BANGALORE UNIVERSITY

P.G Department of Geography

Jnana Bharathi, Bangalore - 560056

AnAssignment On
MAP PROJECTIONS : TYPES AND PROPERTIES
Submitted by,
HOLLY DEHINGIA
1ST Semester, GIS
Department of Geography
Bangalore University

Submitted to,
Dr. SHIVA KUMAR. R
Lecturer
Department of Geography
Bangalore University

MARCH 2021
 Contents

Sl. No. Title

1. Introduction
2. Classification of Maps
 Based on surface used
 Based on methods
 Based on representation
3. Properties
 Cylindrical projections
 Conical projections
 Zenithal projections
 Conventional projections
4. References
 INTRODUCTION
MAPS- A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn
on a flat surface. Maps present information about the world in a simple, visual way. They teach
about the world by showing sizes and shapes of countries, locations of features, and distances
between places.
PROJECTION- The basic limitation of map drawn on a plane surface is the transformation of
spherical surface into plane surface. The actual process of transformation from globe to plane
surface are known as projections.
MAP PROJECTION- Map projection is a tool for representing earth’s features on a flat surface.
Thus, it may be defined as a device for an orderly representation of the parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitudes. All projections of a sphere on a plane necessarily distort the surface in
some way and to some extent. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are
acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some
properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. The study of map projections
is the characterization of the distortions. There is no limit to the number of possible map
projections. Projections are a subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential
geometry, projective geometry, and manifolds. However, "map projection" refers specifically to
a cartographic projection.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTION
The Map projections can be classified based on –
1.Based on the surface used:
i. Cylindrical Projection; on a cylindrical surface.
When a globe is enclosed in a developable cylinder and light placed at the centre of
the globe, casts the image of the graticules of the transparent globe on the cylinder,
we get cylindrical projections.
ii. Conical Projection; on a conical surface.
When the image of the network of parallels and meridians is projected on a
developable cone, it is known as conical projection.
iii. Zenithal projection; on a tangent plane surface.
It is constructed by placing a plane or tangent to the globe and the light is focused to
produce an image of parallels and meridians on the plane. The plane may be either
tangent to the equator or to the poles or to any other point.
2. Based on Methods:
i. Perspective Projection
Perspective projection is a type of drawing that graphically approximates the images
of three-dimensional objects on a plane surface, (plane sheet of paper) to approximate
actual visual perception. It is sometimes also called perspective view
or perspective drawing or simply perspective.
ii. Non perspective projection
Non–perspective projections are developed without the help of a source of light or
casting shadow on surfaces, which can be flattened.
iii. Conventional projections.
Mathematical or conventional projections are those, which are derived by
mathematical computation, and formulae and have little relations with
the projected image.
3. Based on Representation:
i. Equal area projection
An equal area projection is a map projection that shows regions that are the same size
on the Earth the same size on the map but may distort the shape, angle, and/or scale.
ii. Equal distant projection
An equidistant projection is a map projection that maintains scale along one or more
lines, or from one or two points to all other points on the map. The distance between
the center point of the map and any other point is correct with an equidistant
projection.
iii. Orthomorphic Projection
A projection in which the scale, although varying throughout the map, is the same in
all directions at any point, so that very small areas are represented by correct shape
and bearings are correct
iv. Azimuthal Projection.
A map projection in which a globe, as of the Earth, is assumed to rest on a flat surface
onto which its features are projected. An azimuthal projection produces a
circular map with a chosen point-the point on the globe that is tangent to the flat
surface-at its center.
 PROPERTIES
 Properties of Cylindrical Projection
I. Perspective cylindrical projection
II. Simple Cylindrical Projection
III. Equal area or lambert’s cylindrical projection
IV. Gall’s Projection
V. Mercator’s Projection

Perspective Cylindrical Projection

It is also known as true cylindrical projection.
i. Parallels and meridians are drawn as straight lines cutting each other at right angles.
ii. The meridians are equi-spaced but the intervals between parallels increase towards the
poles.
iii. East-west and north-south scales are increasingly exaggerated.
iv. Distances are correctly represented along the equator.
USES:
i. This Projection is rarely used as the exaggeration of area and shape.
Limitations:
i. In this projection only a narrow strip along the equator gives tolerable results.
Simple Cylindrical Projection
To avoid the disadvantage of the perspective cylindrical projection a number of non-perspective
cylindrical projections have been developed. One of these is the simple cylindrical projection.
i. All parallels and meridians are straight lines and intersect at right angles.
ii. Both parallels and meridians are equidistant.
iii. The scale is true along the equator and all the meridians, but not along other parallels.
USES:
Best used for city maps or other small areas with map scales large enough to reduce the obvious
distortion.
Limitations:
This projection is not suitable for representing areas in higher latitudes
Equal Area or Lambert’s Cylindrical Projection
To represent areas correctly the simple cylindrical projection has been modified to get equal area
or lambert’s cylindrical projection. It is designed to show the area of the respective zones are
equal to their counterparts on the globe.
i. All parallels and meridians are straight lines and intersect at right angles.
ii. The length of all parallels are equal to that of the equator which alone is drawn to scale,
the length of all meridians are equal.
iii. All meridians are equi-spaced but the distance between the parallels decreases as we
move away from the equator to northward or southward.
iv. It is an equal area projection because the east-west increases in the length of the parallels
is compensated by the north-south spacing between them.
v. It is not an orthomorphic projection.
USES:
It is suitable for distributional maps, particularly for areas lying in the lower latitudes.
Limitations:
Unsuitable for areas which extends to higher latitudes.

Gall’s Projection
It is a modified cylindrical projection in which the cylinder is supposed to pass through the globe
along 45° north and south latitude. The source of light is placed stereographically to give it a
perspective scale that is why it is called stereographic cylindrical projection.
i. It is neither an orthomorphic nor equal area projection.
ii. All parallels and meridians are represented by straight lines and intersect at right angles.
iii. Only 45° north and south latitude are true to scale.
iv. Meridians are equi-spaced but parallels are not.
Uses
Because of lessened distortion in the higher latitudes it is often preferred for world maps with
general purpose.
Limitations
Since areas, slopes and directions are not kept correct on this directions, it cannot be used for any
specific purpose.

Mercator’s Projection
The Mercator projection was invented by Gerardus Mercator in the year 1569. It was modified
and improved by Edward wright-a British cartographer in 1599, which gave it its present form.
i. All the parallels and meridians are straight lines and intersect at right angles.
ii. The meridians are equi-spaced but the parallels are not equi-spaced as distances between
parallels increases both north and south away from the equator.
iii. The distances are correctly shown only along the equator.
iv. The direction between two points is correct.
Uses:
Mainly used for showing sailing routes and for meteorological charts.
Limitations:
This projection distorts areas and size of the higher latitudes.
 Properties of Conical Projection
i. Perspective Conical Projection.
ii. Simple conical projection with one standard parallel.
iii. Conical Projection with two standard parallels.
iv. Bonne’s projection.
v. Polyconic projection.

Perspective Conical Projections

A perspective conical projection is one which is derived by projecting the image of the network
of parallels and meridians of a globe on a developable cone which touches the globe along the
latitude called standard parallel.
i. Parallels are equally spaced.
ii. Equidistant Meridians converges at a common point.
iii. The scale is true along the standard parallel only.
Uses:
It is used for representing small areas along the standard Parallel.
Limitations:
The distortion of shape and area away from the standard Parallel is very progressive.

Simple Conical Projection with One Standard Parallel.

It is an improved version of perspective conical projection.
i. The parallels of latitudes are arcs of concentric circles and are equi spaced.
ii. The scale is true along the standard parallel only.
iii. The scale is true along the central meridian as well as other meridians as they are radii of
concentric circles.
iv. The area is true in a narrow-belt on both sides of the standard parallel, but is exaggerated
away from the standard parallel.
Uses:
It is suitable for mapping of the middle latitude areas of limited latitudinal and relatively larger
longitudinal extent.
Limitations:
It is not used for world maps because of extreme distortions.
Conical Projection with Two Standard Parallel
It is a modified case of the simple conical projection and it is a non-perspective projection.
i. The parallels of arcs of concentric circles are equi-spaced.
ii. The meridians are not equi-spaced.
iii. The scale is true along the two standard parallels as well as the central meridian and other
meridians.
Uses:
It is used for showing narrow belts elongated in the east-west direction and can show larger areas
in a better way.
Limitations:
It is not suitable for tropical of polar zones.

Bonne’s Projection
This projection is also a modified version of the simple conical projection. It has only one
standard parallel but each parallel is truly divided. It was designed by Rigobert Bonne, a French
Cartographer.
i. The parallels are concentric arcs of circle truly spaced on the central meridian.
ii. The radial scale is true along central meridian.
iii. The tangential scale is true along all the parallels.
iv. The scale is correct along the central meridian only.
v. It is not an orthomorphic projection.
Uses:
i. It is suitable for large areas with a large latitudinal and limited longitudinal extent.
ii. It has been used for topographical survey sheets for accurate large scale mapping.
Limitations:
Shape and direction away from the central meridians are distorted on this projection.

Polyconic Projection
It was developed by F Hassler, an American cartographer. All the parallels are treated as
standard parallels and they area not arcs of concentric circles.
i. All the parallels are standard parallels.
ii. Parallels are truly and evenly spaced only along the central meridian.
iii. Radial scale increases away from the central meridian.
iv. Meridians are smooth curves truly spaced on the parallels.
v. East-west distance between two points is correct along the parallels but north-south
distance between any two points is correct only along the central meridian.
vi. It is an aphylactic projection.
Uses:
It is used for preparing topographical sheets of small areas.
Limitations:
The projection is not suitable for representing large areas.
 Properties of Zenithal Projection
i. Gnomonic Projection.
ii. Stereographic Projection.
iii. Orthographic Projection.

Polar Zenithal Gnomonic Projection

The polar zenithal Gnomonic Projection is obtained when the light placed at the centre projects
the shadows of latitudes and longitudes on the tangent plane touching a pole.
i. The parallels of latitudes are shown by concentric curves, but they are not equi spaced
because distances between the parallels increase as we move away from the centre.
ii. The meridians of longitudes are straight lines radiating from the centre, hence, this
projection shows true bearings.
iii. As both the scales along the parallels and the meridians are exaggerated, areas are also
exaggerated away from the centre.
Uses:
This projection is suited for small areas in Polar Regions.
Limitations:
The equator cannot be shown in this projection.

Polar Zenithal Stereographic Projection

In this projection the source of light is diametrically opposite to the tangent plane. Polar zenithal
stereographic projections is mostly used because of its suitability for maps of hemispheres as well
as its properties of orthomorphism.
i. The parallels are concentric circles but not equi-spaced. In fact the distances between the
parallels increases as we move away from the centre.
ii. The direction from the centre to any other point of the projection is correct.
iii. The scale is correct along the parallels but not along the meridians.
Uses:
The projection is commonly used for maps of hemispheres and astronomical purpose.
Limitations:
It cannot be used to map the entire world surface at once.
Polar Zenithal Orthographic Projection
In polar orthographic projection the source of light is supposed to be at infinity whereas the tangent
plane touches the globe at either pole.
i. The parallels are concentric circles but they are not equi-spaced as there is exaggeration
away from the centre but much less than that of the polar gnomonic projection.
ii. It has true bearings from the centre to any other point.
iii. It is neither an orthomorphic projection nor an equal area projection because of
proportional increase in both parallels and meridians.
Uses:
It can be used for general purpose map for world atlas.
Limitations:
Shape and size is distorted away from the centre so it cannot be used for large areas.

Non-perspective Zenithal Projection

Zenithal Equal-Area Projection

Zenithal Equi-distance Projection

Zenithal Equi-distance Projection

It is based on simple mathematical calculations.
i. The parallels are concentric circles and are equi-spaced.
ii. The meridians are straight lines radiating from the centre.
iii. The distances and direction are correct from the centre to other points on the projection as
the meridianal scale is correct.
Uses:
It is used to show correct distance and direction from the centre and generally used for polar areas
extending from 90 to 50.
Limitations:
Large areas cannot be shown satisfactorily.

Polar Zenithal Equal Area Projection

It is also known as Lambert’s azimuthal equivalent projection.
i. The parallels are concentric circles but are not equi-spaced.
ii. The distances along the parallels increases rapidly away from the centre but the
exaggeration is balanced by proportional shortening distances along the meridians. That is
why the area remains correct.
iii. It is an equal area projection.
Uses:
It is used by the us geological survey in the national atlas for the circum-pacific map.
Limitation:
This projection generally represents only one hemisphere.
 Properties of Conventional Projection
i. Mollweide’s Projection
ii. Sinusoidal Projection

Mollweide’s Projection:
Mollweide’s projection can represent the whole world within one network.
i. It is an equal area projection.
ii. The parallels of latitudes are straight lines and parallel to the equator but are not equi-
spaced.
iii. The equator is not drawn true to scale
iv. The scale along the meridian increases away from the central meridian which is equal to
half of the length of the equator.
v. The meridians of longitudes or ellipses excepting the central meridian and 90° East and
90°west longitude.
Uses:
i. It is used for distributional maps of the world.
ii. The main use of Mollweide’s projection is for geographic illustrations relating to the area
, such as the distribution and density of population.
Limitations:
No lines of latitude and longitude represents accurate locations.
Sinusoidal Projection:
It is a pseudo cylindrical equal-area map projection, it is also called as Mercator-Sanson -
Flamsteed Projection.
i. Parallels are straight lines and the parallels meet each other and evenly spaced on the
central meridian.
ii. The radial scale is true along the central meridian
iii. Except the central one all the meridians are analogous.
iv. It is an equal area projection, the space is distorted near the poles.
Uses:
i. It is suitable for equatorial region.
ii. It is also used for world map.
Limitations:
This projection has distorted poles, distorted lines of latitudes and longitudes.
 REFERENCES

 Mishra, R.P, Fundamentals of Cartography, 2nd edition.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki