Energy Storage

1. Introduction to Energy Storage Requirements in

Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
2. Battery based energy storage and its analysis
3. Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis
4. Super Capacitor based energy storage and its
analysis
5. Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis
6. Hybridization of different energy storage
devices.
 Reasons for the predominance of
IC engine vehicles for most of the twentieth century

• Gasoline: The (almost) perfect fuel

Energy Density

40 -
• Gasoline
• Biodiesel
30 -
-
...I
-,
:5
• LPG
u Coal
:s
Cl
20 - • (bituminus)
E
=
0 • Wood
> CNG (3600
10 • psi)

o • U -ion Ba~ery
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Soi,cc: !J.llJ>~lqJlgdio.oraN1lki/Encray...®.ll\l11Y G ravometric MJ/kg
 Energy Equivalency
Gas Batteries
1 Gallon
135MJ
of energy

Extracted from : Electric Veh icles 101, An Introduction By Dan Lauber Nov 13, 2009, MIT
EVs 101
 Energy Equivalency
Gas Batteries
21 Li-ion batteries
1 Gallon
(Car b ery size)
135MJ
of energy

&
2.7 kg

Extracted fro m: Electric Vehicles 101. An Introduction By Dan Lauber Nov 13. 2009. MIT
EVs 101
 Energy Equivalency
Gas Batteries
21 Li-ion batteries
1 Gallon
(Car b ery size)
135MJ
of energy

•
Extracted from: Electric Vehicles 101, An In troduction By Dan Lauber Nov 13, 2009, MIT
EVs 101
Why Hybrid and EVs?=Why battery/Energy storage?

• Disadvantages of poor fuel economy and

environmental pollution.
• Poor fuel economy due to
{1) Engine fuel efficiency characteristics are
mismatched with the real operation requirements
(2) Dissipation of vehicle kinetic energy during
braking, especially while operating in urban areas
(3) Low efficiency of hydraulic transmission in
current automobiles in stop-and-go driving patterns.

► Battery poweredEVs have high energy efficiency

and zero environmental pollution.
 Energy storage
• "Energy storages" are defined as the devices that
store energy, deliver energy outside ( discharge),
and accept energy from outside (charge).
• There are several types of energy storages that
have been proposed for electric vehicle (EV) and
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) applications.
• Energy storage include chemical batteries,
ultracapacitors or supercapacitors, and
ultrahigh-speed flywheels.
• Fuel eel I is essentially a kind of energy converter
 ..................................................................................................
...
. ---------- ~---- ...
Energy
Energy Converte
.. Source
.. r
.:• (1) 7
. Power Train 1 ( ) 1
i l
: t •

i (unidirectional)
•........................ .............................................................. ......
~ ~

''
'' Load
'''
:····················································································· ·►······
'
Power Train 2 ''
''
..• (bidirectional) ~

..
.. Energy Energy
.• Source Converter
.• .•
(2) (2)

'
Electrochemical Energy Storage
Basic requirements for EV applications:
1) Large Energy storage for better driving range.
2) High Input power capability for acceleration.
3) Re_generative braking for achieving high-energy
efficiency.
4) Fast charge for vehicle convenience.
5) Long life meet the general sta ndard of automotive.
component life.
6) Durability against environmental demands, climatic
stress, mechanical stress.
7) Abuse tolerance to keep battery safe under extreme
conditions ( e.g. overcharge, intern a I short-circuits, etc)
•
 Battery
• Electro chemica l devices that
convert electrical energy into
potential chemical energy during Flow of Oiredlonof
charging, and co nvert cflemical Electrons Positive Current
►
energy into electric energy during
disc liarging. AnOde ca1hode
• Composed of several cells (Negative Electrode) (PosiUve EklctJode)

stac ked together.

• A ce ll is an independent and
-/ "" +

complete unit that possesses all

the electrochemical properties. Negative Ions

• Battery cell consists of three Poeitlwlons

primary elements: two electrodes ,.
(po sitive and negative) immersed
into an electrolyte
" '--Elodrotyte

Image Source: http://brllllanceardent.blogspo1.com/ 2012/08/ golden-boost·nanoporous-gold-

boosts.html
 Battery Specifications
· Coulometric capacity (amp-hours): Number of amp-hours gained when
discharging the battery from a fulfy charged state until the term inal voltage
drops to its cut-off voltage
• Same battery usually has a different number of amp-hours at different
discharging current rates.
• Generally, the capacity will become smaller with a large discharge current
rate.
Open circuit voltage
r----=--=-::.:----------------

& Cut-off voltage

g!! --- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - -

~
u

0i&eharging time

• Battery manufacturers usually specify a battery w ith a number of amp-

hours along w ith a current rate.
• For example, a battery labeled 100 Ah at CS rate has a 100 amp-hour
capacity at 5 hours discharge rate (discharging current100/5=20 A).
 Battery Specifications
Nommol eopoe,ty In Ah Of kWh
• State-of-charge (SOC) : Ratio of
the rema ining capacity t o t he fu lly SOC = 100%; DOD - 0% D
cha rged capacity. Depth Of Ollehcnge 000 "4 ;

• A f ully char~ed battery has an

soc of 1 oo ro
• A fu lly discharged battery has an Slot• Of Chorg• SOC %
SOC of 0%.
• Change in SOC in a time interval,
dt with discharging or c harging
c urrent i may be expressed as:
SOC • 0'4 ; 000 • 1oo,r.
idt
6soc - - - Uoot:i. Copactty 000"r, X Nomln04 CopoCJty In M at kWh
0 (i)
w h ere Q(i) is amp - hour capac ity of battery at current rate i

• For discharging, i is positive, and

fo r chargi ng, iis negative.
 Battery Specifications
• The SOC of the battery can be expressed as :

SOC = SOC O -J- idt

O (i)
where SOC O
is the initial value of the SOC.

• Energy capacity is considered as a key spec ification for battery

basea vehicles because it is directly associated with the
vehicle operation.
• The energy delivered from the battery can be expressed as :
t

EC = J V(i, SOC )i(t)dt

0

• where V(i, SOC} is the voltage at the battery terminals, which is

a function of tne battery current and SOC .
 Battery Specifications

• Thermodynamic Voltage
• Thermodynamic voltage of a battery cell is associated with energy
released and number of electrons transferred in the reaction.
• The energy released by the battery cell reaction is given by the
change in Gibbs free energy, /J.G, usually expressed in per mole
quantities.
• The change in Gibbs free energy in a chemical reaction can be
expressed as 6-G = L G,- LG 1
Pr oducts Re ac tan ts

• where Gi and Gi are the free energy in species i of products and

species j of reactants.
 Battery Specifications

• In a reversible process, /J.G is completely converted into

electric energy, that is,
ll.G=-nFV
• where n is the number of electrons transferred in the
reaction, F=96,495 is the Faraday constant in coulombs
per mole, and Vis the reversible voltage of the cell.
• At standard condition (25°C temperature and 1 atm
pressure), the open circuit (reversible) voltage of a
battery cell can be express~<1;as
V ro = - - -
nF

• where /J. G is the change in Gibbs free energy at standard

conditions.
 Battery Specifications
• Specific Energy
• Specific energy is defined as the energy capacity per unit battery weight
(Wh/kg).
• The theoretical specific energy is the maximum energy that can be
generated per unit total mass of the cell reactant.
• As discussed above, the energy in a battery cell can be expressed by the
Gibbs free energy /1G.
• With respect to theoretical specific energy, on ly the effective weights
(molecular weight of reactants and products) are involved; then

6G nFV
E spe,theo =- ""'" ""'" r ( Wh / Kg )
3.6 L M 1 3.6 L M 1
• where "f.M, is the sum of the molecular weight of the individual species
involved in the battery reaction.
 Battery Specifications
• Taking the lead-acid battery as an example,
V=2. 03 V, n=2, and IM=642 g;
then E =170 Wh/kg.
• Practical specific energies, however, are well below the
theoretical maxima.
• A breakdown of the various components of a lead-acid battery
indicates a practical specific energy of 45 Wh/kg only.
• On ly about 26% of the total weight of the battery is directly
involved in prod ucing electrical energy.
• The remainder is made up of
(1)potential call reactants that are not discharged at the rates
required for EV operation
(2) Water used as the solvent for the electrolyte (sulfuric acid
alone is not suitable)
(3) Lead grids for current collection
(4) "top lead", that is, terminals, straps and intercell connectors
(5) Cover, connector, and separators.
 Battery Specifications
• Specific Power
• Specific power is defined as the maximum power of per unit
battery weight that the battery can produce in a short period .
• Specific power is important in the reduction of battery weight,
especially in high power demand applications, such as HEVs.
• The specific power of a chemical battery depends mostly on
the battery's internal resistance .
• Some batteries have a very good specific energi but have low
specific power - which means they store a lot of energy, but
can only give it out slowly.
• In EV terms, they can drive the vehicle very slowly over a long
distance.
• High specific power normally results in lower specific energy
for any particular type of battery.
 Battery Specifications
Rago ne plot fo r Lead A c id and Nickel Cadmium traction batteries

200

1 o2

' 0)
..:.<

~
Cl>
;;::
0
a..
<..>
=
·o
Cl>
10 1
0..
en

10°'----------------------------------
101 20 30 40 50
Spec ific Energy/Wh .kg-1
 Battery Specifications
• Energy Efficiency: The energy or power losses during battery
discharging and charging appear in the form of voltage loss.
• Thus, the efficiency of the battery during discharging and charging
can be defined at any operating point as the ratio of the cell
operating voltage to the thermodynamic voltage, that is:
V
During Dischargin g, fJ =-
Vo
V
During Charging, r; = - 0
V
 Battery Specifications
• The terminal voltage, as a function of
battery current and energy stored in it or
SOC, is lower in discharging and higher in
charging than the electncaf potential
produced by a chemical reaction.
• The battery has a high discharging
efficiency with high SOC and a high
charging efficiency with low SOC. 76~~~~~~~
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
• The net cycle efficiency has a maximum in State-of•Charge (SOC)
the middle range of the SOC.
• Therefore, the battery operation control
unit of an HEV shoula control the battery
SOC in its middle range so as to enhance
the operating efficiency and depress the
temperature rise caused by energy loss.
• High temperature would damage the
battery.