Boilers and Furnaces Refractory and Insulation

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Boilers And Furnaces Refractory And Insulation
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX30208 M.Y. Naffa’a
Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels
Contents Pages
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
STANDARDS FOR PURCHASE AND INSTALLATION................................................... 2

Service Temperature ................................................................................................. 2
Design Temperature of Metallic Anchors................................................................... 2
Casing Temperature .................................................................................................. 3
REFRACTORY LINING SYSTEMS: TYPES, COMPONENTS, INSTALLATION
AND CRITERIA FOR SELECTION.................................................................................... 4
Refractory Components in Furnaces: Types and Components ................................... 4
Thermal Ceramics Insulating Firebrick ........................................................... 6
Thermal Ceramics Firebrick ........................................................................... 8
Thermal Ceramics Refractory Castables ......................................................... 9
Thermal Conductivities of Lumnite-Concrete ................................................11
Refractory Components in Boilers: Types and Components .....................................12
Brick Construction ...................................................................................................13
Insulating Firebrick (IFB) Systems ................................................................14
Refractory Firebrick Systems ........................................................................17
Thermal Expansion .......................................................................................17
Castable Refractory ..................................................................................................18
Castable Refractory Lining Systems..........................................................................19
Anchors....................................................................................................................20
Installation ...............................................................................................................22
Thermal Expansion...................................................................................................24
Other Applications ...................................................................................................24
Ceramic Fiber...........................................................................................................24
Ceramic Fiber Lining Systems .......................................................................24
Anchors ........................................................................................................27
Thermal Expansion .......................................................................................28
External Insulation ...................................................................................................28
Criteria for Selecting Refractory Lining Systems.......................................................28

Fuel Sulfur Considerations ............................................................................30

Fuel Ash Considerations ...............................................................................32
Saudi Aramco Fuels......................................................................................33
CALCULATING HEAT TRANSFER .................................................................................34
Heat Transfer Equation ............................................................................................34
Thermal Resistance...................................................................................................34
Refractory Hot Face Temperature (T1) ....................................................................35
Casing Temperature (T2) .........................................................................................35
Interface Temperature (Ti) .......................................................................................36
Thermal Conductivities (k) .......................................................................................36
Determine Required Wall Thickness .........................................................................37
Checking Existing Refractory Design........................................................................39
Temperatures of Tiebacks and Supports ...................................................................42
Work Aid 1: Procedure for Calculating Heat Loss Through a Refractory
Wall..............................................................................................................43
Work Aid 2: Data Bases for Calculating Heat Loss--Heat Loss Versus
Casing Temperature......................................................................................44
Work Aid 3: Data Bases for Calculating Heat Loss--Thermal
Conductivities of Typical Refractories...........................................................45
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................47
REFERENCE......................................................................................................................49
APPENDICES.....................................................................................................................50
Appendix A Refractory Wall Thickness - Calculation Sheet ......................................50
Appendix B Refractory Heat Loss - Calculation Sheet ..............................................51

Table of Figures Pages
FIGURE 1 Typical Refractory Components In Furnaces............................................ 5

FIGURE 2 Typical Refractory Properties .................................................................. 7
FIGURE 3 Typical Refractory Components - Ras Tanura Hp Boiler No. 8 ...............12
FIGURE 4 Typical Insulating Firebrick (Ifb) System.................................................14
FIGURE 5 Typical Tieback Details...........................................................................16
FIGURE 6 Castable Refractory Types ......................................................................18
FIGURE 7 Typical Castable Refractory Lining Systems............................................19
FIGURE 8 Typical Anchors For Castable Linings.....................................................21
FIGURE 9 Typical Anchor Arrangements For Castable Linings................................22
FIGURE 10 Typical Ceramic Fiber Lining Details ....................................................25
FIGURE 11 Typical Ceramic Fiber Lining Details ....................................................26
FIGURE 12 Typical Ceramic Fiber Anchors .............................................................27
FIGURE 13 Anchor Patterns For Ceramic Fiber Linings...........................................28
FIGURE 14 Criteria For Selecting Refractory Lining Systems ..................................29
FIGURE 15 Criteria For Lining Systems For Sulfur-Containing Fuels.......................31
FIGURE 16..............................................................................................................38
FIGURE 17 Calculation Of Refractory Heat Loss.....................................................40

INTRODUCTION
Refractory and insulation systems are essential components in Saudi Aramco boilers and furnaces.
The primary purposes of refractory and insulation systems are to protect the steel structure and
tubes from overheating, and to reduce heat loss.
MEX 105.08 will introduce the participant to the types, components, installation procedures and
criteria used to select refractory and insulation materials for Saudi Aramco boilers and furnaces.
This module will also present the procedure for calculating the heat transfer through refractory
and insulation materials. This procedure is used in determining the required thickness of the
refractory and insulation materials.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

STANDARDS FOR PURCHASE AND INSTALLATION
Saudi Aramco requirements for furnace refractories are covered by Standard AES-F-001, which
includes API Standard 560. Requirements for boiler refractories are covered by Standard 32-
AMSS-021. There is no industry boiler standard covering refractories. These specifications
provide some basic requirements, but generally permit manufacturers' standard designs to be used.
Some of the requirements in these standards need explanation or additions, and these are
discussed below.
Service Temperature
The service temperature of a refractory material is the temperature at which the material begins to
deteriorate, and therefore operating temperatures should never approach this limit. Refractory
materials in each component layer should have a service temperature of at least 300°F greater than
the calculated hot face temperature of that layer. This applies to both the hot face and backup
layers. In the case of the backup layer, the hot temperature occurs where the backup layer meets
the hot face layer. The minimum service temperature of all refractory materials used in furnace
radiant and shield sections should be at least 1800°F (Standard 560, par. 7.1.3.). The minimum
service temperature of burner refractories should be at least 3000°F.
Design Temperature of Metallic Anchors
The design temperature of metallic anchors is considered to be the same as the calculated
refractory temperature at the tip of the anchor. The following guide can be used for selecting
metallic components:
Maximum Temperature Acceptable

of Anchor Tip, °F Materials (1)
800 Carbon Steel
1400 18Cr-8Ni (Type 304)
1700 25Cr-20Ni (Type 310),
Incoloy 800
1900 RA 330 Stainless Steel
2000 Inconel 601
Note (1): Austenitic materials shall be supplied and installed in the fully solution-annealed
condition. After annealing, anchors should not be bent except where the bend
point on the anchor will be below 1000°F.

Casing Temperature
Reduction of heat loss is a primary consideration in selection and design of refractory lining
systems. The lining system for furnaces should be designed to achieve a casing temperature of
180°F in 80°F ambient still air (Standard 560, par. 7.1.1.). This corresponds to a heat loss of 218
Btu/hr-ft2 of surface area. Although this ambient temperature is unrealistic for Saudi Aramco, it
is a standard basis for setting casing heat losses and determining lining thicknesses. This basis is
equivalent to a casing temperature of about 200°F in 100°F ambient still air.
Saudi Aramco AES-F-001 adds one requirement to this design basis: that the casing
temperature, where the casing is easily accessible by operating personnel, shall not exceed 150°F
in 100°F ambient air. This is for personnel protection. Since it is impractical to design a furnace
refractory wall to meet this requirement, other means of protection must be provided. One
solution used on the Ras Tanura 493-F-301/2/3/4 Rheniformer Furnace was to provide wire mesh
fencing several inches away from the hot casing, so that it could not easily be touched.
For boilers, the thickness of the external insulation should be designed to give a cold-faced
surface temperature of 150°F, with a surface wind velocity of 5 mph and an ambient temperature
of 115°F (32-AMSS-021, Par. 5.7.1). This corresponds to a heat loss of
140 Btu/hr-ft2.

REFRACTORY LINING SYSTEMS: TYPES, COMPONENTS, INSTALLATION AND

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION
Refractory Components in Furnaces: Types and Components
Refractory and insulation materials are used in boilers and furnaces primarily for the following
purposes:
• To protect the steel structure from overheating.
• To reduce heat loss through the boiler or furnace enclosure to the atmosphere.
• To protect portions of the tube surface from excessive heat transfer rates.
Refractory lining systems generally consist of high-temperature refractory materials that are
supported or reinforced by metallic components. Commonly used refractories are refractory
bricks, castable refractories, and ceramic fibers. In most high-temperature applications, it is
not practical to meet the heat loss requirements with a single-layer lining, so a dual-layer lining
system is used. A lower grade, better insulating material is used for the backup layer. These
refractory lining systems are discussed in this module.
Typical refractory components in process furnaces are shown in Figure 1 and are summarized
below. An internal refractory lining is used throughout the furnace to protect the enclosure and
structure, and to reduce heat losses.

Stack
Breeching
Header Box
Convection
Section
Sidewalls End Tube
Support
Arch
Shielded Convection Section

Sidewalls
Dividing Wall
Radiant
Section
Floor
Burners Unshielded
Endwalls
End View Side View
FIGURE 1 Typical Refractory Components In Furnaces
Radiant Section:
• Walls and arches. The major lining systems used in furnaces consist of three types of
refractory linings:
- Insulating firebrick (IFB).

- Castable refractory.
- Ceramic fiber.
• Floor. Brick and castable linings that are strong enough to withstand maintenance
turnaround traffic and scaffolding.
Convection Section:
• Sidewalls. Insulating firebrick and castable refractory linings.
• Endwalls. Single-layer castable refractory lining is used on the flue gas side of the end tube
supports.

• Header boxes. Single-layer castable refractory or ceramic fiber lining is used on the inside
surface.
Flue gas breeching and ducts. Single-layer castable refractory lining.
Stack. Where required, a single-layer castable refractory lining is used.
Burners. Burner blocks are constructed of high-temperature refractory firebricks or castable

refractories.
Refractory Properties. The chart in Figure 2 presents the characteristics of typical refractories.
Thermal Ceramics Insulating Firebrick
Lightweight insulating firebrick offers the low heat conductivity of efficient insulation plus the
ability to withstand direct exposure to furnace heat.

Insulating firebrick series K-20 K-23 K-26 LI K-28 K-30 K-3000

Service temperatures, F
Exposed 2000 2300 2600 2800 2900 3000
Backup 2000 2300 2600 2800 2900 3000
Density, avg (ASTM C 134-70)
Lb/9" straight 1.7 1.8 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.4
Lb/cu ft 29 31 48 51 51 58
Melting Point, F 2750 2750 3190 3190 3190 3350
Modulus of rupture, psi (ASTM C 93-67) 110 140 160 210 240 260
Cold crushing strength, psi (ASTM C 93-67) 110 145 170 220 295 275
Permanent linear change, % (ASTM C 210-68)
Fired @ 1950F 0 - - - - -
@ 2250F - 0 - - - -
@ 2550F - - -0.1 - - -
@ 2750F - - - -0.6 - -
@ 2800F - - - - -0.5* -
@ 2950F - - - - - -0.6
@ 3250F - - - - - -
Thermal conductivity, BTU•in./h•ft2•F (ASTM C 182-72)
Mean temperature@ 500F 0.8 0.9 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.1
@ 1000F 1.0 1.1 1.9 2.0 2.4 2.4
@ 1500F 1.2 1.3 2.2 2.3 3.0 2.8
@ 2000F - 1.6 2.7 2.9 3.8 3.4
@ 2400F - - - - - 4.0
Deformation under hot load, % @ 10 psi (per ASTM C 16-77)
1 1/2 hr @ 2000F 0 - - - - -
1 1/2 hr @ 2200F - 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 -
1 1/2 hr @ 2640F - - - - - 0.5
12.5 psi 1 1/2 hr @ 2730F - - - - - -
Chemical analysis, % (ASTM C 573-70)
Alumina Al2O3 39 39 46 46 46 64
Silica SiO2 44 44 52 52 52 34
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 0.7 0.6 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.6
Titanium oxide TiO2 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.7
Calcium oxide CaO 15.0 14.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.3
Magnesium oxide MgO 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Trace
Alkalies, as Na2O 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4
Coefficient of reversible thermal 3.0x10-6 3.0x10-6 2.9x10-6 2.9x10-6 2.9x10-6 2.9x10-6
expansion, in./in.F
Color code Green Red Brown Orange Black Purple
* ASTM C 113-74
Data are average results of tests conducted under standard procedures and are subject to variation. Results should
not be used for specification purposes.
Source: Thermal Ceramics
FIGURE 2 Typical Refractory Properties

Thermal Ceramics Firebrick
Four grades of heavy-duty brick including two special refractory compositions offer marked resistance
to spalling, exceptional load carrying capacity at high temperatures and negligible reheat shrinkage.
Firebrick series Firebrick Firebrick Special refractory brick

80 80-D SR-90 SR-99
Melting point, F 3190 3190 3480 3660
Density, avg (ASTM C 134-70)
Lb/9" straight 8.1 8.8 10.6 11.3
Lb/cu ft 189 151 183 193
Hot modulus of rupture, psi (ASTM C 583-76)
@Room temperature 1700 3500 3600 3800
@2000F - - 4500 2900
@2300F - - 4200 1600
@2600F - - 2900 800
@2800F - - 2100 650
Cold crushing strength, psi (ASTM C 133-72) 4000 10,000 12,000 10,000
Permanent linear change, % (per ASTM C 113-74)
5 hr @2912F -1.0 -0.8 - -
5 hr @3200F - - +1.5 -
24 hr @3200F - - - +0.3
Thermal conductivity. Btu•in/h•ft2•F (ASTM C 202-71)
Mean temperature @ 500F 16.0 20.8 26.5 47.5
@1000F 16.0 20.6 22.8 31.5
@1500F 15.9 20.3 20.8 24.0
@2000F 15.6 19.9 19.5 20.5
@2500F 15.2 19.5 18.8 17.5
Deformation under hot load, % @ 25 psi (ASTM C 16-77)
1 1/2 hr @2640F -1.0 -0.5 - -
1 1/2 hr @2900F - - - -0.3
1 1/2 hr @3000F - - +0.1 -
1 1/2 hr @3200F - - +0.1 -
150 hr @3200F - - <0.25 -
Permeability, fr3/hr ft2 in./psi 1000 100 35 30
Relative abrasion resistance vol loss when abraded cc's (ASTM C 704-76) 11.0 5.2 7.3 13.5
Porosity, % (ASTM C 20-74) 17 8 18 17
Panel spall loss, % (Per ASTM C 122-76) 12 cycles @ 2550F
24 hr preheat @3000F 3.0 NR* - -
24 hr preheat @3100F - - 0 2.6
Static corrosion resistance to molten glass, corrosion, % (ASTM C 621-68) soda, lime, silica cullet - one inch cylinder
72 hrs @2250F - - - -
Chemical analysis, % (ASTM C 573-70)
Alumina Al2O3 45 45 90 99.4
Silica SiO2 52 52 10 0.4
Zirconia ZrO2 - - - -
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 1.4 1.4 0.1 0.1
Titanium oxide TiO2 1.7 1.7 Trace Trace
Calcium oxide CaO 0.1 0.1 0.1 Trace
Magnesium oxide MgO Trace Trace 0.1 Trace
Alkalies, as Na2O 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1
* Not recommended for severe spalling conditions.

Data are average results of tests conducted under standard procedures and are subject to variation. Results should
not be used for specification purposes.
FIGURE 2 Typical Refractory Properties(Cont'd)

Thermal Ceramics Refractory Castables

Dense Castables
Castable series Kaocrete Kaocrete Kaocast Kao-Tab Kao-Tab Kao-Tab Kaocrete HS
B 28-LI 93 95 95-Gun (as cast) (as gunned)
Recommended methods of application (X)
Cast or rammed X X X X X Rammed X X
Trowled X X - X X Lim. Repairs X X
Gunned X X X X - X X X
Lb req'd to place one cu ft 100 126 123 150 165 165* 123 125*
**Required water, U.S.qt per bag
Vibrating 12-13 6-6.5 5-6 5.5-6 4-4.5 - 6-6.5 -
Casting and rodding 13-13.5 6.5-7 6-6.5 6-6.5 4.5-5 - 6.5-7 -
Ramming 5-6 3-4 3-4 2-3 2-3 - 3-4 -
Recommended use limit, F 2300 2800 3000 3300 3300 3300 2600 2600
Melting point, F 2725 3100 3200 3400 3400 3390 3100 3100
Density, lb/cu ft Fired 100 126 126 152 166 165 122 124
Modulus of rupture, psi (ASTM C 268-70)
Dried 18 to 24 hr @ 220F 400 900 900 1700 1850 1700 1300 1400
Fired 5 hr @1000F 350 600 350 1100 1400 1600 850 950
@1500F 160 400 250 900 1000 1500 700 900
@1750F - - - - - - - -
@2000F 140 300 270 700 1200 1300 700 900
@2200F 240 450 300 700 900 1500 900 1100
@2400F - 600 550 700 900 1600 - -
@2500F - - - - - - 1400 1600
@2600F - 1500 1200 700 1000 1600 - -
@2800F - 2000 1400 800 1200 1400 - -
@3000F - - 1400 1200 1400 1500 - -
@3200F - - - 1600 1800 1900 - -
Cold crushing strength, psi (Per ASTM C 133-72)
Dried 18 to 24 hr @ 220F 1400 3000 2100 6000 6000 6800 4200 5500
Fired 5 hr @1000F 700 2400 1200 3100 5600 6000 4000 4800
@1500F 700 2000 1000 2900 5200 5100 2800 4400
@1750F - - - - - - - -
@2000F 300 1400 1100 2300 5000 5800 2600 3200
@2200F 450 1400 1200 1850 4400 5300 2800 3400
@2400F - 1600 1400 1900 4500 5000 - -
@2500F - - - - - - 3200 4000
@2600F - 3200 3000 1950 4800 5000 - -
@2800F - 4000 3800 2800 5000 5000 - -
@3000F - - 4200 2800 5200 5000 - -
@3200F - - - 3000 5600 6100 - -
Dried 124 hr @2 20F 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Fired 5 hr @1000F -0.5 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2
@1500F -1.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2
@1750F - - - - - - - -
@2000F -1.5 -0.2 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3
@2200F -1.8 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.2
@2400F - +0.1 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.5 - -
@2500F - - - - - - +0.2 +0.2
@2600F - +1.0 -0.3 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 - -
@2800F - +0.2 -0.2 -0.8 -0.8 +0.5 - -
@3000F - - +0.2 -0.5 -0.3 0.0 - -
@3200F - - - -0.2 -0.2 -1.0 - -
Porosity, %, fired 42 31 32 32 - - 29 -
Chemical analysis, % fired basis (ASTM C 573-70)
Alumina Al2O3 38 49 60 93 95 95 47 47
Silica SIO2 46 42 33 0.5 0.1 0.2 40 40
Ferric oxide Fe2O 1.3 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.0 1.0
Titanium oxide TiO2 1.3 2.4 1.9 0.1 Trace Trace 2.0 2.0
Calcium oxide CaO 12.1 6.0 3.4 6.0 4.6 4.2 8.5 8.5
Magnesium oxide MgO 0.9 - 0.1 Trace Trace Trace 0.2 0.2
Alkalies, as Na2O 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3
Phosphorous penta-oxide P2O5 - - - - - - - -
Thermal conductivity, (ASTM C 417-60)
BTU•in./h•ht2•F 4.5 6.8 6.7 9.1 13.1 9.1 7.0 7.1
Pounds per bag 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
* Without rebound loss. **Water requirements indicated are offered as a guide. Actual water required may be subject to field
conditions. Data are average results of tests conducted under standard procedures with cast samples, except as otherwise noted, and
are subject to variation. Results should not be used for specification purposes.
FIGURE 2 Typical Refractory Properties(CONT'D)

Insulating Castables
Castable series Kaolite Kaolite Kaolite Kaolite Kaolite Kaolite Kaolite
2200 2200-HS 2300-LI 2500-LI 2500-HS 2800 3300
(as cast) (as gunned) (as cast) (as gunned) (as cast)(as gunned) (as cast)(as gunned)
Recommended methods of application (X)
Cast or rammed X X X X X X X X X X X
Trowled X X X X X X X X X X -
Gunned X X X X X X X X X X -
Lb req'd to place one cu ft 56 71 82* 54 74 60* 78 85* 84 86* 68
**Required water, U.S. qt per bag
Vibrating 11.5-12 11.5-12 - 11.5-12 12-13 - 13.14 - 9.5-10 - 4-4.5
Casting and rodding 11.5-12 11.5-12 - 11.5-12 12-13 - 13-14 - 9.5-10 - 4.5-5
Recommended use limit, F 2200 2200 2200 2300 2500 2500 2500 2500 2800 2800 3300
Melting point, F 2670 2495 2495 2670 2740 2740 2700 2700 3300 3300 3530
Density, lb/cu ft Fired 58 74 82 58 67 60 77 84 85 88 68
Modulus of rupture, psi (ASTM C 268-70)
Dried 18 to 24 hr @ 220F 130 475 540 150 210 210 280 390 370 300 250
Fired 5 hr @1000F 120 200 - 140 130 100 220 370 290 190 240
@1500F 100 200 160 110 110 - 180 360 260 200 180
@2000F 150 200 - 190 130 100 140 310 350 250 180
@2200F 200 250 130 190 - - 240 430 400 270 300
@2300F - - - 240 - - - - - - -
@2400F - - - - - - 570 700 - - 350
@2500F - - - - 370 230 570 750 410 490 -
@2600F - - - - - - - - - -- 350
@2800F - - - - - - - - 1400 610 550
@3000F -- - - - - - - - - - 750
@3200F - - - - - - - - - - 850
Cold crushing strength, psi (Per ASTM C 133-72)
Dried 18 to 24 hr @ 220F 700 1600 1850 500 740 530 740 1240 1180 480 900
Fired 5 hr @1000F 600 1400 - 450 590 300 670 1150 950 550 850
@1500F 500 1200 950 450 610 - 600 1120 900 460 700
@2000F 550 1000 - 400 490 350 490 770 1070 860 700
@2200F 600 1250 1000 500 - - 440 1110 1390 1150 800
@2300F - - - 500 - - - - - - -
@2400F - - - - - - 990 1150 - - 1200
@2500F - - - - 950 680 1170 1210 2030 1480 -
@2600F - - - - - - - - - - 1300
@2800F - - - - - - - - 4150 1900 1400
@3000F - - - - - - - - - - 1500
@3200F - - - - - - - - - - 2200
Permanent linear change, % (ASTM C 269-70)
Dried 24 hr @ 220F -0.1 -0.1 - 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -0.1
Fired 5 hr @1000F -0.2 - - -0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -0.1 -0.3 -0.1
@1500F -0.3 -0.2 -0.2 -0.4 -0.2 - -0.2 -0.3 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2
@2000F -0.5 - - -0.6 -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -0.4 -0.4 -0.1
@2200F -1.1 -0.7 -0.7 -0.9 - - -0.4 -0.4 -0.6 -0.5 -0.1
@2300F - - - -1.8 - - - - - - -
@2400F - - - - - - -0.5 -0.5 - - -0.1
@2500F - - - - -0.1 +1.0 +0.6 +0.6 +0.5 +0.5 -
@2600F - - - - - - - - - - +0.2
@2800F - - - - - - - - -0.5 -0.3 -0.2
@3000F - - - - - - - - - - -0.5
@3200F - - - - - - - - - - -1.0
Chemical analysis, % fired basis (ASTM C 573-70)
Alumina Al2O3 35 42 42 41 44 44 41 41 60 60 94
Silica SIO2 36 26 26 37 35 35 37 37 33 33 0.5
Ferric oxide Fe2O 5.6 6.9 6.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 3.2 3.2 0.4 0.4 0.2
Titanium oxide TiO2 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.8 2.2 2.2 0.7 0.7 -
Calcium oxide CaO 21.1 22.6 22.6 18.6 17 17 16.3 16.3 5.0 5.0 4.6
Magnesium oxide MgO 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1
Alkalies, as Na2O 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.3 1.3 1.3 Trace Trace 0.8 0.8 0.5
Thermal conductivity, (ASTM C 417-60)
BTU•in./h•ft2•F 1.6 1.9 2.1 1.6 1.9 1.6 2.5 2.9 3.4 3.5 4.5
Pounds per bag 40 50 50 40 50 50 75 75 75 75 50
• Without rebound loss. **Water requirements indicated are offered as a guide. Actual water required may be subject to field conditions. Data are
average results of tests conducted under standard procedures with cast samples, except as otherwise noted ,and are subject to variation. Results
should not be used for specification purposes.

Thermal Conductivities of Lumnite-Concrete
Mix by Volume Unit Weights Volume BTU/sq. ft/hr/in./°F Max

Lumnite lb/cu ft in Mean Temperatures Service
Place
(sacks) : cu ft Aggregate Dried Fired cu ft 500°F 1000°F 1500°F Temp.
1 : 4 Calcined Diatomaceous Earth 57.2 52.9 4 1.50 1.66 1.84 1800°F
1 : 6 Calcined Diatomaceous Earth 49.6 47.0 6 1.36 1.53 1.66 1800°F
1 : 4 Perlite 47.6 42.0 4 1.10 1.32 1.53 2000°F
1 : 6 Perlite - 36.4 6 0.93 1.22 1.48 2000°F
1 : 8 Perlite 24.6 23.2 8 0.73 1.08 1.43 2000°F
1 : 4 Vermiculite 44.2 38.5 3-4 1.02 1.24 1.44 2000°F
1 : 6 Vermiculite 36.6 32.3 4-6 0.83 1.04 1.27 2000°F
1 : 4 Pumice 77.7 71.2 4 2.36 2.67 2.98 2000°F
1 : 6 Pumice 71.6 69.0 6 2.12 2.50 2.88 2000°F
1 : 4 Haydite 97.1 91.3 4 3.31 3.43 3.53 2000°F
1 : 6 Haydite 89.9 86.2 6 3.06 3.23 3.40 2000°F
1 : 5 Haydite : 1 Vermiculite 85.9 82.0 5.5 2.75 2.93 3.11 2000°F
1 : 3 Haydite : 3 Vermiculite 65.2 62.1 5 1.70 1.96 2.18 2000°F
1 : 4 Crushed Insulating Firebrick Grog 92.0 83.0 4 2.60 3.10 3.30 2400°F
1 : 4 Crushed Firebrick** 119.3 114.5 4 5.40 5.68 5.94 2000°F
1 : 6 Crushed Firebrick** 117.1 112.6 6 5.30 5.64 5.92 2600°F
* ASTM Method: C 182-47

**ASTM Method: C 202-47

Refractory Components in Boilers: Types and Components
Typical refractory components in boilers are shown in Figure 3, which is an illustration of Ras
Tanura HP Boiler No. 8.
Castable Refractory
External
Insulation
Flue Gas
Burner Throat
Baffles
Castable
Refractory Castable
Refractory
Refractory
Floor Brick
Refractory
Brick
FIGURE 3 Typical Refractory Components - Ras Tanura Hp Boiler No. 8

Because of the membrane water wall construction used in most boilers, very little internal
refractory is needed to protect the outer casing and structure. However, to reduce heat losses,
most of the boiler is covered with an external layer of insulation.
Castable refractory is used to seal the enclosure in areas where the tube arrangement does not
permit a membrane water wall. Castable refractory is also used in the boiler section for flue gas
baffles.
Refractory firebricks are used for removable sections of flue gas baffles.
A layer of refractory bricks, or comparable castable refractory, covers the floor tubes to reduce
heat transfer to these tubes.
High-temperature castable refractory is used to form the burner throats and to protect the
surrounding tubes.
Flue gas ducts and stacks are often covered with an external layer of insulation.
Brick Construction
Two types of refractory bricks are widely used in boilers and furnaces: refractory firebrick and
insulating firebrick. Commonly used firebricks of both types are composed mainly of alumina
(Al2O3) and silica (SiO2), most having a composition of about 45% alumina and 50% or more
silica. For special applications, particularly when very high service temperatures are required, the
alumina content can be increased to over 99%.
Refractory firebricks are used for hot face applications in boilers, furnaces, and combustors where
high strength and temperature resistance are of primary concern. Refractory firebricks also have a
generally high resistance to spalling. The physical characteristics of refractory firebrick are
dependent upon the refractory and binder components used, the forming method, and the
temperature at which the firing is done. These bricks have a high density (about 180 lb/ft3) and
service temperatures of 3000°F or higher.
Insulating firebrick is used in applications, such as furnace linings, where a high insulating value is
more important than strength. Insulating firebrick is a type of porous refractory brick material. It is
manufactured by firing mixtures of high-quality clay, sawdust, and other constituents. Density of
the bricks is about 30-50 lb/ft3, and service temperatures are 2000-3000°F.
Firebricks can be purchased in many standard sizes and shapes. The most common standard brick
size is 9 in. x 4-1/2 in. x 2-1/2 in. Mortar is used to bond the bricks together. Expansion joints
must be provided in all brick linings to allow for thermal expansion of the bricks.

Insulating Firebrick (IFB) Systems
This lining system consists of a wall of bricks at the inside hot face of the lining and a backup
layer of lightweight insulating block material next to the furnace casing. The IFB wall is usually
4-1/2 in. thick, although 9 in. thick walls are often used in very high-temperature furnaces. A
typical IFB wall is shown in Figure 4.
Although "brick and block" linings have been used successfully for many years, more recent
practice has been to use castable or ceramic fiber linings for process furnaces. These linings are
less costly than IFB walls and are more suitable for shop preassembly of furnace sections.
Tieback (Staple Type)

Steel Casing
Horizontal Shelf Ang
Expansion
Joint Bloc
Insula
Vertical Expansion Joints Bricks
FIGURE 4 Typical Insulating Firebrick (Ifb) System
Backup Material
The backup material used in most IFB walls is a layer of mineral wool block insulation, typically
1-3 in. thick. Mineral wool is usually a low-melting-point glass material. Materials are available
with service temperatures of up to about 1900°F.

Because of its superior properties and competitive cost, some recent IFB systems have used a
backup layer of ceramic fiber material instead of the mineral wool. Ceramic fiber can withstand
higher temperatures than can mineral wool, so it offers a better safety factor should the IFB wall
develop cracks.
Support System
IFB walls are supported by shelf angles that are attached to the furnace structure. Due to the
thermal expansion of the wall, it is necessary to support the wall vertically about every 6-10 ft.
Horizontal expansion joints are provided at each shelf angle.
Vertical expansion joints are also provided about every 10 ft. The expansion joints are typically
packed with ceramic fiber material.
Tiebacks are used to stabilize the wall and hold it in place. Each tieback must be designed to
permit some horizontal and vertical movement of the brick wall caused by thermal expansion. In
vertical walls, not all bricks need to be tied back. A common practice is to tie back half the bricks
in every fourth row of bricks, which is 12.5% of the wall. Other tieback patterns are also used.
Standard 560 requires a minimum of 10% of the bricks to be tied back (Par. 7.2.1). Typical
tieback details are illustrated in Figure 5.

Casing
CS Pipe
Staple Type
Tieback
Block
Insulation
Shelf Angle
Expansion Joint V-Clip Ty

Filled with Ceramic Tiebac
Fiber
IFB
Elevation
Elevation
Plan View -
Staple-Type
Tieback
Plan View - V-Clip
Tieback
FIGURE 5 Typical Tieback Details
In some furnaces, sloping walls or flat IFB arches are provided. In these cases, all bricks must be
tied back.
In vertical cylindrical furnaces, the arch effect of the bricks acts to hold the vertical wall in place.
Tiebacks are not usually required, unless the furnace diameter is extremely large (over about 25 ft
in diameter).

Refractory Firebrick Systems
Floor Refractory
The floor tubes in boilers are covered with a layer of refractory firebricks to reduce heat transfer
to these tubes. The floor insulation in furnaces is also covered with a layer of refractory firebricks
to provide for wear during maintenance turnarounds. The bricks in both applications are laid in
place dry, and are not mortared. Castable refractory of equivalent density and service
temperature is sometimes used in place of bricks.
Dividing Walls
Dividing walls are used between the radiant section zones of multi celled furnaces, such as the Ras
Tanura 493-F-3-1/2/3/4 Rheniformer Furnace. These are gravity walls constructed of high-duty
refractory firebrick. The maximum height of the wall is about 24 ft. The base width is
approximately 2 ft (2-1/2 to 3 bricks wide). The width decreases in 2-3 steps, so that the top few
feet is 9 in. wide (equivalent to 1 brick).
Vertical expansion joints are provided at the ends of the gravity wall. Intermediate expansion
joints are also provided, and these are usually lapped joints. Mortar is not used in lapped joints
(dry joints).
Sulfur Furnaces
High-duty refractory firebricks are used as the front layer in sulfur furnace refractory linings.
These layers are typically 9 in. thick. Castable insulation is used in the backup layer.
Thermal Expansion
Refractory firebricks experience thermal expansion when heated, and this must be considered in
the design of refractory lining systems. Expansion joints are required in all types of brick
construction.
For IFB walls, the size of the expansion joint should be approximately twice the thermal
expansion calculated, using the manufacturer's thermal expansion data, and based on the
refractory design temperature. The expansion joint is filled with ceramic fiber material.
For refractory brick used as the top layer of the floor in boilers and furnaces, the allowance for
thermal expansion should be about 3/32 in./ft (unless the manufacturer's data indicate that a
greater allowance should be used). Expansion joints should be covered with refractory bricks to
keep debris out.

In cases where expansion joints are provided in more than one layer of refractory, the joints
should be staggered so that there is no direct line of sight back to the casing.
Expansion joints should also be provided around burner blocks and tube supports.
Castable Refractory
Castables are concrete-like mixtures of "refractory" aggregates and cement that are formulated to
be mixed with water. The water allows the mixture to be formed into the desired shape and
structure. Most castables contain a hydraulic-setting calcium aluminate cement. A variety of
materials are used for the aggregate.
Several types of castable refractories are available. These are listed in Figure 6, according to
density. Strength, thermal conductivity, and service temperature generally increase with density.
Lightweight castables are used for their insulating properties. Heavyweight castables are used for
their high strength and high service temperature properties. Dense castables have properties
similar to those of refractory firebricks.
Castable Type Dry Minimum Permanent Service

Installed Compressive Linear Temperature
Density Strength Change Limit,
lb/cu ft (1)(2) pal (2) %, max (2) °F (3)
30 -2.0 "Backup": >1500
1. Very Lightweight 20 to 45 100 -1.4 "Facing": >2000
2. Lightweight 45 to 75 300 -1.2 >2000
3. Mediumweight 75 to 115 500 -1.0 >2000
4. Heavyweight 115 to 150 2000 -0.8 >2400
5. Dense >150 5000 -0.8 >2400
Notes:
(1) In the installed condition after drying at 220°F for 18 hours.
(2) As determined by standard test procedures.
(3) Certified by manufacturer.
FIGURE 6 Castable Refractory Types

Castable Refractory Lining Systems
Castable refractory lining systems consist of single- or dual-layer castable refractories held in
place by metallic anchors that are welded to the casing. Typical castable linings are shown in
Figure 7.
Mediumweight Hotface with Single-Layer Lining

Lightweight Backup
FIGURE 7 Typical Castable Refractory Lining Systems

Castable linings are widely used in process furnaces. They are easy to install and repair, have a
low cost, and can be shop-installed.
In dual-layer castable linings, the hot face layer is constructed of a higher service temperature,
denser material and should be at least 3 in. thick. The backup layer is usually a very lightweight
castable material.
In some cases, mineral wool block insulation or ceramic fiber insulation is used for the backup
layer, because of their lower thermal conductivities. In these cases, a waterproof seal must be
applied to the insulation layer before applying the castable layer. Otherwise, the insulation will
soak up the water in the castable mixture, resulting in a much weakened castable layer.
One castable material commonly used in furnaces is a mixture of lumnite (a type of calcium
aluminate cement) and two refractory aggregates (haydite and vermiculite) in a 1:2:4 (L:H:V) mix
by volume. This is an inexpensive material having reasonably good insulation characteristics. It
has a maximum service temperature of 1900-2000°F, so that the hot face temperature should be
limited to about 1700°F. The three components of this material can be purchased separately and
combined in the field as the castable is prepared. However, this can result in variations in the
composition, resulting in inferior properties in portions of the lining.

To avoid problems with field mixing, all castable materials (including "L-H-V") should be factory
premixed and packaged by the manufacturer.
It is also essential that refractory materials used in the field be properly stored. Exposure to any
amount of water will damage castable materials. These materials should be shipped and stored in
moisture proof containers. The storage area should be protected from the weather. Material
from broken bags, or any material showing signs of having been exposed to moisture (containing
lumps or hard throughout), should not be used.
Anchors
Castable linings are supported by the boiler or furnace casing, or shell, using metallic anchors.
Many anchor designs are used, with the most common consisting of "V" clips welded to the steel
casing. For dual-layer linings, separate anchors should be provided for each layer of castable.
Typical anchors are shown in Figure 8. Anchor patterns are shown in Figure 9.

FIGURE 8 Typical Anchors For Castable Linings

Note (2)
Note (1)
Maximum Spacing for Anchors

Type of Arches and
Application Vertical Walls Hip Sections
Cast in Place 1 per 100 sq in. 1 per 81 sq in.
Precast Panel Construction As for Cast-In-place, Except that the Density of Anchors
Shall Be Increased About 50% in a 10 in. Wide Parallel
Border Around Edges of all Panels and Openings, Including
Observation Doors.
Notes:
1. Figures in Parentheses Indicate Spacing for Arches and Hip Sections.
2. Anchors on a Staggered Pattern, with Tines Located in a Random Orientation.
FIGURE 9 Typical Anchor Arrangements For Castable Linings
Installation
Castable refractory systems can be installed by either pouring or gunning. Gunning is a technique
that involves shooting the cement mixture into place with a pneumatic gun. The material that falls
to the ground is called rebound and is waste material. Gunning is a very economical method of
application. However, gunning is a skilled craft, and the techniques of the applicator can make
the difference between the success and failure of the installation.

Castable refractory linings can also be installed as panels. The castable is poured at grade, and
then the panel is lifted into place. The panels are bolted together, and the metal backing becomes
the furnace casing.
Almost all refractory problems are the result of irregularities in the installation process. The
quality of castable refractory applications is highly dependent upon the use of proper installation
and curing procedures. This is particularly important for gunned refractories. Experienced
refractory workers should be used for all castable refractory jobs. The water used in mixing
castables should be clean and potable.
Because of the possible variations in the quality of castable refractory installations, the installation
process should be carefully monitored with a series of tests and inspections.
• Before installation. Samples of each batch of castable should be tested to ensure that the
material properties meet the specifications and have not deteriorated during storage.
Compressive strength, density, and permanent linear change should be tested in accordance
with standard ASTM testing procedures.
For gunned linings, the skill of each operator should be determined by having the operator
gun a test panel of each refractory to be used. The panels should be tested for soundness,
using a hammer test, and for density.
• During installation. For each castable being applied, random samples should be taken during
each shift. These should be tested for strength, density and linear change to ensure that the
materials, as applied, have the required properties. Test panels should also be taken for each
operator to ensure proper operation of the equipment.
• After installation. A hammer test should be used to determine the soundness of refractory
linings. When defective areas in the lining are encountered, such as voids or dry-filled areas,
a dull sound will be heard. Any unsound areas should be cut out and replaced.
After the installation is completed, castable refractory linings must be cured and dried out before
they are ready for service. These steps should be carried out in accordance with the refractory
manufacturer's instructions.
• Curing is a process in which the calcium aluminate cement binder in the castable sets up, and
achieves a satisfactory strength. During this period of time, which is usually 24 hours,
moisture is required to complete the hydration reaction.
• After the curing step is completed, castable refractories must be dried out to remove any
free water remaining in the lining. This is accomplished by gradually heating the furnace or
boiler, over a period of 2 to 3 days, to near operating temperatures. If the lining is not
properly dried out, excessive quantities of steam can form inside the refractory, causing
sections of the lining to spall.

Thermal Expansion
Hydraulic-setting castable refractories can be used to form a monolithic structure without expansion
joints. This is made possible by the shrinkage that takes place in most castable refractories during
initial heating (dry-out). With few exceptions, shrinkage cracking is large enough to accommodate
thermal expansion that occurs upon subsequent heating of the material. However, expansion joints
should be provided around burner blocks and tube supports.
Other Applications
Single-layer castable linings are used in many places with moderate temperatures to protect the
steel structure and to limit heat losses. These applications include header boxes, flue gas ducts,
and stacks. The lining should be a mediumweight castable, at least 2 in. thick. A commonly used
material in this service is a 1:4 mixture of lumnite and haydite (L:H).
Thin single-layer linings are usually supported by chain link fencing or wire mesh that is anchored to
the steel casing. Carbon steel or stainless steel material is used, depending on the temperatures.
Ceramic Fiber
Ceramic fiber construction is the most recent development for furnace insulation systems.
Ceramic fiber is manufactured by a blowing or spinning process in which a molten alumina-silica
raw material is transformed into very small-diameter fibers. These ceramic fibers are then formed
into blankets, 1-2 in. thick, about 2 ft wide, and several ft long.
Ceramic fiber blankets are available in densities of 4-12 lb/ft3, and with 2000-2600°F service
temperatures. Using special materials, service temperatures can be increased to 3000°F. In
contrast with other refractory materials, thermal conductivity decreases with increasing density,
up to a density of about 16 lb/ft3.
Ceramic fiber is also available in the form of rope, cloth, paper, board, vacuum-formed shapes,
and bulk material.
Ceramic Fiber Lining Systems
A ceramic fiber lining system consists of several layers of blanket, with a higher-density layer
(typically 8 lb/ft3) on the hot face and lower-density layers (typically 4 lb/ft3) as backup. Mineral
wool block insulation is sometimes used for the layers closest to the casing. The lining is held in
place by metallic anchors that are welded to the casing. Typical ceramic fiber lining details are
shown in Figures 10 and 11.

Ceramic fiber blanket linings have advantages over conventional brick or castable lining systems:
• Low thermal conductivity.

• Low weight.
• Relatively low cost.
• Relatively low-skill installation.
• Quick installation and repair.
• Unlimited storage life.
• No dry-out required.
Ceramic fiber blankets are subject to shrinkage in service, and this shrinkage must be provided for
in the lining system design. The hot face blanket layers should be constructed with overlapped
joints, as shown in Figure 10. The overlapped joints should be in the direction of gas flow.
Gas Flow
Alloy Stud and Washer
Lapped Joints
Stainless Steel Foil
Steel Shell Over Studs. Edges
Overlapped 8-12 in.
Seal Punctures with
Viscous Ceramic Ceramic Fiber Putty
Fiber Cement to Protect Stud End
and Washer (or Wrap
with Wet Blanket)
Ceramic Fiber Lining
Installation of Vapor Seal
FIGURE 10 Typical Ceramic Fiber Lining Details
In the backup layers, butt joints can be used, with the blankets compressed at least 1 in. to allow
for shrinkage. Joints in successive layers should be staggered. This reduces the possibility of
direct heat flow back to the casing.
Corners/edges should be wrapped around to accommodate fiber shrinkage during service and to
ensure a continuous lining. Typical details are shown in Figure 11.

Joint
Joint
External Corners
Shell Shell
Coating
Cement
Burner Block
Pack Fiber Tightly

Against Burner
Burner Seams
FIGURE 11 Typical Ceramic Fiber Lining Details
Unprotected ceramic fiber blankets should be restricted to velocities of 40 ft/s across the surface.
At higher velocities, the blanket may shred. For velocities up to 100 ft/s, "rigidized" ceramic
fiber, ceramic fiberboard, or ceramic fiber modules may be used.
Ceramic fiber linings can be easily damaged, and are not suitable for use on floors or in any
location where mechanical abuse is likely. However, when damage occurs, the lining is easily
repairable.
Ceramic fiber lining systems have been in use for about 20 years. Improvements are constantly
being made, so experienced manufacturers should be consulted before developing the final
specifications for or approving a ceramic fiber system design.
Some concerns have been expressed recently about potential health hazards to lining installers,
from breathing in tiny ceramic fibers. Installers should be provided with protective equipment to
avoid this problem.

Anchors
Typical ceramic fiber anchors are shown in Figure 12. Anchors consist of the following
components:
• A metallic stud welded to the casing.
• Intermediate retaining clips to hold the first blanket layers in place during installation,
particularly on overhead sections.
• An anchor at the hot face. These are usually metal washers that twist and lock in place.
These washers are covered with a wet blanket patch for protection against direct radiation,
as shown in Figure 7. Alternatively, ceramic retainer cups, filled with moldable ceramic, can
be used. Typical anchor patterns are shown in Figure 13.
38
25
67
Rapid-Fix
Washer
38
A 6x3 Section
Cup-Lock
All Dimensions 50 Effective

Are in Ceramic
Millimeters Ferrule
FIGURE 12 Typical Ceramic Fiber Anchors

For 24 in.
Wide
Blanket
Lap Joint for Hot
Face Layer
Butt Joint for

Backup Layers X = 12 in. on Side Walls
X = 9 in. on Arch
FIGURE 13 Anchor Patterns For Ceramic Fiber Linings
Thermal Expansion
Provision for thermal expansion is not required in ceramic fiber systems.
External Insulation
Blanket insulation (at least 2 in. thick) and weatherproofing is used on external boiler surfaces
(including tube waterwalls, drums, and headers) to reduce heat losses.
External blanket insulation is also used on flue gas ducts. This can keep the inside steel
temperature above the flue gas dewpoint. Sometimes, external insulation is also used on steel
stacks.
Criteria for Selecting Refractory Lining Systems
Guidelines for selecting refractory lining systems are contained in Figure 14. These can be used
to select appropriate linings for various sections of process furnaces and comparable sections of
boilers.
Selection of refractory lining systems and materials for their components is highly dependent upon
the fuels to be used in the boiler or furnace. Serious corrosion and refractory degradation
problems can be caused by high levels of sulfur and metals in the fuel.

Heater Area Acceptable Lining Systems
Heater Wall, Arc, Breeching Single- or multilayer lining or ceramic fiber

linings. (Insulating firebrick is usually not
the most economical choice overall.)
Floor Multilayer lining, using block or castable

backup.
Breeching Single-layer lining.
Stack Single-layer lining.
Hot Air and Hot Flue Gas Ducting Single- or multilayer lining or ceramic fiber
lining.
Cold Air (For Noise Control) External insulation or internal single-layer

lining.
Cold Flue Gas Single-layer lining. (As an alternate

external insulation may be used.)
Header Boxes Single-layer lining or ceramic fiber lining.
Fans, Air Preheaters External insulation.
Access Doors, Observation Doors Same as wall or duct.
FIGURE 14 Criteria For Selecting Refractory Lining Systems

Fuel Sulfur Considerations
When fuels that contain sulfur are fired, most of the sulfur is converted to SO2, with a small
percentage converted to SO3. The SO3 combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, which
can attack some refractory materials. Below the water dewpoint (about 300°F), liquid sulfuric
acid is formed, which is highly corrosive to the metallic components in the lining system.
The type of lining system and materials chosen must reflect the quantity of sulfur in the fuel. The
chart in Figure 15 can be used to select refractory lining systems based on fuel sulfur content.
These systems and materials are discussed below.

Fuel Fired Lining Internal Lining Internal Coating

Contains: Facing Back-Up System Permitted Required? (3)
Oil
<0.5% (wt)
Sulfur
Brick,
AND Castable, Any Yes No
Ceramic Fiber
Gas
<0.5% (wt)
H2S
Oil Brick Block No (4) -

>0.5% (wt)
Sulfur Brick Castable t>3 and δ>60 Yes No
Brick Castable t<3 or δ<60 Yes Yes (5)
OR
Gas Castable t>4 and δ>75 Block Yes No
>0.5% (vol)
H2S Castable t<4 or δ<75 Block No (4) -
Castable t>3 and δ>75 Castable Yes No
(1) Castable t<3 or δ<75 Castable Yes Yes (5)
Ceramic Fiber Block No (4) -
Ceramic Fiber Ceramic Fiber Yes Yes (5)
Castable t>3 and δ>60 None Yes No
(Ducts, stacks, etc.)
Castable t<3 and δ<60 None Yes Yes(5)
Ducts, stacks, etc.)
NOTES:
(1) Total concentration of free alkali, MgO, and iron in the aggregate shall be less than 10%;
facing shall be a mediumweight or heavier castable, and have a calcium binder.
(2) t, is the refractory thickness in inches, and δ is the installed fired density, lb/ft3.
(3) No internal coating is required with low sulfur levels, or when a castable layer of sufficient
thickness and density is used.
(4) Block will deteriorate due to facing permeability.
(5) Casing corrosion without coating due to system permeability.
FIGURE 15 Criteria For Lining Systems For Sulfur-Containing Fuels

Low-Sulfur Fuels
If the fuel contains less than 0.5 wt% sulfur, the potential for corrosion is small, and no special
materials considerations are required. Any combination of refractory lining materials should be
satisfactory.
High-Sulfur Fuels
If the fuel contains more than about 0.5 wt% sulfur, sufficient SO2/SO3 is produced that it can
easily penetrate any fiber structure. Provisions should be made in the design of refractory systems
to protect against potential casing corrosion and insulation damage.
• Block insulation should not be used in refractory lining systems where the hot face layer is
permeable (IFB, lightweight castable, ceramic fiber). This insulation can be severely
damaged by the acid condensate.
• Ceramic fiber materials have good resistance to sulfuric acid attack. However, fiber
insulation is easily permeated and offers no protection against casing corrosion. Stainless
steel foil can be used as a vapor barrier between layers of the ceramic fiber. This vapor
barrier should be located at a point in the lining where the temperature is above the
dewpoint. This is usually between the first and second layers of blanket from the casing.
• In lining systems that do not provide an effective barrier, a glass-filled polyester protective
coating should be applied to the inside casing surface.
• Castable refractory lining systems generally offer satisfactory service. Although castable
refractories are not completely impermeable, experience has shown that they offer good
protection against acid corrosion. Lightweight castable material can be used as a backup
layer in insulating firebrick and ceramic fiber lining systems.
• Insulating firebrick should contain less than 2.0 wt% CaO. This generally requires the IFB
to have a service temperature of 2600°F or greater. Sulfuric acid can react with the CaO,
causing refractory failure.
Fuel Ash Considerations
When the fuel fired contains significant quantities of metals (more than about 100 ppm vanadium
and sodium), the resulting metals in the fuel ash can cause some deterioration of the hot face
refractory. Higher concentrations of vanadium plus sodium (over 400 ppm) can severly attack the
refractory. In these cases, dense-type refractories should be provided for the hot face layer.
Since current Saudi Aramco fuels contain relatively low quantities of metals (vanadium and
sodium), these considerations do not apply to Saudi Aramco furnaces and boilers.

Saudi Aramco Fuels
Design fuels for Saudi Aramco boilers and furnaces have various sulfur levels, which requires
using different types of refractory linings. For example, the following are the design fuels for two
Ras Tanura furnaces:
Furnace: 493-F-301/2/3/4 015-F-100A&B

Rheniformer Atmospheric
Design Fuels:
Gas Fuels: Fuel Gas Fuel Gas

H2S = 0.1 vol% H2S = negligible
Waste Gas
H2S = 7.6-8.1 vol%
Liquid Fuels: Vacuum Residuum

S = 3.9-5.5 wt%
V = 31-45 ppm
Na = <5 ppm
Wall Construction: IFB/block Dual-layer Castable

CALCULATING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer calculations are required for the design of refractory lining systems. The following
calculation procedures can be used to determine the rate of heat loss through the lining and the
resulting casing temperature, the required thicknesses of the component layers, and the design
temperatures of tiebacks and supports. These calculation procedures can also be used to
determine the adequacy of existing or proposed refractory linings.
Appendix A contains a calculation sheet for determining the required thickness for a refractory
lining. Appendix B contains a calculation sheet for determining the heat loss through a refractory
lining and the resulting casing temperature. These two appendices can be duplicated and used for
work assignments.
Heat Transfer Equation
The following general equation for conductive heat transfer is used to calculate the heat flow
through the refractory lining:
q = U (T1 - T2) (Eqn. 1)

T 1 -T 2
= , or: (Eqn. 1a)
R
T 1 -T 2
R=
q (Eqn. 1b)
where: q = Heat loss, Btu/hr-ft2 of surface area.

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F.
R = Total thermal resistance, hr-ft2-°F/Btu.
1
=U
.
T1 = Refractory hot face temperature, °F.
T2 = Cold face (casing) temperature, °F.
Thermal Resistance
The thermal resistance of the refractory lining is the sum of the resistances of the individual
component layers:
R = r1 + r2 + ... (Eqn. 2)
t
r1 = 1 (Eqn. 3)
k1
where: r1 = Thermal resistance of first lining component, hr-ft2-°F/Btu.
t1 = Thickness of first lining component, in.
k1 = Thermal conductivity of first lining component, Btu-in./hr-ft2-°F.

Refractory Hot Face Temperature (T1)
This temperature is the most important factor in determining the design of the refractory lining.
Hot face operating temperatures should be realistic estimates of the actual temperatures
experienced in operation.
If not specified, the following can be used to estimate hot face operating temperatures in furnaces:
• Radiant section unshielded walls: use the temperature of the flue gas leaving the radiant
section (bridgewall temperature, Tbw).
• Radiant section shielded walls (walls located behind tube rows): average of Tbw and the
average radiant section tube metal temperature, + 100°F.
• Radiant section arch: Tbw.
• Radiant section floor: Tbw (minimum of 1800°F).
• Convection section walls: divide convection section into upper and lower sections. For
each section, use the entering flue gas temperature, less 200°F.
• Hot air and flue gas ducts: use the design air or flue gas temperature in the section of
ducting being considered.
Casing Temperature (T2)
The heat loss through the refractory lining is in equilibrium with the heat loss from the casing to
the atmosphere. Heat loss to the atmosphere can be determined from the following equations,
based on the temperature of the casing.
For standard design conditions (vertical wall, casing temperature of 180°F in 80°F ambient still
air), this corresponds to a heat loss of 218 Btu/hr-ft2 of surface area. For standard ambient air
conditions, Work Aid 2 can be used.
• Convection heat loss (qc), Btu/hr-ft2.
For still air:

1 0.18
qc = C T 2 - T a 1.27
T avg + 460 (Eqn. 4)
For wind conditions:

q c = 1 + 0.33V T2 - Ta (Eqn. 5)

• Radiation heat loss (hr), Btu/hr-ft2.
q r = 17.4 x 10 -10 ε T 2 + 460 4 - T a + 460 4 (Eqn. 6)
• Total heat loss (ht), Btu/hr-ft2.

qt = qc + qr
where: C = Constant: C for arch = 0.96.

C for vertical wall = 0.74.
C for floor = 0.49.
T2 + T a
T avg = ,°F.
2
V = Wind velocity, miles/hr.
ε = Casing emissivity, use 0.95.
Interface Temperature (Ti)
This is the temperature between the two layers of refractory.
r
Ti = T1 - 1 T1 - T 2
R
Note that in these procedures, it has been assumed that the refractory lining consists of two
layers, as is the usual case. However, similar procedures can be used for any number of layers.
Thermal Conductivities (k)
Refractory conductivities can be obtained from manufacturers' literature. Conductivities of some

commonly used refractory materials are listed in Work Aid 3.
Thermal conductivities of refractory materials are temperature dependent, so that a trial and error
procedure is required in these heat transfer calculations. The thermal conductivities are first
estimated and then revised, based on the calculated refractory temperatures. Since the rate at
which thermal conductivities change with temperature is not great, repeated iterations are not
usually required.
Thermal conductivity of refractory components is based on the average temperature of the

refractory layer, as in the equation (T1 +Ti)/2 for the hot face layer.
For the first estimate of thermal conductivity, the interface temperature (Ti) between the two
layers can be estimated as follows:
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) (Eqn. 8a)

where: For hot face layer of 4-1/2 in. IFB,

X = 0.40 for an unshielded wall.
= 0.45 for a shielded wall.
For hot face layer of 3 in. mediumweight castable,

X = 0.20 for an unshielded wall.
= 0.30 for a shielded wall.
Determine Required Wall Thickness
This procedure can be used to determine the required wall thickness to meet specified conditions,
such as a heat loss rate, or a casing plate temperature. The sample problem in Figure 16
demonstrates this procedure.
1. For the specified conditions, determine the refractory hot face temperature. Calculate the heat
loss rate (or the corresponding casing plate temperature) using Eqns. 4-7.
2. Determine the thickness of the hot face layer. Unless otherwise specified, the following can
be assumed for standard furnace conditions:
• 4-1/2 in. IFB, or

• 3 in. mediumweight castable, or
• 2 in. ceramic fiber, 8 lb/ft3.
3. Estimate the refractory interface temperature, using Eqn. 8a. Calculate the average temperature
of the component layers, and determine the thermal conductivity of each layer.
4. Calculate required thermal resistance (R), using Eqn. 1a. Then, using Eqns. 2-3, calculate the
required thickness of the cold face layer (rounded up to the next 1/2 in.).
5. Calculate the interface temperature, using Eqn. 8.
6. Using the calculated interface temperature as the new estimated interface temperature,
recalculate the average temperatures of the refractory layers, thermal conductivities, heat
loss, etc.
7. Determine if the resulting temperatures and heat loss meet the specified requirements.

Sample Problem - Calculation of Refractory Wall Thickness

The following sample problem illustrates the procedure for calculating the required refractory wall
thickness for a furnace similar to Ras Tanura 015-F-100A Atmospheric Furnace:
Hot Face Temperature, T1 °F = 1706
Ambient Temperature, Ta °F = 80
Wind Velocity, V m/h = 0
Casing Temperature, T2 °F = 180
Corresponding Heat Loss Rate, q Btu/hr-ft2 = 218
T1 - T2 1706 - 180
= =
Required Resistance, R q 218 = 7.0
hr-ft2-°F/Btu
Estimated Interface Temperature:
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) = (1706) - (0.20) (1706 - 180) °F = 1401
Hot Face Layer:
Material = 1:2:4 L:H:V
Thickness, t1 in. = 3.0
1st Trial 2nd Trial
T + Ti 1706 + 1401
Avg. Hot Face Temp., Th = 1 =
2 2 °F = 1553 1524
Thermal Conductivity, k1 (Work Aid 3) Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F = 1.82 1.81
t1 3.0)
= = 1.65 1.66
Thermal Resistance, r1 = k 1 1.82 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu
Cold Face Layer:

Material = 1:6 L:V
Required Thermal Resistance:
r2, = R - r1 = (7.0) - (1.65) hr-ft2 - °F/Btu = 5.35 5.34
T + T2 1401 + 180
Avg. Cold Face Temp., Tc = i = °F
2 2 = 790 761
Thermal Conductivity, k2 (Work Aid 3) Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F = 0.95 0.94
Calculated Cold Face Thickness,
t2 = r2 k2 = (5.35) (0.95) in. = 5.08 5.02
Use Cold Face Thickness, t2: in. = 5.0 5.0
t2 5.0)
=
Thermal Resistance, r2= k 2 0.95 = 5.26 5.32
hr-ft2 - °F/Btu
Total Thermal Resistance, R = r1 + r2 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu = 6.91 6.98
Calculated Interface Temperature:
r 1.65
T i = T 1 - 1 T 1 - T 2 = 1706 - 1706 - 180
R 6.91 °F = 1342 1339
T -T 1706 - 180
Calculated Heat Loss, q: = 1 2 =
R 6.98 Btu/hr-ft2 = 218.6
Corresponding Casing Temperature, T2 (Work Aid 2) °F = 180
FIGURE 16

Checking Existing Refractory Design
This procedure can be used to determine the heat loss rate through a refractory lining and the
resulting casing plate temperature. The sample problem in Figure 17 demonstrates this procedure.
1. Determine the refractory hot face temperature. Estimate the casing temperature. Calculate
the heat loss based on these conditions, using steps 3-6 above.
2 Locate the casing temperature/heat loss point on the chart in Work Aid 2.
3. Select another casing temperature, recalculate the heat loss, and plot a second point.
4. The actual heat loss should be located very close to the intersection of a line drawn between
these two points and the appropriate ambient air condition curve shown on Work Aid 2. If
the appropriate ambient air conditions are not shown, it may be necessary to develop a new
curve, using Eqns. 4-7.
With practice, it should be possible to locate the second casing temperature point very close
to the final solution point.
5. Determine if the resulting temperatures and heat loss meet the specified conditions. If not,
some revisions to the design may be required.

Sample Problem - Calculation of Refractory Heat Loss
The following sample problem illustrates the procedure for calculating the heat loss through a
refractory wall. The data are found on the fired heater data sheet for Ras Tanura 015-F-100A
Atmospheric Furnace.
Ambient Temperature, Ta °F = 108

Wind Velocity, V m/h = 0
Calculated Hot Face Temperature, T1 °F = 1706
Calculated Cold Face Temperature, T2 °F = 171
Hot Face Layer: Material, = 1:2:4 L:H:V
Cold Face Layer: Material, = 1:6 L:V
1st Trial - Estimated Casing Temperature, T2 °F = 171

(Calculated, or from Work Aid 5)
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) = (1706) - (0.2) (1706 - 171) °F = 1399
Hot Face Layer: 1st Trial 2nd Trial

T + Ti 1706 + 1399
Avg. Hot Face Temp., Th = 1 = °F
2 2 = 1552 1565
Thermal Conductivity, k1 Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F = 1.82 1.83
t 3
Thermal Resistance, r1 = 1 = hr - ft2 - °F/Btu
k1 1.82 = 1.65 1.64
Cold Face Layer:

T i + T2 1399 + 171
Avg. Cold Face Temp., Tc = = °F
2 2 = 785 798
Thermal Conductivity, k2 Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F = 0.95 0.95
t 7.0
Thermal Resistance, r2 = 2 =
k 2 0.95 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu = 7.37 7.37
Total Thermal Resistance, R = r1 + r2 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu = 9.02 9.01
r 1.65
T i = T 1 - 1 T 1 - T 2 = 1706 - 1706 - 171
R 9.02 °F = 1425 1427
Calculated Heat Loss:
T1 - T2 1706 - 171
q= = Btu/hr - ft2 = 170
R 9.01
Corresponding Ambient Air Temperature, Ta °F = 90
FIGURE 17 Calculation Of Refractory Heat Loss

2nd Trial - Estimated Casing Temperature, T2 °F = 184*

(Calculated, or estimated from 1st Trial)
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) = (_____) - (_____) (____ - ____) °F = 1430
Hot Face Layer

1st Trial 2nd Trial
T + Ti 1706 + 1430
2 2 °F = 1568
Thermal Conductivity, k1 Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F = 1.84
t 3.0
k1 1.84 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu = 1.63
Cold Face Layer:
T i + T2 1430 + 184
Avg. Cold Face Temp., Tc = =
2 2 °F = 807
Thermal Conductivity, k2 Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F = 0.95
t 7.0
k2 0.95 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu = 7.37
Total Thermal Resistance, R = r1 + r2 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu = 9.00
r 1.63
T i = T 1 1 T 1 - T 2 = 1706 - 1706 - 184
R 9.0 °F = 1430
T1 - T2 1706 - 184
q= =
R 9.00 Btu/hr - = 169
ft2
Corresponding Ambient Air Temperature, Ta = 108
°F
Final Conditions (from Work Aid 2)
Heat Loss, q: Btu/hr - ft2 = 169
Casing Temperature, T2 = 184
°F
* This was estimated form the first trial. Any reasonable estimate can be used.
FIGURE 17 (CONT'D)

2000
1500
Temp at tip of Anchor:
1706 - 0.5 (1706 - 1430) = 1660

3
25/20 Tiebacks Req'd by Current

°F 1000
Standards
500
0.5"
3" 7"
FIGURE 17 (CONT'D)
Temperatures of Tiebacks and Supports
Using the hot face, cold face, and interface temperatures calculated above, the temperatures of the
tiebacks and supports can be calculated. The temperature profile through each refractory layer is
assumed to be linear. As stated earlier, the design temperatures of tiebacks and supports are
considered to be the same as the calculated refractory temperatures at the tip of the metallic
component. (The actual temperatures may be somewhat lower, due to the much higher thermal
conductivities and resulting heat flow through metallic components.) The diagram in Figure 17
illustrates the calculation of tieback temperatures.

Work Aid 1: Procedure for Calculating Heat Loss Through a Refractory Wall
This Work Aid is designed to assist the participant in The Calculating Heat Loss Exercise.
An engineer may have to calculate the heat loss through a refractory wall to determine the design
requirements for refractory materials, tiebacks, and supports. Since several of the terms are
dependent on each other, calculating heat loss is an iterative process consisting of making an
initial estimate and refining the estimate based on the calculations.
Calculating Heat Loss
1. Determine x based on the information provided with Eqn. 8.
2. In the 1st Trial Column calculate the interface temperature, using the data provided.
3. Use the interface temperature, Ti, calculated in the 1st Trial and substitute it into the
formula at the top of the 2nd Trial column. Repeat the calculations in step 2.
4. Compare Ti in the two trials. They should be about the same. If they are not, repeat for a
3rd Trial.
5. Locate the casing temperature/heat loss point on the chart in Work Aid 2.
6. Select another casing temperature, recalculate the heat loss, and plot a second point.
7. The actual heat loss should be located very close to the intersection of a line drawn between
these two points and the appropriate ambient air condition curve shown on Work Aid 2. If
the appropriate ambient air conditions are not shown, it may be necessary to develop a new
curve, using Eqns. 4-7.
With practice, it should be possible to locate the second casing temperature point very close
to the final solution point.
8. Determine if the resulting temperatures and heat loss meet the specified conditions. If not,
some revisions to the design may be required.
9. Use the equation provided to determine the tieback temperature.

Work Aid 2: Data Bases for Calculating Heat Loss--Heat Loss Versus Casing Temperature
This Work Aid is used in determining the corresponding Ambient Air Temperature in Exercise 1.

Work Aid 3: Data Bases for Calculating Heat Loss--Thermal Conductivities of Typical
Refractories
This Work Aid is used in determining the thermal conductivity, k, in Exercise 1.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CERAMIC FIBER BLANKETS
Mean Temperature, °F

GLOSSARY
arch The flat or sloped portion of the radiant section

opposite the floor.
backup layer Any refractory layer behind the hot face layer.
casing A steel sheathing that encloses the heater box and
makes it essentially airtight.
castable An insulating concrete poured or gunned in place to
form a rigid refractory shape or structure.
center wall A refractory wall in the radiant section, that divides
it into two separate cells.
ceramic fiber A fibrous refractory insulation composed primarily
of silica and alumina. Applicable forms include
blanket, board, module, and vacuum-formed shapes.
convection section The portion of a heater, consisting of a bank of
tubes, that receives heat from the hot flue gases,
mainly by convection.
corbel A projection from the convection section sidewall to
prevent flue gas from flowing up the side of the
convection section, between the wall and the nearest
tubes, thereby bypassing the tube bank.
curing The initial chemical reaction causing bonding of
cement and aggregate after refractory placement,
usually essentially complete within 24 hours of
refractory placement.
firebox A term used to describe the structure that surrounds
the radiant coils and into which the burners
protrude.
fireclay An earthy or stony mineral aggregate that has
properties suitable for use in commercial refractory
products.
firebrick A broad term covering any type of refractory brick,
used more narrowly to mean fireclay brick.
firebrick, insulating A refractory brick characterized by low thermal
conductivity and low heat capacity.
flue gas A mixture of gaseous products resulting from
combustion of the fuel.

gravity wall A freestanding, self-supporting refractory structure

commonly consisting of firebrick.
hot face layer The refractory layer exposed to the highest
temperatures in a multilayer or multicomponent
lining.
hot face temperature For a single-layer lining, the temperature of the
refractory surface in contact with the flue gas or
heated combustion air. The design hot face
temperature is used to determine refractory layer
thickness and rating.
mortar refractory A preparation suitable for laying and bonding
firebrick.
multicomponent A refractory system consisting of two or more layers
lining of different refractory types; for example, castable
and ceramic fiber.
multilayer lining A refractory system consisting of two or more layers
of the same refractory type.
protective coating A coating applied to the casing interior to protect
against corrosion.
radiant section The section of the furnace in which heat is
transferred to the furnace tubes primarily by
radiation from high-temperature flue gas.
refractories Materials, usually nonmetallic, used to withstand
high temperature.
service temperature The temperature at which a refractory material

begins to deteriorate.
setting The furnace casing, brickwork, refractory, and

insulation, including the tiebacks or anchors.
thermal expansion The reversible change in size of materials, caused by
temperature changes.
vapor barrier A metallic foil placed between layers of refractory as
a barrier to flue gas flow.
wet blanket Ceramic fiber blanket presaturated with a liquid
hardening agent.

REFERENCE
Saudi Aramco Standards
AES-F-001 Process Fired Heaters

32-AMSS-021 Water-Tube Boilers
API Publications
Standard 560 Fired Heaters for General Refinery Service
ASTM Publications
Materials Specifications
Exxon Basic Practices
BP 19-3-3 Castable Linings for Fired Heaters

APPENDICES
Appendix A Refractory Wall Thickness - Calculation Sheet
The following procedure can be used to calculate the required refractory wall thickness:
Plant Location Boiler/Furnace
Service Location
Hot Face Temperature, T1, °F = Ambient Temperature, Ta, °F =
Casing Temperature, T2, °F = Wind Velocity, V, m/h =
Corresponding Heat Loss Rate, q Btu/hr-ft2 =
Required Resistance
T1 - T 2 ______ - ______
R= =
q ______ hr - ft2 - °F/Btu =
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) = (_____) - (____) (____ - ____) °F =
Hot Face Layer:
Material =
Thickness, t1 in. =
1st Trial 2nd Trial
T + T2 ______ + ______
2 2 °F =
Thermal Conductivity, k1 (Work Aid 2) 2
Btu-in./hr-ft - °F =
t
k1 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu =
Cold Face Layer:
Material =
Required Thermal Resistance:
r2 = R - r1 = (_______) - (______) hr-ft2 - °F/Btu =
T + T2 ______ + ______
Avg. Cold Face Temp., Tc = i =
2 2 °F =
Thermal Conductivity, k2 (Work Aid 2) Btu-in./hr-ft2 - °F =
Calculated Cold Face Thickness,
t2 = r2 k2 = (______) (______) in. =
Use Cold Face Thickness, t2: in. =
t
k2 hr-ft2 - °F/Btu =
Total Thermal Resistance, R = r1 + r2 hr - ft2 - °F/Btu =
r _____
T i = T 1 - 1 T 1 - T 2 = _____ - _____ - _____
R _____ °F =
T1 - T2 ______ - ______
q= = Btu/hr-ft2 =
R ______
Corresponding Casing Temperature, T2 °F =

Appendix B Refractory Heat Loss - Calculation Sheet
The following procedure can be used to calculate the heat loss through a refractory wall:
Plant Location Boiler/Furnace

Service Location
Ambient Temperature, Ta °F =
Wind Velocity, V m/h =
Calculated Hot Face Temperature, T1 °F =
Calculated Cold Face Temperature, T2 °F =
Hot Face Layer: Material, =
Thickness, t1 in. =
Cold Face Layer: Material, =
Thickness, t2 in. =
1st Trial - Estimated Casing Temperature, T2 °F =

(Calculated, or from Appendix A)
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) = (_____) - (_____) (____ - ____) °F =
Hot Face Layer:

1st Trial 2nd Trial
T + Ti +
2 2 °F =
t
Cold Face Layer:
T i + T2 ______ + ______
2 2 °F =
t
r _____
T i = T 1 - 1 T 1 - T 2 = _____ - _____ - _____
R _____ °F =
T1 - T2 ______ - ______
q= =
R ______ Btu/hr-ft2 =
Corresponding Ambient Air Temperature, Ta (Work Aid 3) °F =

2nd Trial - Estimated Casing Temperature, T2 °F =

(Calculated, or estimated from 1st Trial)
Ti = T1 - X(T1 - T2) = (_____) - (_____) (____ - ____) °F =
Hot Face Layer

1st Trial 2nd Trial
T + Ti +
2 2 °F =
Thermal Conductivity, k1 (Work Aid 2) 2
Btu-in./hr-ft - °F =
t
Cold Face Layer:
T i + T2 ______ + ______
2 2 °F =
t
r _____
T i = T 1 - 1 T 1 - T 2 = _____ - _____ - _____
R _____ °F =
T1 - T2 ______ - ______
q= =
R ______ Btu/hr-ft2 =
Corresponding Ambient Air Temperature, Ta (Work Aid 3) =
°F
Final Conditions
Heat Loss, q: Btu/hr-ft2 =
Casing Temperature, T2 °F =

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