Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

Earth Science
SY 2020 – 2021

Unit 3: Earth Processes

Lesson 8: Weathering

Introduction
Environmental conditions at and near Earth’s surface subject rocks to temperatures, pressures,
and substances, especially water, that contribute to physical and chemical breakdown of exposed rock.
Weathering is the physical and chemical processes that break down rock on earth’s surface. It gives rock
lower strength and greater permeability, rendering it more susceptible to mass wasting and erosion.
Erosion is the physical removal of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, and ice. Mass
wasting, also called mass movement, is a collective term for the downslope transport of surface
materials in direct response to gravity. This module will discuss the differences and the relationships
between weathering, erosion, and mass wasting to the Earth’s surface.

Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Describe how rocks undergo weathering;
2. Define weathering and distinguish between the two main types of weathering; and
3. Identify the factors that affect the rate of weathering.

Pre-requisite Skills / Review

Directions: Choose 1 picture and give the possible reason for the deterioration of the structures.
Write your answer on the discussion board.

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Lesson 8.1 – Weathering

Weathering
The physical and chemical processes that break down rock on earth’s surface.

Functions of Weathering
▪ Gives rock lower strength and greater permeability, rendering it more susceptible to mass
wasting and erosion;
▪ Produces minor landforms in soluble rock (especially limestone)
▪ Releases minerals in solution (e.g. iron oxides, silica, carbonates, etc)
▪ First step in soil formation

Two Types of Weathering

I.Physical/Mechanical Weathering.

• Rocks were cut into smaller pieces.

• Physical change occurred.

• The surface area if rocks increased.

• There are four main sources of

power for mechanical weathering:
gravity, water, wind and waves. Of
these, water appears to be the leader
in changing the surface.

▪ Accomplished by physical forces

▪ Rock is broken into smaller pieces.
▪ Rock’s mineral composition is not changed
▪ Increases surface area

II.Chemical Weathering
• Chemical change occurs changing the chemical composition of a particular rock.

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Mechanical Weathering
When a rock undergoes mechanical weathering (also called physical weathering), it is broken
into smaller and smaller pieces, each retaining the characteristics of the original material. The end
result is many small pieces from a single large one.
In nature, four important physical processes lead to the fragmentation of rock: frost wedging, salt crystal
growth, expansion resulting from unloading (sheeting), and biological activity.
In addition, although the work of erosional agents such as waves, wind, glacial ice, and running water is
usually considered separately from mechanical weathering, it is nevertheless related. As these mobile
agents move rock debris, particles continue to be broken and abraded.

Types of Mechanical Weathering

a. Frost Wedging

• liquid water has the unique property of

expanding about 9 percent upon
freezing. This is also the reason that
poorly insulated or exposed water pipes
rupture during frigid weather. You might
also expect this same process to fracture
rocks in nature. This is, in fact, the basis
for the traditional explanation of frost
wedging. After water works its way into
the cracks in rock, the freezing water
enlarges the cracks, and angular
fragments are eventually produced.

• For many years, the conventional

wisdom was that most frost wedging
occurred in the manner just described.

• Recently, however, research has shown that frost wedging can also occur in a different
way. It has long been known that when moist soils freeze, they expand, or frost heave, due
to the growth of ice lenses. These masses of ice grow larger because they are supplied with
water migrating from unfrozen areas as thin liquid films. As more water accumulates and
freezes, the soil is heaved upward.

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• A similar process occurs within the cracks and pore spaces of rocks. Lenses of ice grow
larger as they attract liquid water from surrounding pores. The growth of these ice masses
gradually weakens the rock, causing it to fracture.

b. Salt crystal growth

• Another expansive force that can split rocks is created by the growth of salt crystals. Rocky
shorelines and arid regions are common settings for this process. It begins when sea spray
from breaking waves or salty groundwater penetrates crevices and pore spaces in rock. As
this water evaporates, salt crystals form. As these crystals gradually grow larger, they
weaken the rock by pushing apart the surrounding grains or enlarging tiny cracks.
• This same process can also contribute to crumbling roadways where salt is spread to melt
snow and ice in winter. The salt dissolves in water and seeps into cracks that quite likely

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originated from frost action. When the water evaporates, the growth of salt crystals further
breaks the pavement.

• Frost wedging and salt crystal growth are processes under mechanical weathering.
There are both expansive forces that enlarge cracks with the rock. The freeze and thaw
cycle under the frost wedging is responsible for breaking the rocks. However, the
accumulation of salt crystals through time is responsible for fragmenting the rocks along
seashore.

c. Sheeting

• As the overburden is removed, the outer parts of the granitic mass expand more than the
rock below and separate from the rock body. Continued weathering eventually causes the
slabs to separate and spall off, creating exfoliation domes (ex 5 off, folium 5 leaf). Excellent
examples of exfoliation domes include Stone Mountain in Georgia and Half Dome in
Yosemite National Park.

• When large masses of igneous rock, particularly those composed of granite, are exposed by
erosion, concentric slabs begin to break loose. The process generating these onion-like
layers is called sheeting. It takes place, at least in part, due to the great reduction in
pressure that occurs when the overlying rock is eroded away in a process called unloading.

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Dome Exfoliation

• Exfoliation and sheeting happen as a result of the process of unloading. It is where the
overlying burden of rocks are removed, reducing the pressure exerted on the rocks
beneath. Due to this lowering pressure, the rocks will expand. Due to low pressure and
temperature at the surface, the rocks will exhibit brittle deformation. Therefore, the slabs
of rocks will break loose – known as the process of
sheeting. Exfoliation domes are examples of geologic
feature under this type mechanical weathering.

d. Biological Activity

• The activities of organisms, including plants, burrowing

animals, and humans can cause weathering. Plant roots in
search of minerals and water grow into fractures, and as
the roots grow, they wedge the rock apart.

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• Burrowing animals further break down the rock

by moving fresh material to the surface, where
physical and chemical processes can more
effectively attack it. Decaying organisms also
produce acids, which contribute to chemical
weathering. Where rock has been blasted in
search of minerals or for road construction, the
impact of humans is particularly noticeable.

• Organisms play many roles in chemical

weathering. For example, plant roots, fungi, and lichens that occupy fractures or that may
encrust some rock produce acids that promote decomposition. Moreover, some bacteria
are capable of extracting compounds from minerals and using the energy from a
compound’s chemical bonds to supply their life needs. These primitive “mineral eating”
life-forms can live at depths as great as a few kilometers.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering involves the complex processes that alter the internal structures of
minerals by removing and/ or adding elements. During this transformation, the original rock
decomposes into substances that are stable in the surface environment. Consequently, the
products of chemical weathering will remain essentially unchanged as long as they remain in an
environment similar to the one in which they formed.

Chemical Weathering Processes

a. Hydrolysis

• Water changes the chemical composition and size of minerals in rock

• Rocks become less resistant to weathering.
• To illustrate how some rock rich in silicate minerals chemically weathers when attacked by
carbonic acid, we will consider the weathering of granite, an abundant continental rock.
Recall that granite consists mainly of quartz and potassium feldspar. The weathering of the
potassium feldspar component of granite takes place as in the ppt.
• In this reaction, the hydrogen ions (H1) attack and replace potassium ions (K1) in the
feldspar structure, thereby disrupting the crystalline network. Once removed, the
potassium is available as a nutrient for plants or becomes the soluble salt potassium
bicarbonate (KHCO3), which may be incorporated into other minerals or carried to the
ocean in dissolved form bygroundwater and streams.

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• The most abundant products of the chemical breakdown of feldspar are residual clay
minerals. Clay minerals are the end product of weathering and are very stable under
surface conditions. Consequently, clay minerals make up a high percentage of the inorganic
material in soils. Moreover, the most abundant sedimentary rock, shale, contains a high
proportion of clay minerals.

• In addition to the formation of clay minerals during this reaction, some silica is removed
from the feldspar structure and is carried away by groundwater. This dissolved silica will
eventually precipitate to produce nodules of chert or flint, fill in the pore spaces between
sediment grains, or be carried to the ocean, where microscopic animals will remove it to
build hard silica shells.

• To summarize, the weathering of potassium feldspar generates a residual clay mineral, a

soluble salt (potassium bicarbonate), and some silica that enters into solution.

• Quartz, the other main component of granite, is very resistant to chemical weathering; it
remains substantially unaltered when attacked by weakly acidic solutions. As a result,
when granite weathers, the feldspar crystals dull and slowly turn to clay, releasing the once
interlocked quartz grains, which still retain their fresh, glassy appearance. Although some
quartz remains in the soil, much is transported to the sea or to other sites of deposition,
where it becomes the main constituent of such features as sandy beaches and sand dunes.
In time it may become lithified to form the sedimentary rock sandstone.

b. Carbonation

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in water (H2O)

forms carbonic acid (H2CO3)—the same weak acid
produced when soft drinks are carbonated. Rain
dissolves some carbon dioxide as it falls through the
atmosphere, and additional amounts released by
decaying organic matter are acquired as the water
percolates through the soil. Carbonic acid ionizes to
form the very reactive hydrogen ion (H1) and the
bicarbonate ion (HCO3).

• Acids such as carbonic acid readily decompose many rocks and produce certain products
that are water soluble. For example, the mineral calcite (CaCO3), which composes the
common building stones marble and limestone, is easily attacked by even a weakly acidic
solution. In nature, over spans of thousands of years, large quantities of limestone are
dissolved and carried away by groundwater. This activity is largely responsible for the
formation of limestone caverns.

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c. Oxidation

• Oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize some materials. For example, when an iron nail is
found in moist soil, it will have a coating of rust (iron oxide), and if the time of exposure has
been long, the nail will be so weak that it can be broken as easily as a toothpick. When
rocks containing iron-rich minerals oxidize, a yellow to reddish-brown rust will appear on
the surface.

d. Hydration

• The absorption of water into the mineral structure.

• when rocks are exposed to water, dissolution takes place, depending on the present
minerals. For instance, if rock rich with potassium feldspar is exposed in water, dissolution
will turn this mineral to clay.

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Granite vs Marble

Spheroidal Weathering

Spheroidal Weathering is the process of producing rocks with spherical shape through
both chemical and mechanical weathering. It shows how chemical weathering aids mechanical
weathering by weakening the rocks from the inside, making it more susceptible to physical attack.

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Figure 1. Spheroidal Weathering

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Rates of Weathering

Several factors influence the type and rate of rock weathering. We have already seen how
mechanical weathering affects the rate of weathering. When rocks are broken into smaller pieces,
the amount of surface area exposed to chemical weathering is increased. Here we examine three
other important factors: rock characteristics and climate and differential weathering.

a. Rock Characteristics

• Rock characteristics
encompass all the chemical
traits of rocks, including
mineral composition and
solubility. In addition, physical
features such as joints (cracks)
can be important because they
influence the ability of water to
penetrate rock.

• The variations in weathering

rates due to mineral
constituents can be
demonstrated by comparing
old headstones made from
different rock types.
Headstones of granite, which
are composed of silicate
minerals, are relatively
resistant to chemical
weathering.

• On the other hand, the marble headstone shows signs of extensive chemical alteration over
a relatively short period. Marble is composed of calcite (calcium carbonate), which readily
dissolves even in a weakly acidic solution.

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b. Climate

• Climatic factors, particularly temperature and moisture, are crucial to the rate of rock
weathering. One important example from mechanical weathering is that the frequency of
freeze– thaw cycles greatly affects the amount of frost wedging. Temperature and moisture
also exert a strong influence on the rates of chemical weathering and on the kind and
amount of vegetation present. Regions with lush vegetation generally have a thick mantle
of soil rich in decayed organic matter from which chemically active fluids such as carbonic
and humic acids are derived. The optimal environment for chemical weathering is a
combination of warm temperatures and abundant moisture. In polar regions chemical
weathering is ineffective because frigid temperatures keep the available moisture locked
up as ice, whereas in arid regions there is insufficient moisture to foster rapid chemical
weathering.

• Human activities can influence the composition of the atmosphere, which in turn can
impact the rate of chemical weathering. One well-known example is acid rain.

HIGH
PPT
↑
↑
↑
↑
↑
↑
↑
LOW
PPT

COLD →→→→→→→→→→ HOT

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c. Differential Weathering

• Masses of rock do not weather uniformly. The durable igneous mass is more
resistant to weathering than the surrounding rock layers and so protrudes high
above the surface.

Tutorial Videos

To summarize and deeply understand the concepts, kindly watch the video below:

What is Weathering?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxmAJMjJ5Nk&feature=youtu.be

Types of Weathering
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZM4M2J3GdSQ&feature=youtu.be

Learning Activity

Seatwork 8.1

Which diagram shows rocks in arid climate? In humid climate? Explain your answer.

A
B

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SY 2020 – 2021

Key Concepts

❖ Weathering is the physical and chemical processes that break down rock on earth’s surface. It
gives rock lower strength and greater permeability, rendering it more susceptible to mass
wasting and erosion.
❖ There are two types of weathering – physical/mechanical and chemical weathering.
❖ There are four main sources of power for mechanical weathering: gravity, water, wind,
and waves. Of these, water appears to be the leader in changing the surface.
❖ Chemical weathering involves the complex processes that alter the internal structures of
minerals by removing and/ or adding elements. During this transformation, the original
rock decomposes into substances that are stable in the surface environment.
❖ Several factors influence the type and rate of rock weathering. Three other important factors
to consider are rock characteristics and climate, and differential weathering.

Enrichment Activity
Directions: Read each item carefully. Choose the best answer among the choices.

1. The expansive force of accumulation of crystal growth of salt after evaporation of sea water
enlarges cracks and pore spaces within the rock. Which type of weathering was explained?
A. Differential weathering C. Spheroidal weathering
B. Chemical weathering D. Mechanical weathering
2. Which is responsible for the formation of rust when specific element dissolved in water reacts
with iron present in rocks?
A. Exfoliation C. Hydration
B. Carbonation D. Oxidation
3. Unloading refers to the removal of the overlying burden of rock therefore allowing the intrusive
igneous rocks to expand. Which will result from this process of weathering?
A. Sheeting C. Building
B. Jointing D. Contracting
4. Mechanical and chemical weathering reinforce each other and work simultaneously in nature.
Which of the following processes shows how chemical weathering aids mechanical weathering?
A. Spheroidal weathering C. Frost wedging
B. Differential weathering D. Sheeting
5. Weathering occurs when rocks are mechanically fragmented and/or chemically altered. Which of
the following is a process involving mechanical weathering?
A. Oxidation C. Carbonation
B. Exfoliation D. Hydration
6. Which is NOT a process involved in mechanical weathering?
A. Frost wedging C. Salt crustal growth
B. Exfoliation and sheeting D. Oxidation
7. Which of the following refers to the removal of overlying burden of rocks which reduces the
confining pressure and causes rock to expand more separate from the rock body?
A. Carbonation C. Unloading
B. Frost Wedging D. Expansion
8. Which is the primary force of weathering?
A. Gravity C. Winds
B. Water D. Waves
9. Which occurs when water moves into empty pores or spaces of rock by capillary action,
evaporates and leave salt crystals?
A. Halogenation C. Salt crystal growth
B. Salination D. Sodium-Potassium growth
10. Which is an example of a biological activity that results to weathering?
A. Burrowing C. Carbonation
B. Oxidation D. Hydration

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