3.

Map
Projections
(CENG MnEg414)
3.1
– The Earth is nearly spherical surface
Introduction
–Most of the standard reference systems locate
positions in a two-dimensional (planar) coordinate
system.
– Positional information in a geo-referenced spatial
object must refer to a particular geographic
reference system.
– Map projection is used to translate positions from
the Earth’s nearly spherical surface to a hypothetical
mapping plane.
– However, projection procedure inevitably introduces
significant geometric distortions of shapes, areas,
distances, or angles
3.1
– Distortions can be minimized to suit the geographic
Introduction
scope and intended use of the map data.
– In order to minimize distortion and produce two-
dimensional maps that preserve geographic
relationships:-
 Choose a geometric model that closely
approximates the shape of the Earth,
 Adopt a coordinate system for referencing
geographic locations in the mapping plane, and
 Decide a method of transferring (or projecting)
locations from the idealized Earth model to the
chosen planar coordinate system.
3.2 Polar and Rectangular
Coordinates
– Rectangular coordinates are in the form (X, Y), where
'X' and 'Y' are the horizontal distances to the
respective axes from the origin.
3.2 Polar and Rectangular
Coordinates
– Polar coordinates are in the form: (r,θ), where 'r'is
the distance from the origin to the point, and 'θ' is
the angle measured from the positive 'X' axis to the
point:
3.2 Geographic
Coordinates
– The oldest global system is the
Latitude/Longitude system
coordinate referre to
Geographic coordinates).
(also d as
– Because this is a spherical coordinate system, latitude
and longitude values are expressed as angles relative to
standard reference planes.
– Latitude is measured from 0 to 90 degrees north and
south of the equator.
– Longitude values range from 0 to 180 degrees east or
west of the Prime Meridian, which by international
convention passes through the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, England
3.3 Geographic
Coordinates
3.4 Simple Map
Projections
– Map projection is as a systematic representation of
all or part of the Earth’s surface on a plane as a
result of a complex transformation process.
 The input for the map projection process is a set
of horizontal positions on the surface of a
reference ellipsoid.
 The output is a corresponding set of positions in a
reference plane at a reduced scale.
– Transforming coordinates from the Earth ellipsoid to
a map involves projection to a simple geometric
surface (called a developable surface)
3.4 Simple Map
Projections
– Developable surface is a surface that can be
flattened to a plane without further distortion (such
as stretching or shearing).
– Three types of developable surfaces form the basis
of most common map projections:
 a cylinder,
 a cone,
 or a plane
3.4.1 Cyliderical
Projections
– Simple cylindrical projections are constructed using a
cylinder that has its entire circumference tangent to
the Earth’s surface along a great circle, such as the
equator.
3.4.1 Cyliderical
Projections
– All meridians are equally spaced and the scale
is consistent along each parallel.
– Severely distorted at the poles.
– Areas near the Equator are preserved

– Types of cylindrical map projections may include the

popular Mercator projection, Cassini, Gauss-Kruger,
Miller, Behrmann, Hobo-Dyer, and Gall-Peters.
3.4.2 Conic
Projections
– Simple conic projections use a cone that is
tangent to the surface along a small circle, such as a
parallel of latitude.

– Conic map projections are best suited for use as regional or

hemispheric maps,
– Conic map projections include the equidistant
conic projection, the Lambert conformal conic, and Albers
conic.
3.4.3 Azimuthal
Projection
– Projecting positions directly to a plane tangent to the
Earth’s surface creates an azimuthal projection.

– Azimuthal maps are beneficial for finding direction

from any point on the Earth using the central point
as a reference
3.5 Map
Distortions
– Projecting the Earth’s curving surface to a mapping
plane cannot be done without distorting the surface
features in some way.
– All maps have some type of distortion either in scale,
area, shape or direction.
– When selecting a map projection, cartographers must
decide which characteristic (or combination there
of) should be shown accurately at the expense of
the others.
– Satisfying either of these conditions lead to:
3.5 Map
Distortions
1. Equidistant projections:
 in most projections scale remains constant along
one or more standard lines, and
positionin
careful of these lines can minimize
g scale elsewhere in the map.
 variations
Specialized equidistant map projections maintain
constant scale in all directions from one or two
standard points.
3.5 Map
Distortions
2. Equal area projections:
 in many types of spatial analysis it is important
to compare the areas of different features.
 Such comparisons require that surface features
with equal areas are represented by the same
map area regardless of where they occur.
 A map projection with this property is an equal-
area projection.
3.5 Map
Distortions
3. Conformal projections:
 a map projection is conformal if the shapes of small
surface features are shown without distortion.
 This property is the result of correctly representing
local angles around each point, and maintaining
constant local scale in all directions.
 Conformality is local property; while small features
are shown correctly, large shapes are distorted due
to the scale variation from point to point.
 A map projection cannot be both conformal and
equal-area.
3.5 Map
Distortions
4. Azimutal projections:
 no map projection can represent all great circle
directions as straight lines.
 Azimuthal projections show all great circles
passing through the projection center as straight
lines.
 Here azimuth or direction of any point relative to
one central point is represented correctly.
Personal
Assignment
– Brieflydiscuss the thre commo
projection type e n
– Describe merits and demerits of each
projection type
– Mention and discuss the different types
of projections under each of the three
projection categories
• Submission date: May 15, 2018.