposits of Talus; slumps of poorly
consolidated material to more stable attitudes; and
surficial slides flows or creeps of soil or rock
• Aside from natural causes, downslope mass
movements may be triggered by poor design of
engineering works and thus constitute a significant
hazard

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• The size of particles transported by different agents
varies
• The largest wind-suspended particles being 0.2 mm
in diameter, direct water-borne material seldom
exceeding a few tens of cm in diameter and ice
being competent to carry blocks measurable in tens
of meters

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• Winds can only move dry particles so it is only an
effective erosive agent in arid regions
• Only dust particles can be carried in suspension in
air and regions far downwind from source areas
may receive thick accumulations of loess composed
of fine airborne particles
• Volcanic ash is another wind – transported material
• Wind can move sand-size material by saltation, and
sand grains tend to accumulate in dunes on the lee
edge of deserts or behind beaches
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• Streams can carry large loads but are less capable
of fine sorting
• Transported particles tend to be rounded by
abrasion
• Because of the wide range of flow conditions in the
streams, due to variable discharge and the
migration of its channel, the deposits are complex
• Therefore, within stream channels the general
form of their deposits is interfingering lenses of bed
load materials
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• Moving ice, whether channelized as mountain
glacier or in an ice flood has profound effects on
topography in consequence of its strong abrasive
action
• The processes of load acquisition and transport are
nonselective, and ice-selected deposits are typically
composed of unsorted, and often angular, ranging
from clay to boulder size

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• The downward and lateral movement of transported debris
is toward local base levels, represented by interior basins,
lakes or main stream channels for tributaries, and
eventually to the base level represented by the ocean shore
• Conditions change abruptly when a base level is reached,
and the deposition of sediment tends to be localized at this
point:
⁻ Deltas are developed at river mouths;
⁻ Lakes and basins are filled;
⁻ Sediments are trapped in lagoons or barrier reefs or islands; and
⁻ Estuaries become silted
• Movement of sediment does not end at this point because
downslope flows of dense, water sediment mixtures,
currents, or ocean waves continue its transport and sorting

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7.6. Soil
• Engineers, geologists, and soil scientists have different definitions
for the term “Soil”
• Figure provides a visual comparison of these definitions
• An engineer clearly views any mineral material that lack high
strength as being a soil
• Engineering soil is roughly equivalent to regolith, a term used by
geologists to describe all unconsolidated material mantling the
surface of the earth
• Regolith may include saprolite, in-place bedrock that chemically
altered and coherent, and that retains its original texture
• To a soil scientist, soil is the part of engineering soil or regolith
that contains living matter and supports or is capable of forming
plants

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7.6.1 Controls of Soil Formation
• Soil is the products of the complex interplay of several
factors, including parent material, time, climate, plants and
animals and slope
• Parent material is the layer of consolidated deposits or the
underlying bedrock, from which a soil has evolved
• Soils formed on bedrock are termed residual soil, whereas
those developed on unconsolidated deposits are called
transported soil
• The nature of the parent material influences soils in two
ways. First, the type of parent material affects the rate of
weathering, and thus the rate of soil formation
• Second, the chemical makeup of the parent material will
affect the soil’s fertility
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• Time if the weathering has been going on for a
comparatively short time, the character of the
parent material determines to a large extent the
characteristics of the soil
• As the weathering process continues, the influence
of parent material on soil is overshadowed by the
other soil forming factors
• The amount of time required for various soils vary
for different soil types because the soil forming
processes act at varying rates under different
circumstances

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• Climate is the considered to be the most important
control of soil formation, since it determines
whether the chemical or mechanical weathering
will predominate and also greatly influences the
rate and depth of weathering
• For instance, a hot, wet climate may produce a
thick layer of chemically weathered soil in the same
amount of time whereas, a cold dry climate
produces a thin mantle of mechanically weathered
debris

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• Plant and animals the chief function of plants and
animals is to furnish organic matter to the soil
• Some soils are composed entirely of organic matter,
whereas desert soils may contain small percentage
• The primary source of organic matter is plants
• Soil fertility is related to the amount of organic matter
present
• The decay of plant and animal remains causes the
formation of various organic acids
• Micro-organisms play an active role in the decay of
plant and animal remains, yielding the end product of
humus

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• Slope has a significant impact on the amount of erosion and
the content of soil
• On steep slopes soils are often poorly developed
• Because of accelerated erosion on steep slopes, the soils are
thin or in some cases nonexistent
• On the other hand, poorly drained soils found in
bottomlands are usually very thick and very dark
• The dark color results from the large quantity of organic
matter that accumulates because saturated conditions
retard the decay of vegetation
• The optimum slope for soil development is a flat-to-
undulating upland surface, where we find good drainage,
minimum erosion, and sufficient infiltration of water into
the soil
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7.6.2 The Soil Profile
• Soil forming processes operate from the surface
downward, resulting variations in composition,
texture, structure and color at varying depths
• These vertical differences divide the soil into zones
or layers known as horizons
• A vertical section through all of the soil horizons
constitutes the soil profile
• Four basic horizons are identified from top to
bottom as O, A, B, and C horizons

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• The O horizon; unlike the layers beneath it which consist mainly of mineral
matter; consists of organic material
• The upper portion of this layer is plant litter such as loose leaves and other
organic debris
• The lower portion of the O horizon is made up of partly decomposed organic
matter (humus) in which plant structures can no longer be identified
• The A Horizon is found underneath the O Horizon and is largely mineral matter
• In this zone, the biological activity is high and humus is generally present (up to
30 %)
• The B Horizon is below the A horizon and it consists of accumulated finer
particles derived from the A Horizon
• Living organisms, and organic matter are more abundant in the B than in the C
horizon, but considerably less than in A horizon
• The C horizon is a layer characterized by partially altered rock debris and little if
any organic matter

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• The boundaries between soil horizons may be very
sharp, or the horizons may blend gradually from
one to another
• Furthermore, some soils lack horizons altogether
• Such soils are called immature
• Immature soils are also characteristic features of
steep slopes where erosion continually strips away
the soil, preventing full development

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7.7. Engineering Significance of Soils
7.7.1 Residual Soils
• The main engineering problem in residual soils formed on igneous rocks
(e.g. granite) is the identification of a sound horizon on which to seat a
foundation
• Due to the gradational nature, there is no depth at which one can
unequivocally say that soil ends and bedrock begins
• The presence of individual boulders of sound rock (core stones) in
residual soils presents special problems in foundation engineering, the
problem is acute where the residual soil possesses a collapsible grain
structure, but the core stones are too large to be excavated by earth-
moving equipment or cannot be penetrated by an augured pile hole
• Another problem is the misleading identification of sound bedrock in an
excavation where the top of an isolated core stone is exhumed

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• In contrast to igneous rocks (e.g. granite) the soil
bedrock contact in carbonate (limestone or
dolomite) terrains is typically quite sharp
• The thickness of soil in a carbonate terrain varies
considerably (0-100 m) due to the formation of
caves and sinkholes
• After a sinkhole causing a thick soil of small areal
extent

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• Theoretically, because limestone weathers by solutions,
there are no weathered products; the entire rock is
carried away by groundwater
• In reality, however, because of small beds of clay, chert,
and sand, which are usually present in limestone, a
residuum is left after solution of the carbonate rock
• The red, clayey soil typically derived from limestone is
called terra rossa
• Over geologic time the thickness of the residual soil is
maintained by the continued chemical weathering of
the bedrock below and the stripping of the surface by
erosion
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• The irregular nature of a limestone/soil contact was
dramatically evident in the excavations for the
foundation of the Tennessee Valley Authority dams, in
United States
• Vertical solution channels over 60 m deep were
discovered in limestone
• Although filled with terra rossa and cave-fill-deposits,
the solution zones leaked enormous amounts of water
from the reservoirs
• Following the appearance of downstream strings and
“sand boils” which threatened the concrete dams,
grouting programs were undertaken
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• Differential settlement is common in thick residual
soils overlying weathered carbonate rocks
• Residual soil over solution cavities may be quite
thick; building foundations or other man-made
structures located in the residual soil should be
rigorously analyzed
• A similar problem occurs where a “floating
boulder” (a core stone) is encountered and is
assumed to be part of the bedrock

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• Sudden sinkhole collapse is a geologic hazard. Below the
residual soil, solution selectively dissolves layers of
limestone along joints, bedding planes fossiliferous layers,
etc. until a cave develops
• The sudden collapse of the roof cave results in a sinkhole
• This geologic process happens naturally, or can be
accelerated by man’s activities, such as groundwater
withdrawal or the construction of parking lots which allow
for abnormal discharge of rain water onto the ground
• In an arid to semiarid climate, limestone typically forms a
resistant unit, forming an obstruction to construction of
pipelines, sewage systems, etc.

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• Shale is similar to clay, but it has a fissile or
laminated structure parallel to the bedding
• Slate is well indurated, possessing cleavage
• Weathering processes tend to make shale and slate
revert back to clay, so from an engineering
geological point of view, weathered slate or shale
possess properties of clay

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• Engineering problems associated with shale or clayey
soils are not due to their soluble nature, but to their
low shear strengths, which make them hazardous for
foundations or for any construction, particularly in
landslide-prone areas
• Shales used in highway fills often settle due to slaking
of the shale pieces
• Unfortunate past experiences dealing with the
nonhomogeneous nature of shale and clay, and their
poor strength and weathering characteristics have led
most engineers to treat shales as a problem material
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• The physical properties of shale vary considerably
• Some shales have strengths comparable to concrete
and as they have low permeability, make ideal dam
sites
• Other shales are not very consolidated, and have
attained a degree of consolidation only slightly greater
than clay soils
• Low grade shales that have settlement problems are
also subject to rebound
• If the superincumbent weight of materials removed in
an excavation appreciably exceed the weight of the
man–made structure placed in the excavation, rebound
may occur

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• Clayey soils are also hazardous due to expansion and contraction
accompanying soil moisture changes
• Unlike kaolinite clay minerals which form the weathering of
feldspars, shales and clayey soils typically include large
percentages of illite or montmorillonite clay
• The kaolinite form very stable clays because their tight,
inexpandable crystal structure resists the introduction of water
into their lattices and the consequent expansion or heaving when
saturated
• On the other hand, montmorillonite crystal sheets are bound
rather loosely, allowing space for water molecules to insert
themselves between the sheets, causing expansion or swelling
• When a saturated montmorillonite dries out, it is subject to
shrinking or cracking

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• In pure form, montmorillonite clays may swell to over 15 times
their dry volume, although most soils contain only small amounts
of montmorillonite so that not many swell to more than 1.5 times
their dry volume
• Expansive soils cause damage when they shrink upon drying or
when they expand upon wetting, and the resulting soil
movements disrupt houses, multistory buildings sidewalls,
streets, and utilities
• Leeking sewers or swimming pools, improper storm drains, or
poorly built house with inadequate foundations develop damage
ranging from sticking doors and hairline plaster cracks to
complete destruction
• The process of shrinking and swelling can result in expansive soil
problems, or in slaking the crumbling of sound outcrops or rock
specimens into flakes or granular particles (Rahn, 1986)

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7.7.2 Transported Soil
• Process of creep, whereby soil and weathered
bedrock slowly move downslope due to gravity
causes to form the colluvium
• The contact with the underlying bedrock can be
sharp or gradational
• Typically, colluvium consists of unstratified,
seemingly random oriented angular blocks of
bedrock in a clayey matrix

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• Engineering geologists should view colluvium with
suspect because any disturbance could cause
accelerated movement
• Although in the life of a structure (100 years) the
direct structural damage due to natural rates of
movement may be small, man’s activities such as
excavations may accelerate creep, or cause
landslide, thereby leading to building distress or
failure

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• The engineering properties of alluvium vary over a wide
range
• Uniform deposits of sand and gravel can support high
footing loads and are not very susceptible to shrinkage
or swelling
• One problem in alluvial foundations is the delineation
of specific sand, gravel or clayey lenses; if slab or
column loads are distributed onto heterogeneous
layers, differential settlement can occur
• Another problem of alluvial soils occurs in areas where
very thick deposits of saturated clayey silt occur, giving
rise to lack of bearing strength for large loads
• In these areas, pilings are extensively used

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• Terraces are abandoned flood plains no longer
related to the present stream regime
• Terraces are ideal construction sites as they are
relatively flat, not subject to floods, and are
typically underlain by sand and gravel

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• Eolian deposits include wind-blown sand (sand dunes) and wind-blown silt
(loess)
• Sand dunes are rarely serve as sites of construction due to the arid and/or
inhospitable environment
• Active sand dunes are subject to continual movement and totally unsuitable for
construction
• Even inactive sand dunes have a delicate vegetal over which can be broken
down by man’s activities causing them to become active
• Fine wind–blown sand grades into loess., which is much more widespread than
sand dunes
• A peculiar engineering property of loess is its ability to stand in vertical cuts
• Loess is generally acceptable media for foundations from the standpoint that it
is uniform in composition and has very low swelling properties
• However, some cases of land settlement after water has been added to loess
foundation soils are reported (Rahn, 1986)

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