Camera Handbook

Art 061—Digital Photography
Section S002 / 0.5 Semester hours

Thomas Busby, MEd
Copyright © 2013. Brigham Young University. All rights reserved.
Published by the
Department of Independent Study
Division of Continuing Education
Brigham Young University
120 MORC
Provo, Utah 84602-1514
USA
2
Introduction to This Lessons Packet
Thank you for purchasing the lesson packet for ART 061: Digital
Photography. Included in this packet, you should have received these
items:
• This introductory letter
• A copy of the readings from each lesson (the pages following this
letter)
Begin your online course by reading the syllabus; it contains the
information you need to successfully complete the course. As you begin,
you will notice that each lesson includes a brief introduction, learning
outcomes for the lesson, reading assignments, analysis of the importance
of each reading, and lesson reading material. The reading material for
each lesson is included in this packet, as well as in the online course.
The lessons also have Speedback assignments and Self Check exercises
associated with them, as well as a paper assignment; these are available
only through the online course.
This packet is designed to give you the best experience for reading
the detailed lesson content and taking notes. To complete the course, you
will need access to the online assignments and exams.
Best wishes for your success in this course!
3
Table of Contents
Introduction to This Lessons Packet .................................................3

Table of Contents................................................................................4
Lesson 1: History—Introduction to Photography.............................7

Introduction........................................................................................7
1.2: Influential Photographers throughout History......................... 16
1.3: Photography Terms................................................................... 29
Lesson 2: Equipment—Digital Camera Basics...............................31

Introduction ..................................................................................... 31
2.1: Parts of the Camera....................................................................32
2.2: Shutter Speed.............................................................................45
2.3: Basic Types of Cameras............................................................ 48
Lesson 3: Composition Basics........................................................59

Introduction......................................................................................59
3.1: Content and Purpose................................................................. 60
3.2: Rule of Thirds and Other Composition Rules.......................... 62
3.3: Elements of Design................................................................... 66
3.4: Principles of Design...................................................................72
3.5: Lenses.........................................................................................78
Lesson 4: Technique: Digital Black and White..............................83

Introduction..................................................................................... 84
4.1: Light and the Digital Camera.................................................... 85
4.2: Natural and Artificial Light....................................................... 86
4.3: Uploading Pictures.................................................................... 90
4.4: Tagging Images......................................................................... 92
Lesson 5: Evaluation: Introduction to Editing...............................95

Introduction..................................................................................... 96
5.1: Organizing with Tags..................................................................97
5.2: Editing and Improving Images................................................. 98
5.3: Saving Versions Sets................................................................ 101
5.4: Editing and Improving Images................................................102
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Table of Contents
Lesson 6: Careers in Photography............................................... 107

Introduction....................................................................................107
6.1: Researching Photography Careers...........................................108
6.2: Reviewing Photography Careers..............................................109
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Lesson 1
History—Introduction to Photography
Introduction
L esson 1 will introduce you
© BYU Independent Study

to the history of photogra-
phy and the people who made it
an important art form and tool.
You will first explore the history
of photography by researching the
field’s important advancements
and placing them on a timeline.
The second part of the lesson will Cameras over time
help you to identify influential photographers and their contribution to
photography. The final objective of this lesson will familiarize you with
photographic terms that will be used throughout this introductory course.
Learning Outcomes
1. Identify the major photographic discoveries and advancements
throughout history.
2. Identify some of the most influential photographers and their
contributions to photography.
3. Define basic photography terms.
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1.1: Photography through the Ages
Identify the major photographic discoveries and advancements through-
out history.
Photography has evolved over many centuries. As you learn about how the
photographic process has evolved from a very time-intensive labor to an
almost instantaneous result, consider how these technological advance-
ments influenced the kinds of images that could be made.
How might each one of these inventions and discoveries have shaped
how photographic art could be created?
Technology History
Light Sensitive Chemicals

1717 - Johann Schultz
Light sensitive chemicals

discovered
Johann Schultz, a German scientist,
discovered that a mixture of chalk,
nitric acid, and silver created a chem-
ical that darkened when exposed to
light. Although he didn’t create any
photographs himself, this discovery
of the light sensitivity of Silver Nitrate
would go on make practical photogra-
phy possible.
A caption would go in this spot, to iden-
tify, explain, or clarify what is in the
image.
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First Photograph
1826 - Nicephore Niepce
World’s first photo-

graph created
Nicephore Niepce,
after trial and error,
successfully devel-
oped a process to
create the world’s first
photograph (shown
above). The exposure
was several hours long,
making it somewhat
impractical, but it inspired others, like Louis Daguerre to discover more
practical chemical processes.
Photograph Duplication
1835 - Henry Fox Talbot
Callotype photo
negative chemical
process invented
Henry Talbot was the
first sucessful pho-
tographer to create
a process by which
many copies of a single
image could be made.
His chemical process
involved coating a
piece of paper with a light sensitive chemical, which produced a pho-
tographic negative. The negative could then be used to make multiple
positives (for example, the negative above on the left, and the print, or
positive, on the right). Photographs made through this process were
called “Callotypes”.
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Sharp Photographs
1839 - Louis Daguerre
Daguerrotype chemical process

invented
Louis Daguerre’s chemical process
involved coating a blackened metal
plate with a light sensitive chemical.
The image produced was much sharper
and clearer than Talbot’s paper based
images, and required a much shorter
exposure. However, because it was on
a metal plate (instead of paper, which
light can pass through), Daguerrotypes
were one-of-a-kind positive, and dupli-
cates could not be made.
Affordable, Sharp Photopraph Duplication

1851 - Frederick Archer
Wet Collodion chemical process

invented
Although the chemistry involved was
different, Frederick Archer’s results
were similar to Daguerre’s. Archer used
a glass plate, which offered the best of
both worlds - It created a photo nega-
tive that could be used to make mul-
tiple prints like Talbot’s process, but
it was sharp and clear like Daguerre’s
process, and only required relatively
short exposure times (several seconds
rather than minutes or hours).
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Color
1861 - James Maxwell
The first, lasting

color photograph
was created
James Maxwell’s
chemical process was
expensive and labo-
rious, which meant
that it never became
accessible to the gen-
eral public, but it was
the first successful cre-
ation of a color image
(shown on right).
Portability
1871 - Richard Maddox
Silver Gelatin Dry Plate chemical process invented

In all previous chemical processes, photographic plates and chemicals
had to be freshly prepared in a darkroom or light-tight tent just minutes
before the photograph was taken and developed immediately. The Dry
Plate chemical process,
invented by Richard
Maddox, allowed
photographers to have
ready-made plates that
they could take with
them anywhere, ready
at any moment, that
could be developed
later.
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Roll Film
1889 - George Eastman
Commerical production designed for film

George Eastman (who went on to become the founder of Kodak) designed
a process for coating a strip of acetate
film (instead of glass plates) with silver
gelatin, which could then be rolled up
on a spool. Now photographers could
take multiple images on a single roll
of film instead of loading a separate
glass plate into their camera for each
photograph.
Affordable Color
1907 - Auguste and Louis Lumiere
Affordable color chemical process invented

The Lumiere brothers invented a chemical color process that was afford-
able, using red, green, and blue dyed potato starch to filter the light hitting
the light-sensitive chemicals. It was still applied to glass plates though,
and was not available as a roll
12
35mm Camera
1925 - Ernst Leitz
Small, carry-size
camera designed
Ernst Leitz, in
Germany, designed
the first 35mm camera.
The small size made
it practical to carry
a camera anywhere,
and take a photograph
anytime.
Flash
1931 - Harold Edgarton
Electronic flash technology

invented
Harold Edgarton, at MIT, created
electronic flash technology, making it
possible to freeze motion more quickly
even than fast shutter speeds.
Color Roll Film

1935 - Kodak Company
New color chemical process

invented
After extensive work in their labora-
tory, Kodak researchers successfully
created a chemical process and film
called Kodachrome that brought color
photography to the vast number of
owners of roll film cameras.
13
Instant Film
1948 - Edwin Land
New instant film

chemical process
invented
Edwin Land success-
fully created an instant
film, which came to be
known as the Polaroid.
This allowed photog-
raphers to see how the
photograph turned out just 1 minute after taking it, instead of waiting to
take their roll of film to be developed.
Photoshop
1989 - Adobe Corporation
Ditigal Editing soft-

ware developed
Photo manipulation
was nothing new -
photographers had
been creating illusions
through printing tricks
in the darkroom since
the 1800’s, but with
this new software,
photographs (from
digitally scanned film)
could be manipulated
easily, quickly, and
cheaply. With such
speed and affordability, the only limit to photography now was the pho-
tographer’s imagination.
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Digital Cameras
1991 - Kodak Company
Digital sensors
invented
Although some very
low resolution digi-
tal cameras had been
created before 1991, in
that year Kodak began
selling the DCS - the
first practical digital
sensor with 1.2 mega-
pixels that could be
installed in existing
film cameras. With
rapid research and
tehcnological devel-
opment over the next decade, photographs could taken and viewed
immediately, without worrying about how much it was costing in film
for each photograph. They could also be edited digitally in photoshop
without the burden of having to first digitally scan film.
15
1.2: Influential Photographers throughout
History
Identify some of the influential photographers and their contributions.
Many photographers have made contributions to both the photographic

process and the art of photography. These photographers were usually
ignored and dismissed by the established art community, but because of
their hard work in the development of the photographic craft, photography
is today an accepted art form.
In this reading you will learn a bit more about some of the photographers
that have been most influential in the development and acceptance of
photography as an art form. Listed below are several photographers that
have made significant contributions with their work.
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History
Lewis Hine
1874-1940
Lewis Hine, like others, documented American work life, but Hine was
especially conscious of composition and the power it had to draw the
attention of the viewer. With this added interest, he was able to use his
photographs to help persuade law makers to address child labor laws.
Up until then, children had been working in unhealthy and unsafe cir-
cumstances, without consequences for the employers.
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Edward Steichen
1879-1973
Edward Steichen, one of the most influential artists in photography his-

tory, promoted the acceptance of photography as art early on by gathering
photographers to exhibit their own work. Steichen eventually went on to
curate the infamous photography exhibit called “The Family of Man”
, which was seen by 9 million people. All but a few of the photographers
listed in this timeline contributed photographs to that monumental
exhibit, which displayed all different walks of life and human experiences
from around the world.
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Edward Weston
1886-1958
Weston’s work focused completely on the elements and principles of

design. He found beauty through perspective and lighting of mundane
objects - peppers, sand dunes, toilets, seashells, and cabbage; just to
name a few. His work became extremely influential, calling greater atten-
tion to compositional aspects of photography, and placing less importance
on the actual subject or object being photographed.
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Irving Penn
1917-2009
Irving Penn was one of the most diverse and prolific photographers to
date. He photographed portraits, fashion, and all sorts of still lifes. The
arrangment of elements in the frame and his attention to careful lighting
helped his images stand out. Penn was not one to repetitiously employ a
simple formula to create a style - each image had an individual strength
of its own.
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Dorothea Lange
1895-1965
Dorothea Lange, like

Lewis Hine, used her
photographic skill to
document and illus-
trate challenging cir-
cumstances that
people were facing in
her time. Her photo
title, “Migrant Mother”
captured a poor family
afflicted by the dust
bowl, and helped other
Americans have a
glimpse of the strug-
gles and distress that
many farmers faced.
Her photos from the time of the Great Depression also helped bring a
new light to the power of well composed documentary and photojour-
nalistic photography.
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Ansel Adams
1902-1984
One of the most well-

known photographers
in art history, Ansel
Adams travelled the
great west with his
large format camera,
creating portraits of
the majestic terrain -
finding the perfect per-
spective and waiting
for just the right light
to illustrate the gran-
deur of nature’s
beauty. He also employed darkroom techniques to manipulate his photos
to bring out certain elements of his images, balancing each detail.
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Henri
Cartier-Bresson
1908-2004
Henry Cartier-Bresson
is most well known for
his capturing of “The
Decisive Moment”. As
a photojournalist, he
found himself in the
right place, and the
right time, capturing fleeting moments. This was possible because of his
small Lecia 35mm rangefinder camera, which allowed him to always have
his camera with him, ready to take a photo at a moment’s notice.
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Robert Capa
1913-1954
Robert Capa was a pioneer in bringing home photojournalism of war with

impactful images that demystified the experiences of soldiers and citizens
in war torn parts of the world. Among his most famous images are the
landing on Omaha Beach on D-Day in World War II. Capturing these
images meant putting his own life on the line, and, years later, Robert
Capa was actually killed by a land mine while photographing a war in
Indochina.
24
Richard Avedon
1923-2004
Under the guidance of art director

Alexy Brodovitch, Richard Avedon
became the most influential fashion
photographer to date. He introduced
motion into his images at a time when
all other fasion photography was still
and lifeless. His prolific work stretched
on for decades, always introducing new
elements to the world of fashion pho-
tography. Eventually he also began to
shoot portraits - both of celebrities
and of common folks. One of his more
famous books, In the American West,
captured people from all walks of life
across the American west, against a
plain white backdrop.
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Robert Frank
1924-
Robert Frank, born in

Switzerland, brought a
unique outside per-
spective to American
culture - initially in the
south during the mid
1950s - and later in a
variety of places across
the United States. His
. perspective, choice of
subjects and his por-
trayal of culture remind the viewer of the impact that photojournalism
has upon how cultures are viewed by outsiders.
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Willam Eggleston
1939-
William Eggleston is
one of the most well
known color photogra-
phy artists. His work
zeroed in on the power
of color and color
theory. Finding oppor-
tune compositions
with color unifying the whole, he brought great attention to possibilities
of photographic art beyond the realm of customary black and white
images.
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Andreas Gursky
1955-
Andreas Gursky is a contemporary

photographer with a focus on the enor-
mity of globalization and man-made
artifacts. His images are often refined
and combined through digital editing
to orchstrate a seemingly endless array
of elements, all working in sync,
aesthetically.
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1.3: Photography Terms
Define basic photography terms.
There is a specialized vocabulary used for photography. When you begin

the study of any new subject, it is important to learn the vocabulary for
that subject. Many of these terms are also used in the study of general
art. If you have studied art you may already be familiar with many of the
terms. You will want to pay attention to their specific use in photography.
Learning Activity 1.3: Photography Terms

In this assignment you will be asked to research and learn more about
terms used frequently within the photography world. You will need to
research the terms by referencing the Internet or other reference material.
You can download the Photography Terms PDF here.
Portfolio Assignment
Select four different photographers you have learned about. Take a picture
using the style of these photographers. Submit these four pictures with
a written paragraph about each picture explaining how the picture is in
the style of the chosen photographer.
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Lesson 2
Equipment—Digital Camera Basics
Introduction
T his lesson will discuss digital cameras. You will want to pay
particular attention to information about the type of camera you
will be using to complete your class assignments.
Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the function of various parts of digital cameras: body,
viewer, lens, shutter, aperture, and picture data storage.
2. Use shutter speed together with aperture to achieve desired degree
of motion and desired depth of field in your
photograph.
3. Identify the basic types of cameras and list

the advantages and disadvantages of each.
A camera
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2.1: Parts of the Camera
Explain the function of various parts of a digital camera: body, viewer,
lens, shutter, aperture, and picture data storage.
Every camera is made differently and, to be able to use yours correctly,

you should first read the owner’s manual for your camera. The simplest
cameras are called pinhole cameras. They consist of a light-tight box to
contain the film, a small hole to let the image (via light) in, and a way to
stop that light from coming in (usually a finger over the hole or a piece of
black tape). Your camera will have a camera body (which is a light-tight
box), an aperture (an adjustable hole) to let light in, and a shutter that
will stop the light from coming in. Your camera will have other features
like a lens to amplify the light, a viewfinder to see what you will take a
photo of, a light meter to see how much light is available to you, and a
memory card to store the images you take. This chapter covers some of
the most basic features found on manually adjustable cameras, where
you have the ability to change the aperture and shutter speed settings.
If you have an automatic camera, or if you are looking to purchase a
camera, make sure you can switch it to manual and that you can adjust
your aperture and shutter speed.
Basic Parts of the Camera

You will be using your camera to
take photos, so it is important that

you know how to use it. Your camera
will probably have more features than
those listed in this chapter, so don’t
forget to read your owner’s manual
for the camera you will be using. As
we discuss the parts and functions of Top view of a camera
cameras in general, have your camera and manual with you so you can
locate that part or function on your specific camera and know how to use it.
32
Lesson 2: Equipment—Digital Camera Basics
Camera Body
This part of the camera

has the internal image
processor and the main
controls for the camera.
The camera body is usu-
ally rectangular in shape.
Simple point and shoot
cameras have a single
lens that usually has a
zoom feature. The high- Back view of a camera
end DSLR cameras usually have interchangeable lenses. These lenses
may be a zoom lens or a fixed focal length lens.
As mentioned in the introduction, the simplest camera is the pinhole
camera. The body of a pinhole camera can be made of any light-tight
container that can fit film. In the classes that I teach, I have seen students
make pinhole camera bodies out of oatmeal boxes, small tins, garbage
cans, wooden boxes, and other light-tight containers. Your camera will
be much more sophisticated than these, but in reality the camera body
only needs to be a light-tight container for the film or sensors in a digital
camera to work. In film cameras, that means once you load your film no
light should be able to get in until you want it in. Very expensive cameras
have metal bodies so they won’t break as easily. Less expensive cameras
have bodies made of plastic.
Aperture
One of the settings that controls
exposure is called the aperture

(also called the diaphragm or lens
opening). The aperture controls
the intensity of light that reaches
your film by changing the size of
the hole that lets light into your
camera. Find the aperture ring or
adjustment on your camera. The Front of an accordian camera
aperture adjustment will have num-
bers like ƒ 16, ƒ 11, ƒ 8, and ƒ 5.6. These numbers are known as f-stops
or f numbers. They are fractions, and so the bigger the number on the
33
Art 61: Digital Photography
bottom, the smaller the aperture opening. For example, ƒ 16 is a smaller

opening than ƒ 8 because 1/16 is a smaller fraction than 1/8.
Shutter Speed
The other setting that controls exposure is called the shutter speed. It
controls the length of exposure, or how long light will be allowed to enter
the camera through the aperture. Find the shutter dial or adjustment on
your camera. The shutter speed adjustment will have numbers like 1000,
500, 250, 125, and 60. These numbers are fractions of a second; therefore,
1/1000 of a second is much faster than 1/60 of a second.
Light Exposure
You should have two settings on your camera that will allow you to change
the amount of light entering your camera body and exposing your image:
aperture and shutter speed. If too much light gets into your camera, your
photo will be overexposed, and if too little light gets into your camera,
your photo will be underexposed. If you understand how to control
exposure, you will be able to take perfectly exposed photographs every
time with the right equipment. Before you depress the shutter release on
your camera you should set aperture and shutter speed to be sure your
exposure is correct.
Light Meter
Most cameras have an internal light metering system that can measure the
light coming in so you, or in the case of cameras with auto exposure (see
your owner’s manual for auto exposures like shutter-priority, aperture-
priority, or full auto exposure) the camera, can set the correct aperture
and shutter speed to get the correct exposure. There are several types of
light meters, but the type that is usually built into a camera is called a
reflected light meter. It averages all the lights and darks reflected back
to the camera from the subject and then calculates a shutter speed and
aperture combination that will produce middle gray in a print.
This system works well for most scenes, because your subjects will
have equal amounts of darks and lights. However, this type of metering
will have poor results in subjects that are very light or are very dark. For
example, say you want to take a photo of some eggs on a light-toned
tablecloth. The light meter will assume that your subject has a balance
of lights and darks and since it does not, your settings will be incorrect.
34
If you were to meter bell peppers on black velvet, your light meter would
again give you incorrect settings. Instead of white eggs in the first example,
you would have middle-gray toned eggs, and your peppers on black velvet
would appear middle-gray in the final print if you were to use the settings
given by your light meter.
When you meter a scene that you believe will give you false settings,
you have several options. You can use a neutral gray test card—a middle-
gray piece of paper you can buy at a photography store—by holding it
up in front of the scene you wish to shoot and meter on the card instead.
Dark skin is about the same tone as the neutral gray test card and average
light-toned skin is one stop (explanation below) lighter. Meter on your
hand by holding it up in front of the scene to be metered, you may need
to get closer to the subject to make sure your hand has the same lighting
conditions as the scene and then back up to take the photo. If your skin
is dark, then no adjustments need to be made. If your skin is light-toned,
then add one stop of light. One stop of light is created by either opening
up the aperture by one whole stop, i.e., ƒ 16 to ƒ 11, or by doubling the
shutter speed time, i.e., 1/500 of a second to 1/250 of a second. If your
skin is extremely light, then you may need to open up two full stops.
Other hard-to-meter scenes include a subject with a very light back-
ground, like a bright sky. In this case, meter on the subject only, rather
than the subject and background together. By doing this you will prevent
your subject from showing up as only a silhouette.
The Steps to Metering

To set the metering on your camera, use the ISO setting. (ISO is an
acronym for International Organization of Standardization.) The ISO is
the sensitivity of the camera sensors to light. The lower the ISO number
is, the less sensitive the sensor is to light. A basic rule to use for an ISO
setting is to use 100 ISO for brightly lit outdoor scenes and 400 ISO for
scenes with less light.
Set the camera to the desired exposure mode, that is, manual exposure
(you set both shutter speed and aperture), shutter priority (you set the
shutter speed and the camera will set the correct aperture), aperture
priority (you set aperture and the camera will set the correct shutter
speed), or programmed automatic exposure (the camera will set both the
correct aperture and shutter speed). Note that your camera may have
35
only manual exposure available or any combination of the aforementioned

exposure modes.
Meter your scene by looking

through the viewfinder and acti-
vating the meter (see your own-
er’s manual on how to activate
your meter). If your camera has
no light meter, you can refer to
the suggested aperture and shut-
ter speed settings that are usually
found in the owner’s manual.
Determine if your scene has a ISO setting
balance of lights and darks or grays.
If not, then meter on a gray card or use your hand as described above. In
the case of a very bright background, meter on the subject only by getting
closer to the subject, metering, setting your exposure at that location, and
then returning to your original location.
Set the aperture and shutter speed for correct exposure and depress
the shutter release. Note: Usually, a tripod is used for exposures longer
than 1/60 of a second, using a normal focal length lens, to reduce blur
caused by motion.
Do I Have More Choices Than the One My Light Meter Tells Me?
Since the aperture and shutter speed both control the amount of light
that enters into the camera, once you know a combination of the two
that will give you a correct exposure, you can change one setting as long
as you change the other the opposite way. This is known as the Law of
Reciprocity. We have two controllers of light on the camera, the aperture
and the shutter speed. If I open up the aperture one stop, say, from ƒ 8 to
ƒ 5.6, what I am doing is letting twice the amount of light (in intensity)
into the camera. If I close down the shutter speed from 1/60 of a second
to 1/125 of a second, I am letting half the amount of light in (in time).
Therefore, if my light meter shows that I will get a correct exposure if
I set my aperture at ƒ 8 and my shutter speed to 1/60, I can also use a
setting of ƒ 5.6 and 1/125 because both exposures are equivalent. The
amount of light entering the camera is the same even though the settings
may be different.
36
The four images shown are examples of how changing the exposure
will affect the light in the picture. Picture #1 is 1/250 second, picture #2
is 1/125 second, picture #3 is 1/60 second, and picture #4 is 1/30 second.
All four pictures are exposed with the same ƒ 8.
Picture Number Example Pictures

Picture 1
1/250 second
Picture 2
1/125 second
Picture 3
1/60 second
Picture 4
1/30 second
Table 2.1: Different exposures
37
Why Would I Ever Want to Change My Settings Using the Law of

Reciprocity?
You will want to have flexibility. In some lighting conditions and with
some lenses, one combination of settings given by the light meter may
not be available. Alternate settings allow you to have options while still
having the correct exposure. In 2.2 you will learn that besides control-
ling exposure, aperture also controls depth of field, and shutter speed
controls subject movement.
Lens
Basically, all camera lenses do

the same thing: they collect light
from an image and project it onto
film. However, by controlling the
focal length (the distance from
the optical center of the lens to
the focal plane when the lens is
focused on infinity) of the lens
(usually this technical stuff can
Different lenses
be described as the length of the
lens), the photographer can control magnification, and angle of view (or
the amount of the scene that will show up on the film). Lenses can be
automatic focusing or manual focusing, depending on the type of camera
and options available for it.
Lenses can be divided into the following five basic types:
1. Normal Lenses
A normal lens is also called a
standard lens. This is the type that

you will probably use the most,
especially in beginning photogra-
phy. For a DSLR camera, a normal
focal length lens is 50 mm. A 50
mm lens on a DSLR camera will
approximate the vision of the A DSLR camera
human eye. It “sees” the world about how you see it.
2. Telephoto Lenses
These lenses have focal lengths that are longer than the normal lens.
Common telephoto focal length lenses for a DSLR camera include 85
38
mm, 105 mm (often used as a head-and-shoulders portrait lens), 135 mm,

200 mm, 300 mm, 400 mm, 500 mm, 600 mm, 1000 mm, and 1200
mm. The longer the focal length of a telephoto lens, the greater the mag-
nification and the narrower the angle of view. That means that faraway
objects will appear closer (telephoto lenses are great to photograph sports
and wildlife) but some of the scene

will be cropped out of the photo.
Telephoto lenses reduce the dif-
ferences in the size of objects that
are in the foreground and the
background, this effect is known
as “telephoto compression.” This
means that objects in the fore-
ground appear to be closer to the
background than they really are. Different lenses
Some drawbacks to consider before purchasing a telephoto lens are
that telephoto lenses tend to be bulkier and more expensive than normal
lenses. Focusing must be made more accurately with a telephoto lens
because they create a shallower depth of field than a normal lens. They
are usually slower than normal lenses. Speed, when discussing lenses,
refers to the widest aperture opening capable for that lens.
Telephoto lenses allow less light through them, requiring longer shutter
speed times than normal lenses, unless you pay more money for a faster
lens. Telephoto lenses also magnify movement and a tripod is useful to
stop blurred movement caused by the photographer.
3. Wide-Angle Lenses
These lenses have focal
lengths that are shorter than

normal lenses. Some common
wide-angle lenses used in 35 mm
film photography include 35 mm,
28 mm, 24 mm, 20 mm, and the
“fisheye” lenses under 20 mm
in length that produce distorted
images. These short focal-length
A wide-angle lens
lenses produce images that cap-
ture a wide angle of view and tend to push the foreground further from
the background, adding depth and perspective. Wide-angle lenses create
39
photographs that have more depth of field, which can allow the photogra-
pher more room for error when focusing. In fact, some fisheyes can’t even
be focused because they have such a great depth of field that everything
from as close as touching the lens to infinity will be in focus. However,
for good or bad, these lenses create a great deal of distortion.
Wide-angle lenses are great for panoramas, in tight quarters, and
where distortion is required. A fisheye can be useful for special effects.
4. Zoom Lenses
These lenses do not have a

fixed focal length. A zoom lens
that can be adjusted from 35 mm
to 105 mm is like owning a 35
mm lens, a 105 mm lens, and all
the lenses in between. This can
save the photographer money, but
zoom lenses do have their disad-
vantages. Zoom lenses tend to be
even bulkier and slower than their
fixed focal length equivalent, and
are generally not as sharp.
5. Macro Lenses
These lenses are often found as
a mode on a zoom lens. They are
used for close-up photography. Zoom lenses
Viewfinder
A photographer usually uses the viewfinder as a format to compose her
photograph. This composing of the photograph should be considered
before releasing the shutter (see
the lesson on composition for

more information on composing
your photograph).
You will use your viewfinder
to help you focus on the most
important part of the scene. Some
common focusing aids on single A viewfinder
lens reflex cameras include ground glass focusing (an etched glass screen
on which the image can be focused), micro-prism (a circle that appears
40
coarsely dotted until focused), and split-image focusing (that offsets the
subject until it is focused).
You will find a rangefinder

system focusing system on a
rangefinder camera (see 2.3 for
information on the rangefinder)
that operates by superimposing
two images of the same subject.
The lens is focused sharply on
the subject when the two images Rangefinder
appear exactly superimposed.
Parallax effect is a discrepancy between what the photographer sees
through the viewfinder and what the lens records on the sensor. Parallax
effect is not a problem with single-lens reflex cameras because the photog-
rapher is actually looking at the scene through the lens in such cameras.
However, because the viewfinder is offset from the lens in rangefinder
cameras, twin-lens reflex cameras (see 2.3), and in point-and-shoot
cameras (see “simple cameras” in 2.3), what the photographer is looking
at may not be exactly what the camera sees, especially when the camera
is close to the subject.
Your viewfinder may also contain information about exposure from
your light meter. Remember to find out how to use the features on your
particular camera by reading the owner’s manual.
41
Shutter Speed Example Photo

1
1/2
1/4
42

1/8
1/15
1/30
1/60
43

1/125
1/250
1/500
1/1000
Table 2.2: Different shutter speeds
44
2.2: Shutter Speed
Use shutter speed together with aperture to achieve desired degree of
motion and desired depth of field in your photograph.
Using Shutter Speed and Aperture Together

You already know that the aperture and shutter speed control the amount
of light that enters the camera, but each of them also affects the image
sharpness. The aperture affects the depth of field, the sharpness from near
to far, while the shutter speed affects the sharpness of the moving subject.
Aperture and Depth of Field

The larger the aperture is, the more shallow the depth of field. Say, for
example, you are taking a photograph of someone’s head. If you were
using a very large aperture setting and were to focus on the subject’s eyes,
nose, and hair, certainly the background would not be as sharp as the
eyes. If you were to use a small aperture and focus on the subject’s eyes,
you would produce an image that could be entirely in focus, including
the background.
Shutter Speed and Subject Movement

The slower the shutter speed, the
more movement will be shown.

Conversely, the faster the shut-
ter speed, the less movement will
be shown. Therefore, the pho-
tographer can decide if the water
coming out of a faucet should be
“frozen” by using a fast shutter
speed (see figure 1.17), or if it
should rush past in a blur by use
of a slow shutter speed (see figure Stopped motion
1.16). Since camera movement
45
from the photographer can be seen when using slow shutter speeds, the
use of a tripod is generally necessary when using shutter speeds slower
than 1/60 of a second when using a normal lens. Telephoto lenses require
a tripod at an even faster speed (1/125 or 1/250).
Can I Create an Image with Both a “Deep Depth of

Field” and “Stopped Motion?”
Once you find out an exposure

that is correct for the scene you
desire to photograph, you can
change one of your settings, as
long as you change the other the
opposite way. Because each shut-
ter speed lets in twice as much
light as the next faster speed,
and each aperture setting lets in
twice as much light as the next
smaller size, you can use a faster
Depth of Field
shutter speed as long as you use
a larger aperture, and vice versa.
Therefore, you usually need to sacrifice depth of field for shutter speed.
In other words, if you want to stop the motion of the water running from
a faucet and put your shutter on a faster speed, you will have to open up
your aperture, thereby producing a photo with a shallower depth of field.
If, however, you have a lot of available light, so much that you must
both close down your aperture and stop down your shutter speed to
produce the correct exposure, you would produce an image that would
contain both stop motion and a deep depth of field. If you desired to
produce an image that had blurred movement or a shallow depth of field
in the same lighting conditions, you would have to block out some of the
light entering your camera by placing a neutral density filter over your
lens or by changing your film’s sensitivity to light.
A neutral density filter acts as sunglasses for your camera, letting in
less light. You would fit the filter over your lens to block out some of the
excess light which would allow you to open up your aperture or to slow
your shutter speed and create the affects you desire. In lesson 3 you will
learn more about photographic film; however, it is important to know right
46
away that the film speed rating, or ASA/ISO, is related to its sensitivity
to light.Intriguing Question
I can stop the movement of the subject with a fast shutter speed, and I
can allow the movement of the subject to show with a slow shutter speed,
but can I stop the movement of the subject and have the background be
blurred?
To make the subject appear like it is racing past the viewer requires
the use of a technique called panning. To pan an image, set your exposure
using a relatively slow shutter speed (this is relative to the subject move-
ment but start with a speed close
to 1/30 of a second). Follow the

subject through your viewfinder
at about the same speed as the
subject is moving. Release your
shutter as the subject passes you.
Your subject should be in focus,
while the background will be
blurred. Panning can take some
practice in order to keep the sub-
ject in the viewfinder, move at the
same speed as the subject, and set
Panning
the shutter to the correct speed.
47
2.3: Basic Types of Cameras
Identify the basic types of cameras and list the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
Basic Types of Cameras

There are five basic types of cameras that we will be discussing. There is
the point-and-shoot camera, the rangefinder camera, the twin-lens reflex
camera, the single-lens reflex camera, and the view camera. There are
also various sizes or formats of film available to different cameras. The
size of film will determine the size of your negative, which will produce
your photographic image. Bigger negatives can hold more information
on them and therefore are able to produce images that can be enlarged
without losing detail. We will be discussing three sizes, or formats, of
film: 35 mm, the most common film size, medium format film, which
is about four times as large as 35 mm film, and large format sheet film,
which can be 4" x 5" and larger.
Point-and-Shoot Cameras
As the name implies, “point-and-
shoot” cameras do everything.

The photographer merely drops
the film into the camera. The
camera will then read the speed
of the film and advance to the
first frame. You look through the
viewfinder, compose the image,
and the camera will focus, calcu-
late exposure, add flash if needed,
advance the film after exposure,
Point and shoot camera
and rewind the film at the end of
the roll.
48
35 mm
• Advantages—Relatively inexpensive, automatic “everything,”
easy to use, lightweight, compact, convenient, some offer zoom
capabilities, no other equipment needed.
• Disadvantages—Cannot take quality photos in some conditions,
fixed aperture and shutter speeds mean that the photographer
cannot control depth-of-field nor subject movement, lenses cannot
be changed for angle of view or close-up photography, small
negative.
Rangefinder Cameras
Rangefinder cameras are small

and light. They can be identified
by their viewfinder and focus-
ing system, which is known as a
“rangefinder.” The viewfinder of
a rangefinder looks over the lens
to the subject, not through the
lens. To focus the rangefinder, Rangefinder camera
the photographer will see a ghost image of the subject until the lens is
focused correctly. This is called a super-imposed focusing system.
35 mm
• Advantages—Lightweight, adjustable aperture and shutter speeds
allow for more flexibility than point-and-shoot cameras, change-
able lenses of superior quality in good models, fast and precise
focusing, quiet shutter.
• Disadvantages—Good models are usually expensive, the viewfinder
does not see what the lens is seeing and parallax can be a problem
with close-up photography, small negative.
Medium Format
• Advantages and disadvantages—Similar to the 35mm rangefinder
except that the medium format rangefinder carries 2 1/4" film to
offer a larger negative.
49
Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras (TLR)

I love my twin-lens reflex camera. These cameras look like elongated
boxes with two lenses mounted on the front. One of the lenses is for the
photographer to look out of and the
other is used to capture the image.

The viewfinder is usually located on
the top of the camera and it takes
up the entire top of the camera. The
photographer holds the camera at
his or her waist and then looks down
into the viewfinder to see the Twin-lens reflex camera
subject.
Medium Format
• Advantages—Large 2 1/4” negative, quiet, generally not as expen-
sive as other types of medium format cameras, sturdy and reliable,
large viewfinder.
• Disadvantages—Not as fast as a rangefinder nor as flexible as an
SLR, few models offer changeable lenses, these lenses are expen-
sive, waist-level viewfinder shows the image backwards, there are
few models made.
Single-Lens Reflex Cameras (SLR)

These cameras offer the greatest
number of changeable lenses and
features. They are usually the “norm"
when purchasing a new camera for
a photography class. If you take
off the lens to a single-lens reflex
camera you will see a mirror set at a
45 degree angle. The mirror allows Single lens reflex camera
the photographer to see the subject
through the lens. The mirror flips up when the shutter is released to allow
exposure of the image onto the film.
35 mm
• Advantages—Wide variety of changeable lenses, wide variety of
models with a variety of features and functions, through-the-lens
metering and viewing, parallax is not a problem.
50
• Disadvantages—SLRs are often not as quiet as rangefinders, TLRs,

and view cameras, small 35 mm negative requires sharp focusing,
careful exposure and processing for high-quality enlargements.
Medium Format
• Advantages—Same advantages as the 35mm SLR with the added
bonus of a larger negative, some offer changeable camera backs.
• Disadvantages—Heavier, bulkier, noisier, and more expensive
than the 35mm SLRs.
View Cameras
The view camera gives you the

most control over your image. It
also offers the largest of negatives.
It is so big, however, that it must be
mounted onto a tripod. The whole
back of a view camera is the view-
finder. Some photographers cover
View camera
the viewfinder with a dark cloth and
then peek under the cloth to more accurately focus the image. It is usually
used by landscape photography or in the studio.
4" x 5" and Larger

• Advantages—Large negative for quality enlargements, single sheet
film allows for precise exposure and processing for each exposure,
film plane and lens can be shifted or tilted to change perspective
or plane of focus.
• Disadvantages—Very bulky, heavy, and expensive, a tripod is
required to support the camera, time consuming to set up and
operate.
The Digital Camera

The digital camera is very similar to the film camera. It has a lens to
allow light into the camera, shutter speeds to control how long the light
is allowed to enter the camera, and a black box to record the image.
The basic difference between the film camera and the digital camera is
how the picture image is recorded. The film camera records the image
onto film. The digital camera records the image onto a memory card as
electronic data.
51
See table 2.3 for a visual comparison between DSLR and point-and-
shoot cameras.
Look at your digital camera and the owner’s manual and become
familiar with the features that have been included. Answer the following
questions about your camera that you will be using in the class.
1. Is your camera a point-and-shoot or a DSLR camera?
2. What is the camera brand and model?
3. Does your camera have image stabilization?
4. What is the purpose of image stabilization?
5. How close can you get to a subject and still be in focus?
6. If you have a point and shoot camera, what is the power of the
optical zoom?
7. Does your camera have a viewfinder?
8. Is there a depth of field preview button on your camera?
9. Where is the on and off button for your camera?
10. What type of memory card does your camera use?
11. Does your camera have rechargeable batteries or do you need
replacement batteries?
12. If you have rechargeable batteries, how long does it take to
recharge?
13. Where is the playback button on your camera?
14. Explain how to delete a picture on your camera.
Digital cameras allow you to use fully automatic settings or fully
manual settings or a combination of the two.
52
DSLR Point-and-Shoot
Front View
Top View
Back View
Table 2.3: Comparative views of DSLR cameras and Point-and-shoot cameras.
Canon SX120 IS
The mode dials on both cameras have many common settings. The dial
area is set into two basic areas: the basic zone, and the creative zone.
When using the settings in the basic zone your camera is in a fully auto-
matic mode. The camera automatically sets the shutter speed, aperture,
and ISO setting that will yield the best possible picture. Most cameras will
warn you if the shutter speed is too slow for the hand holding the camera.
One critical mistake that most people make is ignoring this warning. The
camera will take the picture if you press the shutter release button. Your
result will be a picture that is blurred because you were unable to hold
the camera still while exposing the picture.
The camera also sets the ƒ-stop that will work with the shutter speed
that the camera selected. The aperture also controls what part of the
picture is in focus because it determines the depth of field. You need to
remember to press the depth of field preview button on the front of your
camera to preview what will be in focus in the final picture. Most DSLR
cameras have this feature while most basic point-and-shoot cameras do
not.
Your final setting controlled by the camera is the ISO setting. This
setting controls the light sensitivity of the light sensors that record the
picture image. A low ISO number like 100 requires more light than a
53
higher ISO number like 800. In addition to the ISO setting there are a
number of basic mode settings you should be familiar with.
ISO Settings
Full Auto
To take a picture using this mode place the center auto focus (AF) point
over the closest subject you want in focus. Press the shutter release button
half way and the camera will focus on the selected subject. After the
camera has finished focusing, press the shutter release button fully and
the camera will take the picture. Remember that when using the full auto
setting and all other settings in the basic zone, your camera selects the
shutter speed, aperture, and ISO settings. You must also check the shutter
speed to make sure it is 1/60 or faster to avoid camera shake blurring in
your picture.
Portrait
Using this setting on your camera

allows the camera to make
adjustments that will produce a
portrait-style picture. The camera
will blur the background to help
the subject in the portrait stand
out more. You should position
The portrait setting
your portrait subject as far away
from the background as possible. The greater the distance, the greater
the background blur. Using a telephoto lens or the zoom feature on your
camera allows you to be further from your subject. This will help increase
background blur. The portrait setting also softens the skin tone and hair
to make the final picture more pleasing. While placing the center focus
button on the main subject, press the shutter release button halfway
to focus the camera. While holding the button down halfway, you can
recompose the picture to the desired composition and then press the rest
of the way down to take the picture. In this mode the flash will automati-
cally pop up if it is needed.
54
Landscape
This mode is used to photograph wide scenes and night scenes. The
landscape setting also makes all parts in the scene in focus within the
limitations of your camera. Also, you should use the widest angle of a
telephoto lens or the widest angle setting if you do not have interchange-
able lenses. In this mode the flash is disabled. This feature is helpful when
shooting night scenes. When shooting night scenes, remember to use a
tripod to avoid camera shake blurring of your picture.
Close-Up
This mode setting is good when

you want to photograph small
objects or flowers. Get as close to
the subject as possible. Remember
to not get any closer than your
camera or lens will focus. Using
the zoom adjustment on your The auto setting
camera or a telephoto lens will permit you to get closer to the subject
without needing to physically move. The flash will automatically pop up
if needed in this mode.
Sports
Using this mode allows you to take pictures of moving objects. Use a
telephoto lens or the zoom feature of your camera so you can be farther
from your subject. This mode works best when you place the subject to
be photographed in the center point and press the shutter halfway to
focus. Continue to hold the shutter release button halfway so your camera
will maintain focus. When you are
ready to take the picture, press the

button the rest of the way down.
With most cameras you can hold
the shutter release button down
and the camera will
far objects that you want in focus.
You may need to adjust the ISO
The sports setting
setting to achieve maximum depth
of field.
55
long as the shutter speed and aperture settings on the view screen do not
blink. If you do not like the shutter speed or aperture that the camera
selects, you can change one of the settings and the camera will change
the other one to keep the correct exposure.
Night Portrait
Many cameras have a night por-

trait setting. This mode is very
useful when you want to take a
night portrait and you want the
background to be in focus. This
setting allows the flash to be used
to light up a close subject in a
night scene. Remember that you
The night setting
must have the person within the
effective range of your flash. This distance is usually less than 12 feet.
Creative Settings
When using the creative zone settings, you as the photographer take over
control of the shutter speed, aperture, and ISO settings. For all settings
in the creative zone you select the ISO number. If possible, use an ISO
of 100. This setting will give the best results for your picture. Let’s explore
the creative zone setting on the camera.
P (Program)
The camera sets the correct shut-
ter speed and aperture to go with

the selected ISO number. This set-
ting is good when shooting a lot
of pictures under similar lighting
conditions. In most cameras a cor-
rect exposure will occur as long as The P setting
the shutter speed and aperture settings on the view screen do not blink.
If you do not like the shutter speed or aperture that the camera selects,
you can change one of the settings and the camera will change the other
one to keep the correct exposure.
56
Tv (Shutter-Priority)
This mode allows you the photog-

rapher to set the desired shutter
speed and the camera will select
the aperture that will produce a
properly exposed picture. This
mode is particularly useful when
you want to freeze motion or blur
it. A slow shutter speed (1/30 The Tv setting
second or slower) will produce a picture with blurred motion, while a
fast shutter speed (1/125 or faster) will freeze motion.
Av (Aperture-Priority)
If the depth of field is important,

then this setting will allow you
to select the desired ƒ-stop. The
camera will then select the correct
shutter speed. An aperture of ƒ4
The Av setting
will give a picture with a narrow
depth of field, while a setting of ƒ22 will give a much larger depth of field.
Remember to use the depth of field preview if your camera has this feature
to ensure you are getting the desired result.
M (Manual Exposure)
This mode puts you in charge of
selecting the ISO setting, shutter

speed and the aperture setting.
This mode gives you the great-
est amount of freedom. It also
The M setting
requires you to pay close atten-
tion to the exposure meter. The camera will take the picture at whatever
you select as your aperture, shutter speed, and ISO.
A-DEP (Automatic Depth of Field)

When you want to achieve the greatest depth of field possible; use the
A-DEP setting. It is particularly useful when there are close objects and
57
Project 2.1: Digital Camera Modes

Now that you have read about the different settings in the basic zone
and creative zone, it is time to look at your camera. Some camera manu-
facturers use different names and descriptions for their modes. Look at
your camera and access the worksheet. You will need to list the modes
that are included with your camera. Use your camera instruction book
to describe the modes that are included in your camera.
You can find the Digital Camera Modes PDF here.
58
Lesson 3
Composition Basics
Introduction
T he way you compose a picture when you take it will determine
if you have a snapshot or a photograph. Everyone sees snapshots
of vacations and other activities. Your goal is to create memorable pho-
tographs that will remain in the mind of the viewer. To do this you must
understand some basic rules of composition.
Learning Outcomes
1. Decide what type of photograph you will take based on content
and purpose.
2. Understand the rule of thirds and other rules of composition.
3. Describe the basic elements of design and their application in
photography.
4. Describe the basic principles of design and their application in
photography.
59
3.1: Content and Purpose
Decide what type of photograph you will take based on content and
purpose.
Before you take a picture it is very important that you as the photographer
ask and answer the question; “What is the main subject of my photograph
(or what is going to be contained in my picture)?” Once this question has
been answered the second and equally important question that must be
asked is, “What is the purpose of my picture?” The answers to these two
questions should drive the composition of your photograph.
The usual person finds that when they have taken twenty or thirty
pictures and then looked at the results of the day of picture taking they
are surprised to find that there are only a few pictures that are really good.
The application of the rules of composition and the proper application
of the elements and principles of design will increase your satisfaction
with your picture taking efforts.
Most picture taking is done to record attendance and participation at
events. Usually, the most commonly photographed activity is a vacation.
The pictures taken at a vacation or other family gathering help you relive
the moment and share your experience with family and friends. Pictures
of an event that are more thought-out but fewer in number create more
excitement about your experience as opposed to more pictures with no
thought behind them. A well-thought-out picture stimulates better con-
versation and interest in your work as a photographer.
This does not mean that you shouldn’t experiment with different
composition ideas. With a digital camera, you have the option of trying
several different compositions. You can also review and delete the pic-
tures of lesser quality. This editing process can be completed while you
are still on location. If you are dissatisfied with your results, you can try
other compositions to achieve a picture that will be memorable to you
and of interest to those who will view it.
Remember to answer the two questions, “What is the main subject of
my photograph?” and “What is the purpose of my picture?” before you
60
Lesson 3: Composition Basics
determine the composition of your picture. If you will thoughtfully con-

sider these two questions at the beginning of the picture taking process
your work will be much more satisfying to you and pleasing to others.
61
3.2: Rule of Thirds and Other Composition
Rules
Understand the Rule of Thirds and other rules of composition.
Rule of Thirds
Now that you have determined what your subject will be and what the
purpose of your photograph is, it is now time to consider how to compose
your picture. Perhaps the most important rule to keep in mind when
composing a picture is the rule of thirds. To help you better understand
this rule view the PDF here or in the online course. The rule of thirds
helps you as the photographer compose a picture that will be aesthetically
pleasing to the viewer. Most digital cameras have a rule of thirds grid
that can be viewed through the view screen. This grid helps the photog-
rapher see the rule of thirds application while composing the picture.
When your main subject is

a person or animal, the picture
must be composed with the sub-
ject looking into the picture. In the
picture shown the girl is placed on
the left third line looking to the
right into the main body of the
picture. This directs the viewer Demonstration of the rule of thirds
to look into the picture.
Changing Your Viewpoint

When you are willing to move to a new location to take your picture, you
can change the appearance of your picture. Move to the right or to the
left. Equally important is the thought of getting down low or moving to a
higher vantage point where you will be looking down on your subject. The
picture on the left also illustrates the next important rule: Fill the frame.
62
Fill the Frame

Filling the frame is one of the easi-

est rules to follow, but it is one of
the most often-violated rules.
When the picture on the right is
viewed the viewer must wonder
if it is a picture of some sunflow-
ers and a small boy got in the way.
The viewer may also wonder if the
subject of the picture is the little
boy. Because of the lack of con-
trast between the boy’s clothing Fill the frame
and the background he is lost in

the background.
The picture of the flower below
leaves no question about what the
subject of the picture is. When the
viewer has to ask what the subject
of the picture is, then you have
confused the picture with non-
important parts. The picture of
Fill the frame
the baby has no distractions in the
background. By getting in close the

photographer has filled the frame
with the subject and left no question
what the subject of the picture is.
When you look at the two pictures
of the hummingbird, the one with
less background clutter helps you
to focus more on the bird and less
on the background
Fill the frame
63
Frame filled with the hummingbird Frame cluttered up with more

background images
Horizon Line
The placement of the horizon line

is important because it creates
interest and impact in your pho-
tograph. When you select the
placement of the horizon line, it
should almost never be placed in Horizon line in center of frame.
the middle of the picture. For best

results, the rule of thirds should
be used. Placing the horizon line
on either the upper or lower third
line will give greater impact to
your picture.
Horizon line in upper third of frame.
A low horizon line would be
used when there is more interesting subject matter above the horizon line.
An example of low horizon line placement would be when you have an
interesting sky. The picture of the rainbow has a low horizon line because
the dark sky and rainbow have much more interest than the green grass
in the foreground. In the landscape picture of the mountains the picture
is cut in half by the horizon line. The viewer is asked to decide between
the green meadow and the blue sky for the area of greatest importance.
When the horizon line is moved to the upper third of the picture, the focus
in the picture is placed on the vast distance to the mountains.
In conclusion, it is helpful to remember the words of the photographer
Ansel Adams when talking about the need for thoughtful photographic
composition. He said,
64
I have often thought that if photography were difficult in the true

sense of the term—meaning that the creation of a simple photo-
graph would entail as much time and effort as the production of
a good watercolor or etching—there would be a vast improvement
in total output. The sheer ease with which we can produce a
superficial image often leads to creative disaster. We must remem-
ber that a photograph can hold just as much as we put into it,
and no one has ever approached the full possibilities of the medium.
During your current study of
photography, it is important that

you consider composition very
carefully as you prepare to create
pictures. Your use of these rules
will aide you as you apply them
to the elements and principles of
design.
Area of greatest importance moves horizon line

down
65
3.3: Elements of Design
Describe the basic elements of design and their application in
photography.
The seven elements of design are color, form, shape, line, space, texture,
and value.
Color
Color psychology pertains to how

color can affect a viewer. As a pho-
tographer, you can create a mood
or feeling in your photograph and
color can be a large part of the
effect. Certain colors can inspire
anger (vibrant red), depression
Color
(somber blue), passion (deep red),
insanity (acidic yellow-green), purity (very pale colors), spring (grass green
and pastels), or happiness (sunshine yellow). Careful thought should be
taken by the photographer about the color palette used to give the desired
effect of the photograph.
Form
Form is best described as the use of
objects in a picture that have three
dimensions. Examples of objects with
three dimensions would include the
geometric shapes. These shapes might
include the cube, sphere, or cone. One
of the easiest examples of form would be
the use of buildings in a picture.
Form
66
Shape
A shape is a perceived area of like value or color and a form is the same
except that it generally appears to be a three-dimensional shape through
modeling of value. In composing your photographs, shape will probably
play the most important role.

Most often, lines are really just
narrow shapes and the other ele-
ments are shapes filled with tex-
tures, values, or colors. The
shapes that you will see through
your viewfinder can be mechani-
cal, man-made, geometric
shapes, or more natural, Shape
fluid, organic shapes.

Line
A line can be described as a shape
that is much longer than it is wide.
A rectangle could be a line, and so
might an oval, if it appears long
enough relative to its width. A
thin shape becomes a line. Lines
can be an effective element in
composition.
They can direct your eye to dif-
ferent parts in an image, which is Tile shapes
known as directional line or lead-
ing lines.
A line can also “feel” a certain

way. A horizontal line can emote
peacefulness, calmness, and sta-
bility, while a vertical line may
emote rigidity, power, and height.
The diagonal line is usually known
for its dynamics, energy, or move-
ment and the curvilinear line usu-
ally describes fluidity, grace, and
the organic. While these Line
67
descriptions are not all inclusive, they are the norm and should be at least
considered when composing an image utilizing line
Space
How the photographer divides space will create interest in the picture.
Division of Space : Positive/

Negative Space (Figure/

Ground Relationship)
Many novice artists only deal with
the positive space or figure in an
image. This translates as the sub-
ject. For instance, if you took a
close-up photo of a doughnut on
a plate, the subject, and therefore
the positive space or figure, would
be the doughnut. The negative
Positive/negative space space or ground would be the hole
in the doughnut and any portion
of the plate visible on the edges of

the photo. Often, the negative
space can be considered the vis-
ible background in an image.
Professional artists know that
backgrounds play a very impor-
tant part in their images. You
should at least think about how
the subject is going to “break up”
Space
the space in your images and by
doing so decide which parts to let
show of the ground or negative

space.
Depth of space
68
Depth of Space
There are several ways to create the illusion of depth on a two-dimen-

sional surface. The illusion of space or depth in your photographs can
invite the viewer into the image.

Angle of View and Lens Focal
Lengths
The perspective can seem to
change by changing the focal
length of your lens as discussed
in lesson 1 under “Lenses.” Briefly,
wide-angle lenses create a greater
sense of depth; telephoto lenses
create a more shallow sense of
depth. (Note that a view camera
can change perspective through
“shift and tilt” because the view
camera’s lens board and back can
be moved independently of each
Lens focal length
other.)

Placement of Objects (Fore-
ground, Middle-Ground, and
Background)
Of course, having a foreground,
middle-ground, and a background
will create a greater sense of depth
than having a single subject with
no background at all. Usually,
objects placed higher on the image
seem to be further away from the
viewer. Closer objects tend to be
Placement
69
at the bottom of the image. Sometimes it can be interesting to reverse

this norm.
Texture
Actual texture is the way an object actually feels (that is to say, soft,
smooth, hard, prickly, slimy,
rough). In photography, the pho-

tograph’s actual texture will
remain constant, like that of
paper, while the implied tex-
ture will change with the image.
The implied texture in a photo-
graph is determined by the value,
or lights and darks, of certain
shapes. A soft-appearing shape is
made by a softly shaded edge and
a hard appearing shape is created
when there is an abrupt contrast
in value or hard edge to the shape.
Texture
Value
Value is the artistic term for lights
and darks. Of course, in black-

and-white photography, value
is seen as white, black, and the
grays that fall between these value
extremes.
Value can play a crucial part in
the story-telling process of pho-
Value
tography. Value can create exqui-
site flat shapes, extraordinary
three-dimensional-looking forms,
slick or rough implied textures,

and—perhaps most important;y—
a “mood” to your photograph.
The following is a description
of various value schemes and their
application.
Full tonal range is the standard
Full tonal range when assessing a photograph. For
70
most of your photographs, you will want to include a full range of values,
from white to black with many gray transitions in between. You will want
detail in the highlight areas and detail in the deep shadow areas the
majority of the time; however, because photography is an art, it may be
necessary to break these rules to
achieve a “correct” feeling.

A high key image is an image
that is composed of mostly light
values, like an image of a white
rabbit on the snow with very soft
shadows. This type of image gen-
erally creates the feeling of light-
ness and purity. It is sometimes
used for portraiture, especially for High key image
infants, toddlers, and brides.
Low key images are composed

of mostly dark values. Low key
images tend to feel moody, mys-
terious, and sometimes heavy.
To review these seven elements
of design, look at the PowerPoint
at http://www.squidoo.com/the-
basics-on-art-composition.
Low key image
71
3.4: Principles of Design
Describe the basic principles of

design and their application in
photography.
The nine principles of design are

balance, emphasis, harmony,
movement, proportion, rhythm,
unity, variety, and pattern.
Balance
Balance is created by visual weights
in an image. The left side of the
image should usually “feel” bal-
anced out by the right, and the
top should feel about equal to the
Horizontal symmetrical balance
bottom,with the top sometimes
feeling a bit lighter. This is the
general rule and, once again, may
of course need to be broken once

it is understood.
Formal/Symmetrical Balance
This is the easiest type of balance
to understand. The image is bal-
anced out either vertically or hori-
zontally by creating a mirror image
(or close to it) of the other side (see
figure to the left). One example
would be an image of two people
sitting side by side, centered in the
Symmetrical balance
72
middle of a photograph. Formal balance is said to create a sense of order

and ease to the eye.
Informal/Asymmetrical Balance
This type of balance is usually more interesting and may be more
intuited (or sensed) to achieve. One side balances the other by creating
an equal visual weight to the other side without using a copy or mirror
image (see figure to the left). For example, there may be a person’s face
on one half of the image and to balance it out there may be a curtain, a
window, a texture, several smaller elements, etc. The goal is to balance
the one side with another element (shape, texture, color, value, lines)
that is different from the first side and yet has a similar “visual” weight.
The goal is to balance the one side with another element (shape, texture,
color, value, lines) that is different from the first side and yet has a similar
“visual” weight.
Emphasis
Emphasis by Contrast
What can grab the attention of the viewer’s eye? Well, the eye is usually
drawn to subjects that are different from their surroundings. This is called
emphasis by contrast. For example, if your image is of many overlapping
circles, and there is just one square shape, your eye would naturally single
out the square because it is unique. The circular shapes are contrasted
by the square shape. If your image is mostly dark in value and one object
is very light, guess what your eye will see first. That’s right, the light value
because it is the one thing that is different (contrast). Your image can be
very boring without creating some focal point for the viewer to notice.
Other elements to contrast to create an emphasis could be shapes (organic
vs. geometric), color (bright vs. dull), textures (rough vs. smooth), value
(lights vs. darks), focus (blurry vs.
sharp), and so forth.
Emphasis on the “Rule-of-

Thirds”
As soon as you understand how to
create an emphasis, where should
you place it in your photograph?
Rule of thirds emphasis
73
You can place it anywhere you want! However, you need to be aware that
you will create very different feelings for the viewer depending on your
decision. The rule-of-thirds is a guideline for “good” composition, which
basically states that your composition will improve if your emphasis is
placed close to one of the thirds of your photograph (see figure).
Remember, this is a guideline only, one that in my opinion does seem
to help the images of many beginning photographers. However, there will
be instances where you will want to place the subject in the very middle of
your image to create a static, solid, and lonely feeling. There may be times
when the subject must be placed directly on the edge of the photograph
to create some specific tension.

Harmony
The blending of more than one element
to create a photograph that is more calm
and restful in appearance is harmony.
Harmony is achieved when there are no
distractions in the picture. The photog-
rapher has brought harmony to their
work when there is a feeling of peace
and belonging when the photograph is
viewed.
Harmony
Movement
Various techniques can be used
to create a sense of motion in a

photograph. Repeated or multi-
ple images, fuzzy outlines of the
object in motion, directional lines,
and diagonal lines can all be used
to create a sense of motion.
Movement
Proportion
If you have ever seen a beautiful,
large moon on the horizon, you have
probably desired to photograph it.
It will generally not look so great
when away from the horizon. This
Proportion
74
is because when the moon is on the horizon it is near mountains,

houses, trees, and so forth, which give us a reference to its size. Without
these references, the moon is just a small, round, whitish circle on black.
Larger objects tend to appear close and small objects tend to be further
away. However, a recognizable subject needs references to tell our brains
its relative size.
Rhythm
This principle is often referred

to by its sense of movement.
Rhythm directs the viewer’s eye
across similar, repeated elements.
A photograph of books on a shelf,
sand dunes, ocean waves, or tree
trunks in a forest could all easily
Rhythm
produce a sense of rhythm.
Unity
Unity in an artwork means that

the whole piece is noticed before
specific parts of the piece. When
all the parts of a photograph are
in visual agreement to the whole,
it creates a sense of unity and har-
mony. Any of the elements (lines,
shapes, colors, textures, and val-
ues) can be clustered, repeated,
grouped, or aligned to create a
sense of unity. If you cannot find
relationships between the parts
of your photograph, it will lack
unity.
Unity
75
Variety
Variety is said to be the spice of

life. However, too much vari-
ety can create a chaotic image.
Usually, you will want to unify
your photographs while adding
some variety to generate some
interest. For example, you may
Variety
wish to repeat a shape, like a
circle, in your photo. But, to make it interesting, these circles may vary
by use of another element of design, such as, size, color, texture, or value.
Pattern
Related to texture, pattern is made by repetition of a design or element
with a higher degree of regularity. If the repetition arouses our sense
of touch then we consider it to be texture and if it arouses our sense of
design, it is a pattern.
Lesson 3 Portfolio Assignment

Take the following photographs with your camera:
1. Two pictures illustrating the rule of thirds. One picture landscape
and one portrait.
2. One picture with a low horizon.
3. One picture with a high horizon.
4. Select two elements of design and take a picture that illustrates
each. (Two pictures)
5. Select two principles of design and take a picture that illustrates
each. (Two pictures)
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3.5: Lenses
Lens Name
First, let’s get something out of the way—all that mumbo jumbo they
put in the name of a lens. For example, these are a few lenses you could
buy today:
• Tamron 18-270mm f/3.5–6.3 Di II VC PZD

• Tokina 11-16mm f/2.8 AT-X Pro DX II
• Canon EF 70-300mm f/4.5–5.6 DO IS USM
If those names leave you feeling confused , don’t worry, that’s normal.
Lenses come with a lot of whistles and bells these days, and the manufac-
turers want to make sure everyone knows how many whistles and bells
they added on. But, all lens names include two specific things: a focal
length and a maximum aperture. For example, here’s a lens with a more
simple name: Canon EF 35mm f/2. In this example, the focal length is
35 mm, and the maximum aperture is f/2.
Maximum Aperture
You already know what the aperture number means—f/2 is a larger
aperture setting that lets in a lot of light and creates a “shallow depth of
field”. In this instance, on this lens, it means that the largest aperture
setting you can have is f/2. (You can set the aperture to f/2.0, f/2.8, f/4,
f/5.6, etc, but not f/1.4, f/1.0, etc).
Focal Length
And what about the focal length, what does that mean? The number
‘35mm’ is the measured distance in millimeters between the aperture in
the lens and the sensor in the camera (but you don’t need to memorize
that). So what does that mean? Smaller numbers (like 24mm) are “wide”
angle lenses, medium numbers (like 50mm) are “normal”, and larger
numbers (like 100mm) are more “telephoto.” For example, these three
77
photos were taken from exactly the same position, without moving—only
changing the focal length:
© BYU Independent Study Be careful not to make the com-
mon mistake of confusing the terms
“telephoto” and “zoom.” Zoom does
not mean telephoto, it just means that
a lens has a range of focal lengths. For
example, one of the lenses mentioned
above, the “Tokina 11-16mm f/2.8
Telephoto Lens
AT-X Pro DX II” is a zoom lens, but
is not telephoto—it is just wide angle
(11mm-16mm). A telephoto zoom lens

would be something like the “Canon
EF 70-300mm f/4.5-5.6 DO IS USM,”
which has a range of 70mm - 300mm.
Last, why does that Canon lens
Normal Lens say “f/4.5–5.6”? That means that the
maximum aperture is f/4.5 when you
have the lens zoomed out to 70mm.

Somewhere along the way when you
start zooming in, maybe around
150mm or so, the maximum aperture
drops down to f/5.6, automatically.
So there you have it—now you
know how to choose a lens. You can
Wide Lens
use an appropriate focal length to

include or exclude elements from your photograph when you are fram-
ing and composing your image.
Perspective
One of the most common traps that aspiring photographers fall into is
laziness. Being a lazy photographer will absolutely limit your artistic
creativity. For example, let’s suppose you are standing 2 feet away from
the person you are photographing, and you decide that you just want to
frame their head, so you zoom in to 75mm. First, consider the distance
between yourself and your subject. Perhaps you should move farther back
and then zoom in to 100mm. Notice the difference:
78
The distance between yourself and your subject, and the distance
between your subject and other elements in the photo has a significant
effect. The proportion between objects is extremely important. For exam-
ple, consider this second example, where this subject was framed in the
same way, but different perspectives and focal lengths were used. Notice
how his face fills the frame in the same way, but that the background
appears very different.
2 feet away, at 75mm 3 feet away, at 100mm
For this reason, I always recommend the following advice: FIRST,

choose your perspective; SECOND, choose your focal length.
2 feet away, at 50mm 4 feet away, at 100mm
79
Examples:
Take a look at some of these photographs and note how important the
perspective, proportion and lens choice was for each one.
The easiest perspective to choose is at eye level, wherever you happen
to be standing. Lewis Hine, however, was not lazy—he lowered the camera
down to the eye level of the child in his photo below. He made sure to get
close in to the machines to emphasize the dominant size of them, to help
the viewer feel what it is like to be a child worker—not very tall and sur-
rounded by big machines all day.
Lewis Hine, Young Mill Worker, 1909.
Edward Weston certainly didn’t just say, “Oh, those dunes look inter-
esting” and snap a photo wherever he happened to be standing. His
photograph “Dunes, Oceano” is all about shape and value. Consciously
composing the shadows and sand dunes required exploring various
perspectives and focal lengths before finding an interesting composition.
80
Edward Weston, Dunes, Oceano, 1936.
Consider, in the next photograph, “Girl Behind Bottle,” the proportion

of the size between the bottle and the woman. Irving Penn had to come
very close to the bottle in order to make it appear so large by proportion.
This allowed for the refracted image through the bottle to add interest—
creating an image within an image.
Irving Penn, Girl Behind Bottle, 1949.
81
Here again, the position of the camera, allowing the hand rails to create
the shapes that they do, was essential for the visual interest of this image.
Henri Cartier-Bresson set up his perspective, then chose a focal length
to frame the supporting elements, and waited for someone interesting
to pass by. (In this case it was a man on a bicycle.)
Henri Cartier-Bresson, The Var Department, Hyères, 1932,
Consider here that Andreas Gursky’s

purpose in his photographs is to illustrate
endlessness and immensity. If he had cho-
sen instead to take this photograph point-
ing straight down from a helicopter, there
would be no vanishing point, and the beach
umbrellas wouldn’t have the appearance of
going on forever, vanishing into the dis-
tance. Gursky carefully chose his perspec-
tive first, and then he chose his focal length
second—to frame his perspective.
Consider here that Andreas Gursky’s
Andreas Gursky, Remini, 2003. purpose in his photographs is to illustrate
endlessness and immensity. If he had cho-
sen instead to take this photograph pointing straight down from a helicopter,
there would be no vanishing point, and the beach umbrellas wouldn’t have
the appearance of going on forever, vanishing into the distance. Gursky
carefully chose his perspective first, and then he chose his focal length
second—to frame his perspective.
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Lesson 4
Technique—Digital Black and White
Introduction
Y ou will learn about the effect light has on the sensors of a
digital camera and how to select the correct ISO setting for a picture.
The correct use of natural and artificial light will be explained. Methods
to upload pictures to editing software and the use of tags will be explored.
Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the effect light has on the sensors of a digital camera.
Choose the best ISO setting based on available light, flash, and
equipment.
2. Explain the appropriate use of natural and artificial light in
photography.
3. Describe the process used to upload pictures to your editing soft-
ware and set up tags for use with your pictures.
4. Tag your images and troubleshoot and delete all poor-quality
images.
83
4.1: Light and the Digital Camera
Explain the effect light has on the sensors of a digital camera. Choose
the best ISO setting based on available light, flash, and equipment.
When you take a picture with a

digital camera the tones of the
scene are changed into numbers.
To do this most digital cameras
use a CCD (change-coupled
device) to change the reflected
light from a scene into electronic
signals. This information is stored
Removable SD card
on a removable memory card.
Two commonly used memory cards are the SD card and the CF card.
Unlike a film camera that has a capacity on a roll of film of 24 or 36
exposures, the memory cards used today can hold hundreds of pictures
on one card. With a memory card you should never run out of picture
storage capacity. The chart below shows the approximate picture storage
capacity of memory cards.
Approximate number of JPEG photos

File size
Camera setting 2GB 4GB 8 GB 16 GB 32 GB
(MB)
8 megapixel 2.3 700 1500 3200 6400 12900
10 megapixel 2.9 600 1200 2500 5000 10100
12 megapixel 3.4 500 1000 2000 4300 8600
16 megapixel 4.6 300 700 1600 3200 6400
21 megapixel 6.4 200 550 1100 2300 4600
I do not like using the 16 GB or 32 GB cards. While they hold a lot of

pictures, there is the chance of misplacing the card, accidentally erasing
the images, or having a card failure. If any of these happen to a nearly
full card, a lot of pictures are lost. I rotate between two cards when I am
84
Lesson 4: Technique—Digital Black and White
shooting to give me some pictures if tragedy strikes one of my memory

cards.
ISO Setting
The ISO setting adjusts the camera sensor sensitiv-

ity to light. Increasing the ISO setting can have four
side effects on the final picture. They are: 1) The
noise in the picture increases, 2) Color saturation is
slightly decreased, 3) Contrast is also increased, and
4) There is an increase in the pixelation of a picture.
Just like with film a lower ISO setting requires more
light to properly expose the picture. You should use ISO on camera
the lowest ISO setting possible to get the picture
properly exposed and achieve the effect you want as the photographer.
The basic ISO settings are 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600. 100 requires
the most light, while 1600 requires the least amount of light. Changing
from one ISO setting to the next doubles the amount of light required to
properly expose a picture. It takes twice the light to get the same exposure
at ISO 100 as at ISO 200. When there is little light you can change the
ISO to 400, 800, or 1600 to properly expose a picture.
The ISO setting is adjusted along with the shutter speed and aperture
to achieve the proper exposure for the desired results in your photograph.
Ambient light that conveys a mood can be maintained by increasing
the ISO setting and avoiding the use of a flash that would create harsh
shadows. An increased ISO setting is also helpful when you want to freeze
motion in a low-light shooting situation. An example of this would be a
night football game.
To summarize you can use a low ISO setting when you want to get
accurate contrast, color and almost no noise or pixelation. Higher ISO
settings will give higher shutter speeds for action pictures, increase the
range of a flash, and give better results when hand-holding low ambient
light pictures.
85
4.2: Natural and Artificial Light
Explain the appropriate use of natural and artificial light in photography.
Light is the most important aspect of photography. The word photography
derives from Greek words meaning light writing. Light is documented
onto a memory card (the negative) and then the print (the positive). The
quality and characteristics of light can greatly affect the appearance of
the final photograph.
Light can be intense or dim, diffused or sharp, direct or indirect, and
as described in lesson 2 (color balance), can change in color (or tempera-
ture). Each of these qualities will affect your photograph.
Natural Light
Natural light is usually considered

to be outdoor sunlight. It can be
diffused through clouds, be harsh
and directional, create long or
short shadows, and change in
color depending on the time of
day, weather conditions, and
season. Since it is impossible to
control this type of light, the pho-
tographer must work around it.
It may be necessary to wait for a
certain time of day for the light
to change or for a cloud to diffuse Natural light
the light, or perhaps to postpone your shoot for another day.
Existing Light
Existing light is the light that is found at the location of your photograph;
usually indoors (to distinguish it from natural light). It can be created by
a variety or combination of sources, such as a window, a lamp, fluorescent
lights, or reflections. It is generally not a very intense light and therefore
86
slow shutter speeds and/or wide apertures are needed for a correct expo-
sure. Often, use of a tripod and/or a fast speed film is required to create
an acceptable photograph using existing light.
A common use of existing light is to use a northerly facing window for
portraiture. The soft but directional light from a window is often desirable.
Artificial Light
Artificial light is used when per-

fect control over the lighting is
desired. The photographer can
use a single flash or set up an elab-
orate lighting scheme with spots,
reflectors, and diffusers (equip-
ment that a photographer can use
to control the light). Usually, the Artificial light
photographer sets up the lighting as naturally as possible so that the
lighting does not seem fake to the viewer. Artificial lighting, while easily
controlled, can seem complex and even daunting to set up to a beginner.
Artificial lights can be continuous or flash, warm or cool, sharp or dif-
fused, intense or dim, expensive or cheap.
Note: If you decide to use a flash on your camera, be sure to read your
manual that came with the unit. You will learn at what shutter speed to
sync your unit and how to achieve a correct exposure. You may learn
about bounce flash, fill flash, and using multiple flash units.
Filters
I have discovered that the begin-
ning students love to use filters,

and the more dramatic of an effect
the filter creates, the better. I have
also found that those filters, most
often, do nothing to help the aes-
thetics of their photos. So, as a Filters
warning, spend your money first

on the basics that you will use frequently in photography (camera, lenses,
camera case, basic filters, tripod, film, and so forth).
87
UV or Haze and Skylight Filters

These filters have two purposes. The legitimate purpose of a UV or haze
filter is to filter out unwanted ultraviolet light. The skylight filter is used
in color photography to “warm” the blue in shadow areas. However, most
photographers buy either of these filters for a more practical applica-
tion. These filters, when mounted to your lens, offer protection against
scratches, abrasion, and to a degree, water. It is much cheaper to replace
a damaged filter than to replace an entire lens.
Neutral Density Filters

Filters of this type were dis-

cussed in lesson 1 and act as
sunglasses for your camera.
You would fit the filter over
your lens to block out some
of the excess light, allow-
ing for slower shutter speeds
or wider apertures (greater
Neutral density filters
depth-of-field).
Colored Filters and How They Affect Black-and-White Pictures

Colored filters, when used in black-and-white photography, are known
as contrast filters. These filters come in colors such as red, red-orange,
orange, yellow, green, and blue.
Filters tend to transmit light of the

same color and block other colors.
Therefore, a red rose shot using a
red filter will appear lighter than
normal in black-and-white and
the green of the rose’s foliage will
appear darker.
The most common application
of contrast filters is to make the
clouds in skies stand out better.
Without a filter, the clouds against
a blue sky will appear to be about
the same value when printed on
A photograph taken with non polarizing filters black-and-white paper. If you
88
place a medium yellow filter over your lens when making the exposure,
the blue sky will darken when the final print is printed. An orange filter will
produce a darker sky, and a deep red filter will produce a very dramatic,
almost black sky. This is because these filters block some of the light from
the sky because it is blue, therefore exposing the film less on the negative.
Since the negative is exposed less on the negative, the positive will show
it as a darker value. Printing will be discussed in depth in the future.
These filters block out some of the light which reaches your film and
will therefore change the exposure made to it. You will have to compensate
for exposure as you add a filter to your lens. This is an easy task if you
have through-the-lens metering, which means that the light is metered
as it enters the lens. With through-the-lens metering you place the filter
over your lens and then read your camera’s internal light meter. If you do
not have through-the-lens metering, you will have to adjust your exposure
using the filter factor information that came with your filter.
Polarizing Filters
When light is reflected from

glass, water, metal, and so forth,
it becomes polarized, or vibrates
in only one direction. A polariz-
ing filter is placed on your lens
and rotated to reduce glare from
reflections. It is especially helpful
when shooting a scene through a
window.
A photograph taken with polarizing filters
89
4.3: Uploading Pictures
Describe the process used to upload pictures to your editing software
and set up tags for use with your pictures.
After taking pictures, you will want to copy them to your computer for
editing. There are many good editing software programs available in the
market place. For this class I will explain the process used to set up a
workspace using Photoshop Elements.
Setting up Your Own Workspace

1. After double clicking on the desk top icon for Photoshop Elements,
open the organizer screen.
2. Click the “File” dropdown at the upper left on the tool bar.
3. Open “catalog”.
4. Click “New” in the upper right of the catalog box.
5. Type your name in the new catalog box and then click “OK.”
Your name will appear in the lower left corner of the workspace.
If there is more than one user of the editing software you should
always look in the lower left corner to make sure you are in your
workspace.
Setting up File Tags

1. Find the “Key Word Tags” palette in the organizer.
2. Click on the white arrow to the left of the word “People.” This will
display two sub categories: “Family” and “Friends.”
3. Click once on the “Family” tag. This will highlight the tag.
4. Click on the green “+” at the top of the palette.
5. Select the new sub-category in the drop down menu.
6. Type your family name in the window. Then click “OK.”
7. The new tag will appear indented as a sub category under “Family.”
8. Select the green “+” again.
9. Select the new sub-category in the dropdown menu.
10. Type your mother’s name in the window. Then click “OK.”
90
11. The new tag will appear indented as a sub-category under your
family name.
12. Click on your family name once to highlight it. (If you do not high-
light the category you want the new sub-category to go under, it
will become a sub-category of whatever category is highlighted.)
13. Select the green “+” again.
14. Select the new sub-category in the dropdown menu.
15. Type your father’s name in the window. Then click “OK.”
16. The new tag will appear indented as a sub-category under your
family name.
17. Repeat this process for all family members.
18. Next, create tags for any friends you may want to photograph.
Copying Your Pictures to Your Computer Workspace

1. After opening your workspace in the organizer connect your pic-
tures to your computer. There are several ways to do this.
a. Attach your camera to your computer using a USB cable.
b. Place your memory card from your camera into a memory
card reader and plug it into a USB port on your computer.
c. Plug your camera memory card directly into your computer.
2. Select the “File” dropdown menu at the top left.
3. Click “Get Photos and Videos.”
4. Select “From Camera or Card Reader.”
5. From the “Get Photos From,” select the choice that fits how you
are attaching your pictures to the computer.
6. After the “Get Photos” button at the bottom of the screen is high-
lighted, click it.
7. After the pictures are copied select “Yes.” Then click “OK” in the
elements organizer pop-up.
8. Your pictures are now in the organizer.
91
4.4: Tagging Images
Tag your images and troubleshoot and delete all poor-quality images.
Tagging Your Pictures
Tagging an Individual Picture

1. Single-click the picture to be tagged. A blue border will appear
around the selected picture.
2. Left-click and hold the tag that is to be placed on the chosen
picture. Drag the tag to the selected picture.
3. Repeat this process to tag all pictures.
4. A picture may be tagged with multiple tags. It may be tagged for
each individual in the picture. The picture may also be tagged
with the location and the event.
Tagging a Group of Pictures with the Same Tag

1. Single-click the first picture in a group to be tagged. The blue
border will appear around the selected picture.
2. Place the cursor over the last picture to be tagged.
3. Hold down the shift key while single clicking the last picture.
All the pictures to be tagged with the same tag will now have the
blue border.
4. Left-click and hold the desired tag and drag it over one of the
selected pictures. All the pictures with the blue border will be
tagged with the same tag.
Tagging Multiple Pictures That Are Not Next to Each Other with
the Same Tag
1. Single click the first picture in a group to be tagged. The blue
border will appear around the selected picture.
92
2. While holding down the CTRL key, left-click each picture you
want to receive the same tag. The blue border will appear around
the selected picture.
3. Left-click and hold the desired tag and drag it over one of the
selected pictures. All the pictures with the blue border will be
tagged with the same tag.
Organizing Your Photos

After you have finished copying your pictures into your workspace in
the organizer and tagging them you are ready to look at them. Start with
the first picture.
1. Double-click on the image and it will enlarge to full screen.
2. Determine if the picture is in focus. If it is not in focus, right-click
on the picture. From the pop-up menu, select the delete from
catalog icon. Click the box that also deletes the selected item from
the hard disk, then click “OK.”
3. Repeat this process for all pictures that are new to your file.
Adding Captions to Your Photos

1. Click the icon at the bottom of the picture that says, “Click here
to add caption.”
2. Add notes about the picture. This is easiest to do while you can
still remember details about the picture.
1. Take ten pictures of family members. There should be more than
two pictures of at least one family member.
2. Take ten pictures of friends. There should be more than two pic-
tures of at least one friend that you photograph.
3. Take ten pictures of animals. There should be more than two
pictures of at least one of the animals that you take pictures of.
4. Take ten pictures of anything. There should be more than two
pictures of at least one of the subjects photographed for the any-
thing part of the assignment.
5. After taking these forty pictures, copy them into your workspace.
Tag the pictures. You may want to take more than forty pictures
so you will have at least forty left after you delete any out-of-focus
pictures.
93
Lesson 5
Evaluation—Introduction to Editing
Introduction
Y ou will need to have access to a computer with photograph
editing software to complete the assignments for the rest of the
course. The terms and images shown in this course are from Adobe
Photoshop Elements. You will also need a digital camera.
Learning Outcomes
1. Use various tags to organize your pictures.
2. Edit and improve your images by using zoom, crop, levels, con-
trast, and brightness.
3. Save your pictures in a version set.
4. Edit and improve your images by using marquee, lassos, magic
wand, clone stamp, and spot healing brush, and by fixing camera
distortion.
95
5.1: Organizing with Tags
Use various tags to organize your pictures.
In the previous lesson you

learned how to import images
into your Organizer. Next we’ll
use different tags to catalog your
pictures. One picture may have
several different tags.
Here we have two pictures.
The first picture of the church
could be given several tags,
like “church,” “New England
trip 2010,” or “fall colors.” The
picture of the three children
could also be given several tags,
perhaps a tag for each child or
“Halloween 2010.” Using differ- Church
ent tags makes it easier to locate
the desired picture when it is needed.
When my father-in-law passed away in 2009 I was asked to put
together a slideshow with pictures taken of him during his lifetime. Besides
scanning all the pictures his children wanted in the show, I was asked to
include recent pictures of his life and activities that I had taken over the
past several years. My computer picture files had over 19,000 exposures.
It would have taken many hours to locate all the pictures with my father-
in-law in them.
Because I took the time to tag pictures I was able to see the collection
of his pictures in a matter of seconds. With one click of the mouse, the
program searched and found 284 pictures. It was then up to the family
to select the pictures they wanted to include. I created a new tag with
his name and the word slide show that included the sub-category for the
pictures that were to be included in the slide show.
96
Lesson 5: Evaluation—Introduction to Editing
If you take the time to tag all

pictures with good descriptive
tags, you will have a much easier
time retrieving your pictures when
needed. The general rule of thumb
that I use when tagging a picture
is this. Tag for 1) each person of
importance in the picture, 2) the
event—I will often include a year
in this tag, 3) the location (where
the picture was taken), and 4) any
other description that might be
helpful in retrieving the picture.
As a student in a photography
class, another important group
of tags that you might apply to
Children on a haystack
pictures would be for the assign-
ments for the class. The first tag might be “Art 061.” Sub category tags
might be for the individual assignments for the class.
Learning Activity 5.1

1. Use your editing software to tag at least 20 pictures that you have
taken. Each picture should have a minimum of two tags. Fill out
the chart below with the tags you used for each of the 20 pictures.
Include a thumbnail of the 20 pictures.
2. Find Photography Tagging Worksheet PDF here.
97
5.2: Editing and Improving Images
Edit and improve your images by using zoom, crop, levels, contrast,
and brightness.
Zoom In/Zoom Out

After opening the edit program with the selected picture, you can zoom
in and out using two different options. The first method is to click on the
magnifying glass in the left tool panel. This will allow you to zoom in or
out on a desired portion of the picture using the options bar at the top of
the picture.
The second method is place the cursor over the picture and hold down
the CTRL key while pressing the + key. Each time you repeat this step
the picture will continue to zoom in closer. This will enable you to work
on detail areas of your picture while editing a picture. To zoom out hold
down the CTRL key while pressing the – key. Repeating
Tutorial this process will continue the zoom out. Zooming in is
Go to lesson 5.2 in your
also helpful when you want to check the focus of a picture.
course online to watch a
tutorial on Photoshop.
Many other editing features are easier to use after you have
zoomed in on a smaller portion of a picture.
Crop Tool
The crop tool in Photoshop Elements 8 is located in the left-side tool
panel. It looks like two overlapping L shapes with one upside down.
After selecting the crop tool, left-click the tool in the upper left corner of
the picture where you want the crop to begin. While holding down the
left-click button on your mouse, drag the tool down and to the right until
you have your picture cropped the way you would like it. Let go of the
left-click on the mouse. The area outside the crop marquee is darkened
to better highlight the area in the picture that is being cropped.
You can increase or decrease the area of the picture that is being
cropped by left click and hold on the edge marks on the marquee. When
the desired crop has been selected, the crop can be completed by one of
98

Photo of a bridge across a lake Same image with an amount
before cropping. of material cropped out.
three methods. They are 1) click the green check at the bottom right of the
cropped area, 2) press enter or 3) double-click inside the cropped area.
The cropping of a picture should be the last step in the editing process
before the edited version is saved. If you crop the picture early in the edit-
ing process you may need more picture area if you move the horizon line.
Levels
The levels tool is very powerful. It does more to improve your picture
than any other tool. The levels adjustment should be the first adjustment
made during the editing process. To get to the levels tool select enhance
in the drop down tool bar. From the dropdown panel select “Adjust
Lighting.” The final step is to select levels from the panel to the right. A
screen with a histogram will appear. Under the histogram there is a black
spade. Drag it to the right until the histogram slopes upward. Next, drag
the white spade to the left until it begins to slope up. The gray spade in
the middle can also be adjusted to control the middle tones. I generally
do not move this middle slider. When using the level adjustment, make
sure the Preview square is checked. This will make it so you can see the
result of the level adjustment as soon as you make the adjustment. When
you are satisfied, click “OK.” This will finalize your levels adjustments.
Contrast
There are two main methods to adjust the contrast in your picture. The
quickest method is to use the “Auto Contrast” in the “Enhance” dropdown
menu. This will adjust the overall contrast in a picture. The auto contrast
does not change the color in the picture. The original color balance in
the picture is maintained. When using the levels adjustment the color
balance can be changed. If a picture has an overall hazy appearance, the
auto contrast adjustment helps to reduce the haze appearance.
99
The second method used to control contrast is also found in the

“Enhance” dropdown panel. Select “Adjust Lighting” and then “Brightness/
Contrast.” This will open a screen that has a slider for contrast. Using the
contrast slider gives you greater control of the amount of contrast that
is added or subtracted from the original picture. I like to use the auto
contrast to see the suggestion of the program for contrast adjustment. I
then cancel it and go to the manual contrast adjustment and select the
contrast adjustment that I prefer for the image.
Shadows/Highlights
The shadows/highlights adjustment is much better than the brightness
adjustment slider to improve the brightness of a photograph. The bright-
ness adjustment makes the change to the entire image. The shadows/
highlights adjustment breaks the picture down into three areas, high-
lights, shadows, and mid-tone contrast. Each of these three areas are
then individually changed. The shadow/highlight adjustment is located
in the “Enhance” dropdown menu in the “Adjust lighting” section. The
program makes a correction in each category. You then make any addi-
tional changes by moving the sliders. When you are satisfied with your
adjustments, click “OK.”
100
5.3: Saving Versions Sets
Save your pictures in a version set.
After you have completed the editing process, you will need to save your
edit back into the organizer. When saving an edited picture, you want to
save it into a version set so it will be in the same location as the original
image. The Photoshop Elements program will stack your new picture on
top of the original image. If you perform several different editing sessions
with the same image, the program will continue to stack the newest edi-
tion on top of the previous edits. On the right side of the version set stack
is an arrow. If you click the arrow the images will be unstacked with the
newest image to the left and the original image to the far right of the set.
Steps to save an image in a version set:
1. Click “File” in the dropdown menu bar at the top.
2. Click “Save” from the menu.
3. In the file name window, make sure that it says that the image
is edited. You may also change the file name to be anything you
would like. I would make sure that the word “edited” is in the new
name. If you plan to use this image for more edits it is important
to remember that each new file name must be different.
4. In the format window, it must say “JPEG (*JPEG.*JPEG.*JPE).”
If it does not, click the drop down arrow at the right of the window
and select “JPEG (*JPEG.*JPEG.*JPE).”
5. In the Save Options Organize: make sure the “Include in the
Elements Organizer” and the “Save in Version Set with Original”
boxes are both checked.
6. Click “Save.”
7. In the Photoshop Elements editor dialog box click “OK.”
8. In the “JPEG Options” box, click “OK.”
9. After the image is saved click the X in the upper right corner to
exit the edit part of the program and return to the organizer.
10. You can now click the arrow at the right side of the new picture
to open the version set.
11. You do not need to close the version set unless you want to. Any
open version sets will close when you exit the program.
101
5.4: Editing and Improving Images
Edit and improve your images by using marquee, lassos, magic wand,
clone stamp, and spot healing brush, and by fixing camera distortion.
Marquee
There are two marquee tools. One is rectangular and the other is ellipti-
cal. The marquee tool is in the tool panel at the left of the edit screen. It
looks like a dotted square. There is an arrow in the lower right corner
that you can right click on. The two marquee tools will appear. Click on
the one you want to use. The marquee tools can be used to select areas
of a picture to do additional editing. This tool can also be used to select
areas of a picture that can be moved into another picture or to duplicate.
Lassos
Because everything we need to capture in a marquee is not elliptical or
rectangular Elements has provided the lasso tool. This tool allows you
to freeform select the area of the picture to be included. Select the lasso
from the tools panel. It is right below the marquee tool. It is the one that
looks like a rope in the form of a lasso. Select the place you want to begin
and trace the outline of the subject you want included from your original
image. With practice, you can become very proficient at the lasso tool.
Magic Wand
The magic wand tool is one of the original tools of Photoshop Elements.
It is used to select a portion of your image by clicking the wand on the
image in an area you want included. When you click on the selection, the
program evaluates the pixel you clicked on and includes all pixels that
are within 16 levels of brightness above and 16 levels below the selected
pixel. This conforms to the default setting of 32 in the tolerance section
of the options bar just above your picture. If you do not get the desired
portion of your picture included in the selection, change the tolerance
setting. Increase it if you want to include more or decrease it if you
102
want to include less. This process is trial and error. The more you use
the magic wand the better you will become at using it. One of the truly
nice features in Photoshop is the undo feature in the “Edit” dropdown
menu. You can work backwards undoing as many of your edit steps as
you would like. Try performing several different edits. Next go into the
undo process and watch your picture change back, one mouse click at a
time. This is particularly helpful when you finish an edit step and then
decide you went one edit too many.
Clone Stamp
The clone stamp tool is also located in the tools panel to the left of the
picture you are editing. The clone stamp tool can be used to repair parts
of the picture where you need to copy over a part of the picture. One
example of this might be to eliminate the date/time stamp from a picture.
(You should always turn this feature off on your camera. The camera and
your computer store this information electronically as long as you have
the clock correctly set on your camera.) This feature can also be used to
copy a portion of a picture to another part of the picture. (You may want
to eliminate an old boy- or girlfriend from a great picture of you.)
Select the clone stamp tool from the tools panel. In the options bar
set the size of the area to be cloned. The setting is in pixels. Next click
on the zoom in/zoom out tool and enlarge the picture so you can see the
area to be repaired or be copied from and to. After you have enlarged the
area to be worked on, change back to the clone stamp. Move the cursor
over the middle of the area you want to copy. Hold down the ALT key
while left clicking the mouse. This will mark the spot where the copy will
be taken from. Next move the cursor to the place you want to copy to.
While holding down the left click drag the cursor over the area you want
the cloned part of the picture to appear in. Practice using this tool. It will
make it possible to remove acne and other blemishes.
Spot Healing Brush

The spot healing brush is very similar to the clone stamp. They are both
used to repair flaws in a picture. The spot healing brush however does a
much better job at repairing a photograph. The clone stamp copies the
area being copied exactly as it is. The spot healing brush takes the pixels
from the area being copied and blends them into the area being repaired.
103
Consideration is given to the tones, highlights, and shadow areas that are
receiving the copied pixels.
The following steps should be followed to use the spot healing brush
after you have opened the picture to be repaired in full edit. 1) From the
options bar select the size of the brush to be used. 2) For now leave all the
other settings at the default. 3) Place the cursor over the area you want to
copy from and left click while holding down the ALT key. 4) Either click
on the areas to be repaired or drag the cursor over the area in need of
repair. (Remember, if you go too far you can always use the undo com-
mand to back up and start again.
Fixing Camera Distortion

When taking pictures, it is important to make sure that your horizon line
is level. Usually it is also parallel to the top and bottom of your picture.
Another common problem is converging or diverging parallel lines. This
problem is most common when taking architectural pictures. The fixing
camera distortion feature is very helpful when you need to make these
adjustments. This editing tool is not found in the tools panel. It is part
of the “Filter” dropdown menu. We will only look at a few of the editing
tools that are present in the fixing camera distortion tool.
The first thing you will notice is the grid pattern that is over laid onto
the picture. This grid is very helpful when leveling the horizon line. We
will start with the “Angle” setting near the bottom. There are two ways to
adjust the horizon. The first is a circle with a radius line that points up to
12 on an imaginary clock. This represents 0° or 360°. You can click and
drag this radius line to the right or left to make the horizon parallel to the
grid lines. You will notice that as you move the radius line, the number in
the window to the right changes to be the degree measure of the change
in the radius. The other method to change the degree is to use the degree
window and select the new degree of the change of the radius. Keep in
mind that when you move the radius to the left, the degree increases.
When you move the radius to the right, the degree decreases from 360°.
Remember to also look at vertical lines when changing the horizon. They
should remain parallel to the sides of the picture.
The next feature is the perspective control. There are two sliders that
can be used in this edit. The top slider controls vertical perspective, while
the lower slider controls the horizontal perspective. Select a picture with
strong horizontal and vertical lines and play around with these different
104
tools that help to fix horizontal and vertical lines in your pictures. As you
can see, there is a checkered pattern in the border area of the picture.
After you have clicked “OK,” this checkered pattern will be present. This
is one of the main reasons why I always wait until I am finished all other
editing before cropping a picture.
Fill out the chart to tell what edits you used to improve or edit 10 of the
20 images you tagged in the activity for this lesson. Print the before and
after pictures to demonstrate your editing skills.
You can find the needed worksheet titled “Editing Worksheet Portfolio
Assignment” in the Course Resources folder.
105
Lesson 6
Careers in Photography
Introduction
T his lesson will give you the opportunity to explore different
careers in Photography. You will be asked to compile information
about three different careers in the field of Photography. After collecting
information about these three careers you will write a two page paper
about one of the careers.
Learning Outcomes
1. Use investigative skills to research three careers in the field of
photography.
2. Create reviews of careers researched to gain insight into possible
professional pursuits.
107
6.1: Researching Photography Careers
Use investigative skills to research three careers in the field of photography
Learning Activity 6.1

Make a list of fifteen different careers in photography. The Internet is a
good source for different careers. Some of these careers might be careers
that use photography. In ten minutes on the Internet I found over twenty-
five different careers.
You can download the Photography Careers Part 1 Worksheet PDF
here.
108
6.2: Reviewing Photography Careers
Create reviews of careers researched to gain insight into possible
professional pursuits
Select three of the careers from your list in Learning Activity 6.1 above.
Pick three that are different. This will give you broader information about
different career paths that might be available in the field of photogra-
phy. Fill in the blanks in the chart on BrainHoney. This will give you the
information to complete the assignment in objective 3.
You can download the Photography Careers Part 2 In-Depth Worksheet
here.
Now that you have some information about three different careers in pho-
tography, it is time to select the career that is of greatest interest to you.
After selecting your career, compose and write a two-page paper about
the career in photography that is of greatest interest to you. Your paper
should be double spaced with 12-point font using Times New Roman or
another easily read font.
109

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Art 061—Digital Photography

Section S002 / 0.5 Semester hours

Copyright © 2013. Brigham Young University. All rights reserved.

Introduction to This Lessons Packet .................................................3

Lesson 1: History—Introduction to Photography.............................7

Lesson 2: Equipment—Digital Camera Basics...............................31

Lesson 3: Composition Basics........................................................59

Lesson 4: Technique: Digital Black and White..............................83

Lesson 5: Evaluation: Introduction to Editing...............................95

Lesson 6: Careers in Photography............................................... 107

© BYU Independent Study

Light Sensitive Chemicals

Light sensitive chemicals

World’s first photo-

Daguerrotype chemical process

Affordable, Sharp Photopraph Duplication

Wet Collodion chemical process

The first, lasting

Silver Gelatin Dry Plate chemical process invented

Commerical production designed for film

Affordable color chemical process invented

Electronic flash technology

Color Roll Film

New color chemical process

New instant film

Ditigal Editing soft-

Many photographers have made contributions to both the photographic

Edward Steichen, one of the most influential artists in photography his-

Weston’s work focused completely on the elements and principles of

Dorothea Lange, like

One of the most well-

Robert Capa was a pioneer in bringing home photojournalism of war with

Under the guidance of art director

Robert Frank, born in

Andreas Gursky is a contemporary

There is a specialized vocabulary used for photography. When you begin

Learning Activity 1.3: Photography Terms

3. Identify the basic types of cameras and list

Every camera is made differently and, to be able to use yours correctly,

Basic Parts of the Camera

take photos, so it is important that

© BYU Independent Study

exposure is called the aperture

bottom, the smaller the aperture opening. For example, ƒ 16 is a smaller

The Steps to Metering

only manual exposure available or any combination of the aforementioned

© BYU Independent Study

Picture Number Example Pictures

Table 2.1: Different exposures

Why Would I Ever Want to Change My Settings Using the Law of

© BYU Independent Study

standard lens. This is the type that

mm, 105 mm (often used as a head-and-shoulders portrait lens), 135 mm,

© BYU Independent Study

lengths that are shorter than

© BYU Independent Study

the lesson on composition for

© BYU Independent Study

Shutter Speed Example Photo

Shutter Speed Example Photo

Shutter Speed Example Photo

Table 2.2: Different shutter speeds

Using Shutter Speed and Aperture Together

Aperture and Depth of Field