C A R T O G R A P H Y

BESAVILLA
PROJECTIONS
1. Equal Area Projection
-Sinusoidal and Gall-Peters, show the correct sizes of countries relative to each other but distort
the distances
- a projection on which the shape of any small area remains unchanged
- any area, large or small, is the same as in the globe or corresponding scale
2. Transverse
- Turned right angles to their usual orientation
- Most suitable for over-all coverage
3. Albers
- Shows area accurately but distorts shape
- meridional scale between the parallels is too large and along the parallels too small
4. Cylindrical
- A group of projections with horizontal parallels and evenly set vertical meridians
- Equirectangular projection and simplest projection; all loxodromes are straight lines;
nautical charts
- Mercator, Gall and Miller
5. Mercator
- One of the most famous and widely used as world map for navigation; not advisable beyond
70 degrees latitude
- Meridians are equally spaced but parallel increased as it goes further from the equator
- Least suited for general use in an office and give very inaccurate info as to relative size of
area in widely spaced latitudes
- Straight lines representing true direction but do not show the shortest distance
- rhumb line as straight line; its disadvantage is that the unit of area at the equator is
represented by an area of approximately infinity near the pole; base line of constant true
bearing
- conformal map
6. Gall
- Derived from a cylinder cutting the sphere at the 45N and 45S parallels or the standard
parallels of projection; shows parallels projected from antipodal point on the equator to any
meridian; for distribution of climatic, economic and population data
7. Miller
- Resembles Mercator but shows less exaggeration in higher latitudes; widely used in atlases
for climatic maps for temperature and barometric distributions and wind flow directions and
velocities
8. Conical
- Derived from tangent or secant cone; suitable for mapping areas located on the middle
latitudes
- Polyconic, Bonne, Lambert
- Derived from the connect of projecting the parallels and meridians of a globe upon a tangent
and then developing into a plane
- Suitable for features in middle latitude
9. Lambert
 - A conic based upon two parallels where the cone cuts through the sphere at two chosen
standard parallels (E-W extent)
- Conformal conic projection, its magnitude of scale error is fixed by N & S limitation chosen
- A primary feature is that the scale between standard parallels less than one
10. Azimuthal
- Directions of all lines radiating from the center of the map have the same directions as the
corresponding lines on the surface of the earth
- One of its limitations is that only one hemisphere can be portrayed at a time
- The projection of a part of the globe upon a plane from a given eye point
11. Polyconic
- Error increase as you go further from CM
- All meridians curved except the CM
- Each parallel of latitude of arc of a circle whose radius is equal to the length of the tangent
extending from parallel to a PI w/ the earth’s axis
- Every parallel of latitude is represented on a map by the developed circumference of the base
of the right cone tangent to the earth at that parallel in the projection
12. Aphylactic
- Neither conformal nor equal
- A modified equal-area map projection of the so called conical type having lines representing
standard parallel and central meridian intersecting near the center of the map
13. Cassini
- A conventional one constructed by computing the lengths of arcs along selected geographic
meridians and along a great circle perpendicular to that meridian and plotting these as
rectangular coor. on plane
14. Gnomonic
- When the plane of projection is tangent at the equator the parallels are straight lines and the
meridians are exaggerated curves
- displays all great circles as straight lines, resulting in any straight line segment on a gnomonic
map showing a geodesic, the shortest route between the segment's two endpoints.
15. P/M/D : N-S/E-W/Direction
16. T/L/E : N-S/E-W/Extent
17. S:M & L:A

One point of similarity between true military grids and broad-area referencing systems in that both are
A quadrillage near the equator

Requirement of grid system

- The geographical coverage of grid zones must be large as much as possible to minimize the
occurrence of grid-zone conjunction
- The origin of CS must coincide with the geometrical center of the zones
- Because minus values increase the possibility of error, measurements must be in positive
number
Grid system w/c considers the portion of the earth between two selected parallels of latitude to be
horizontal slice of a cone; least complicated of the 3 main systems
Orthomorphic
Area be mapped must be small, long and narrow with the long axis in the direction of the meridian or
parallel using a
British Grid

The projection used in mapping extensive areas of hemispherical proportion on any projection whether
conformal/ equivalent
Cylindrical with two standard parallel

A reference element, such as line or plane: to which the position of other elements is related:
FIX

Pinpoint or crosses, or four sides of the map by which color separation drawings are adjusted to each
other
Register Marks

Short lines perpendicular to the neatline marking grid systems

Tick

Any map showing boundaries and subdivisions of a tract of land determine by surveying
Planimetric/ Plat

An organic colloid which swells in cold water and dissolves in hot water; used in most photographic
emulsions
Gelatin

A synthetic resin of great dimensional stability, used in drawing maps

Vinylite

A lune shaped map to be fitted on a globe

Globe Gore

A drawing 3-D body related to three axes. The dimensions’ parallel to the axes are true to scale. One of
the axes is usually vertical.
Isometric diagram

Lines drawn on maps connecting points of equal value

Isopleths

A shade between black and white.

Halftone

The formation of regular light and dark patches by interference of two half-tone screens over each other
Moire

Relative darkness of gray tones

Shades

Relative darkness of grays on air photos

Tone

A particular shade or tint of a given color

Hue

General theory of symbols and signs

Semiotics

It is a kind of mark that by its graphic characteristics refers more to a place than it does to a line or area
Point symbol

A symbol that is most versatile and widely used in carto

Line

A symbol for different types of cartographic details such as bodies of water and various ground features
Area symbol

Color gradations on maps, like altitude tints, also patterns applied to a map such as cellotints or Ben-day
tints
Tints

A method of color reproduction using filters and halftone screens

Three-color process

Small or medium scale map showing the nature of relief by semi-pictorial symbols
Isoplets

Halftone and line work combined on one press plate by exposure to two separate negatives
Combination plate

A photographic positive print in glass of film used in photogrammetry

Diapositive

The representation of water features on maps

Hydrography

Parts of map showing relief

Hypsography

Printing from the surface of limestone on which the features are drawn with greasy ink or crayon. The
stone xxxx
Lithography

A method of printing by the lithographic principle in w/c map is applied to kerneled metal sheets with
greasy ink. This is attached to a roll, wetted and ink. This roll prints on a rubber cylinder transfers the
design to paper on a third roll
Offset Printing

A method of using small, curved hill-shaped lines to indicate relief on small maps. The height of the
curves indicates relative relief; the width, the average slope
Trachographic relief drawing

A positive printing process in which sheets are coated with a compound w/c decomposes on exposure of
light. The unexposed lines will darken in ammonia fumes.
Ammonia process

A process w/c produces a print the same size as the original by lighting through the design, which is in
direct contact with sensitized sheet.
Contact Printing

It is the shortest distance between points on the earth’s surface which crosses successive meridians at
different angles; thus its azimuth varies from point to point
Orthodrome

A line of constant compass direction all along its length

Rhumb line/ Loxodrome

Altitude tints
Layer tints

A point from which the grid lines are laid out, usually in the center of the grid zone
Bench Mark

Terms used by commercial map publishers with altitude tints. This group is in contrast to political maps,
in which various countries are differentiated by color.
Physical maps and globes

A process consisting in making a negative of the map and contact printing it on an albumen-sensitized
metal printing plate.
Photolithography

A design photographed directly on sensitized paper

Photostat
A tracing of map, or part of it, on transparent paper or plastic. This is often done by contact printing.
Light-blue pulls are used in color separation.
Pull-up

Plastic shading combined with gradient(altitude) tints

Shadient relief

1:62,500
Representative fraction

Engraving lines, symbols and windows in a scribe coating, usually for the preparation of a negative for
map production
Scribing

A T-shaped tool to squeeze out superfluous ink or any other liquid from a surface
Squeeze

An instrument for copying maps on larger or smaller scale. Mostly are made of roads forming a
parallelogram joined on the 4 corners
Triangle

A set of maps which are sections of a larger area, such as topo maps
Series maps

The spreading of letters on the map such as countries, mountains, regions, seas, etc. will depend on the
skill of cartographer.
Spread between end distance of respective area

The normal spacing of lettering in map is

Less than the width of normal letter

A device used as tools in projecting or plotting different curves

Spline

The placing of names such as cities or buildings on small scale map is

Right of Symbol

Topo Cartographer has

Surveying large scale topo map

Cartographer are train

Geography of small scale

Made from finely powdered graphite mixed with clay

Pencil

Several maps mounted together to form a continuous map

Map compilation

The metal process w/c fuse the images of two eyes into 3-D impression
Stereo Vision

A mathematical figure closely approaching the geiod in form and size used as surface reference for
geodetic surveys and mapping
Spheroid

Mapping of tunnel can be done by photogrammetric method with the aid of

Oblique Photography

Map that shows the base map plus economic information

Thematic Map

Topo contour lines were first introduced for representation of 3 rd dimension in connection with sea bed
sounding in 1729 is done by
Dutch surveyor

After the British occupied Manila in 1762, _______--drawn in 1536 the nautical chart of the city
unsurpassed in accuracy for over 270 a hundred years’ after
Capt. William Nicholson

Known father of Cartography

Claudius Ptolemy

Foremost in the dev’t of modern carto

Mercator

Father of Dutch carto

Gerardus Mercator

Father of English carto

Charles Saxton

The most popular and useful instrument/method in 1512 for surveying and rapid delineation
Plane table and stadia

Projection Max. error of Area Max. error of Max. Scale error

Azimuthal
Albers 0 0-43 1
1 %
4
Polyconic 5 1-56 7%
Lambert Conformal Conic 7 0 1
2 %
2
Lambert Zenithal 10 0-4 7
1 %
8

Scale Latitude x Longitude

CM 1:4000 1’x1’
Sectional CM 1:2000 30’x30’
Sectional CM 1:1000 15’x15’
Sectional CM 1:500 7.5’x7.5’
Sectional CM 1:250 3.75’x3.75’
Contiguous CM 1:8000 or 1:16000
MBM 1:60,000 15’x10’
PBM 1:400,000 1°30’x1°
RBM 1:800,000 6°x4° (104x104 cm)
Projection/provisional map 1:4000 1’x1’

If a person is at N pole, the altitude of a place of the Polaris is directly

Overhead the observer

Size and shape are two fundamental considerations on map

Equal area

Maps showing the distribution of rainfall, acreage of wheat, religions of people; usually represented by
dots, isopleths or isorithms, chloropleth and dasymteric system
Statistical map

Maps w/c shows rock types in statisgraph unit and shows location of sandstone in a formation of several
strata
Lithofacies maps

Maps w/c shows thickness of a specific statisgraphic interval by using isoplachs thickness contours
Isopach maps

Maps w/c shows land/ submarine bottom relief in terms of height above datum at any contour
Hypsometric maps

Any map representing large regions, countries or continents on a small scale

Chorographic map

A topo map of the floor of the sea

Bathymetric maps

Map w/c indicates forest, meadow, and various type of cultivation

Land Utilization Map

A chart popularly called as great circle chart

Gnomonic Chart

Map that shows horizontal position

Planimetric Maps

Type of map not restricted by scale but are more commonly of medium and small scale. They are greatly
concerned with classification of data its indication by abstract symbolism
Thematic Maps

An assembly of photographs
Mosaic

A position determined from terrestrial or astronomical data

Fix

The lines that bound the topo or planimetric detail appearing on map itself and are usually parallels and
meridians; sometimes called as Sheet Line
Neatline

A highly abstracted map on w/c the actual outlines or locations are distorted to express a geographic
concept
Cartogram

Type of lettering used for relief features; uniform width stroke; for title
Gothic

Type of lettering used for notes and notations on maps

Reinhardt

Type of lettering with heavy strokes (both heavy and light strokes); difficult to make and some degrees of
expertness is necessary
Roman

Sans serif means

Without serifs

Ends of the strokes terminated with short lines called

Serifs
Formula used to convert a geodetic azimuth to a grid azimuth in Lambert conformal projection when a
relatively short line is involved, where  is the mapping angle
Grid azimuth = Geodetic azimuth - 

The function of intervalometer

To control the shutter camera

Part of a camera w/c controls the length of time that light is permitted to pass through the lens
Shutter

Kind of shutter used in most aerial cameras

Between-the-lens shutter

Type of shutter is used when using a large lens

Louvre Shutter

It is placed in between lens system and act as an opening of lens. By rotating, it can actually zoom the
object which is been sighted also decrease the size
Diaphragm

Part of a camera w/c controls the amount of light striking the emulsion of the film w/c is positioned in the
focal plane
Diaphragm

A type of aerial camera used to obtain a continuous photo of a strip of terrain beneath the flight line of
aircraft
Strip camera

Type of aerial camera w/c is often used for topo mapping purposes
Single-lens camera

K-factor
Ratio of airbase length to the altitude at w/c a pair of aerial photos were taken

Principal point used in photogrammetry

The point at which lines through opposing sets of fiducial mark intersect

They are used to locate the geometric center of photo

Fiducial map

Fiducial marker as it is used in photogrammetry

One of the (usually) four objects connected to the camera’s interior that form images on the
negative as each photograph is taken

X tilt used in photogrammetry

The angle of rotation around the axis of flight line

Y tilt used in photogrammetry

The angle of rotation around the axis parallel to the flight line

Tilt in photogrammetry
It is the dihedral angle between truly horizontal plane and the plane of the aerial photograph

In photogrammetric camera lens, the focal length specification that would most emphasize the effects of
parallax
A 6 inch focal length

Distance between the rear nodal point of the lens and the focal plane
Focal length

Plans in isolated land titles thus ___________ of land as surveyed for Jdl Cruz
Plans

GE shall submit their ____ filled out in appropriate blanks and signed and scaled by them
Original plans

A GE in private practice shall use the survey symbols for public land survey w/c shall be suffixed to
identify said survey being accepted by LMS/DENR
H-2-01-0003120-D

A GE in BL shall use the survey symbols for public land survey w/c shall be suffixed to identify said
survey being accepted by LMS/DENR
H-X1-I(2425)

If the entries in the map is already overcrowded, the descriptions that should be tabulated
Distance and bearing

The configuration or shape and roughness of the ground may be represented by hachures w/c are
short lines drawn in the direction of the slope
Topography

A Dutchman drew the first map devoted exclusively to PH called

PH Insulae

Best known ancient PH map

Carta Hydugraphica y Chorographica de las Islas Filipinas

PH in Chinese
Ma-yi

Rutter means
Nautical Manual

Dimensions of standard concrete monuments of Prov., Mun., and City boundaries

30x30x100 cm centered by galvanized iron spike and level on top, set 60 cm in the ground

Dimensions of standard concrete monuments of corners of the tract of land

15 cm in diameter by 40 cm. in length and set not less than 35 cm in the ground

Dimensions of standard concrete monuments of Brgy. Boundaries

20x20x100 cm centered by galvanized iron spike and level on top, set 60 cm in the ground

The standard sixe of BLLM

40x40x100 cm centered by galvanized iron spike and level on top, set 80 cm in the ground

Boundary lines of parcels shall not exceed _____ in length except those inside the classified FL
400 m

Boundary lines of parcels or tracts of lands shall be defined by monuments of permanent in nature and the
distances between these corners shall not exceed
400 m

Geographical features on the map be represented in their true shapes

Conformality

Survey symbol for topographic survey

Top

Survey symbol Hydrographic survey

Hyd

A line drawn in NW direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
SE

A line drawn in SW direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
NE

A line drawn in NE direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
NE
A line drawn in SE direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
SE

A line drawn in N direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
N

A line drawn in S direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
N

A line drawn in E direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
E

A line drawn in W direction will have descriptions written in the direction of:
E

In an isolated survey plans, the vertical and horizontal center lines of plane coordinates divisible by 5
shall be drawn on the original plan and inked red.

The latitude and longitude lines of corner one (1) of an isolated lot or any corner of a group of adjoining
lots shall be drawn in ______ on the original survey plans.
fine black ink

The latitude line shall be drawn horizontally from left to right marginal lines through corner one.
The corresponding N based on BLLM 1 be written above along the latitude line. The longitude be
drawn vertically from top to bottom marginal lines through corner 1. The E based on BLLM 1 be written
on the left side and along the longitude line from bottom border line towards the top.

The boundaries of the property in full back ink line heavier than those adjoining properties.
The line from lot corner to control stations, from w/c side shots were taken, be in dotted red ink lines

The position of adjoining survey properties, indicating dotted lines the boundaries between them
and the names of adjoining owners in black ink.

The corners indicated by small circles 2 mm. in diameter drawn in black ink. The boundary
lines with corresponding bearings and distances in black ink.
Tie line of corner 1 from reference control point in thin black line with bearing and distance.
The horizontal(latitude) and vertical lines(longitude) passing corner 1 in thin black line and
geographic and Cartesian coor. in PPCS-PTM/PRS 92 indicated in black ink.

Scale = depends on the difference in the Northing of extreme N and S corner or in the Easting of
extreme E and W of the lots, whichever is bigger.
 Plotting and centering= so that its extreme corners shall not be less than 4 cm for each marginal
line
When the maximum coordinate difference exceeds 3000 m, the plan be drawn on scales w/c are
multiples of 1:4000, such as 1: 12,000 and 1:16,000. If any of these scales would make the length of the
property lines generally less than 0.5 cm, the survey shall be plotted on more than 1 sheet using an
appropriate scale.

Bearings and distances of the survey be tabulated on the plan when these are too numerous to
be drawn along or near the boundary lines. When there are more than 50 lots on the plan, lot
descriptions be prepared on LMB authorized forms.

In the case of subdivisions or consolidation subdivision surveys, the boundary data of the lot
being subdivided or of the lots being consolidated-subdivided shall be tabulated in black ink in a boxed
portion at upper-left corner.

Lettering – simple, uniform, mechanical and not ornamental

Description of vegetation and terrain – light dotted lines for one hectare or more, for less than
one hectare in general classification; permanent structures in dotted black lines

However, if the arroyo, estero, river, or any stream even five (5) meters or less in width is navigable and
it is supposed to be of public ownership, the names of the owners or claimants on the opposite bank
of the said arroyo, estero, river or stream shall also be indicated on the plans

When a parcel is divided into many small lots, which, if plotted using any one of the one of the largest
possible scales would result in diminutive geometrical figures, the subdivisions plans shall be prepared on
two or more sheets on a ______scale
uniform

The bank of a stream or river which is to right/ left of the observer when he is facing
downstream

The natural bed or channel of arroyos esteros or rivers shall be

The ground within the banks covered by water during the highest floods w/c do not cause
inundation

The natural bed or basin of lakes, ponds and pools shall be

The ground covered by the water when at their greatest ordinary depth

Concrete post w/c are parts of the fence could be considered as monuments of permanent nature to be
used in defining and marking corners when it has diameter of not less than
10 cm
Metal pipes could be considered as monuments of permanent nature to be used in defining and marking
corners when it has an outside diameter of not less than
2 cm

Acceptable living trees when used to define corners be blazed at about _________ above ground where the
boundary line passes by cutting the bark. The blaze be at least______
20 cm; 10 cm

When cross mark is used to define corner, such mark be chiseled to a depth of at least _______. Each arm
shall not be less than 5 cm in length.
5 mm

The boundary lines of surveys shall extend to the banks of navigable and non-navigable esteros and
rivers. Streams having natural channels _____ in width be excluded from the boundaries of the property
undergoing survey.
5 m or more / less than 5m

Lot of tracts not adjoining each other when plotted on one plan under one survey number shall have
________
Inter-tie lines

Heights determined by GPS measurements

Reference ellipsoid

A nearly level surface derived from prolonged erosion of an uplifted region to near sea level
Pene plain

It is a point west and south of the grid zone from which grid are actually numbered to avoid negative
values
Equatorial origin

World’s oldest map w/c is made up by small clay tablet is found in

Semitic Museum

Map was derived from Latin word called

Meppa

Basic components or assemblies of aerial cameras are

Magazine, camera body and lens cone assembly

Topo maps are plotted to so called

Natural scale

Scale ratio are also called

Representative fraction

Graphic Scale is also called

Bar Scale

LSM 1:2000; CI from .10 to 2 m

MSM 1:2000 to 1:10,000; CI from 1 to 50 m (also known as Intermediate Scale)
SSM 1:10,000 or smaller; CI from 5 to 2000 m

Color for important roads and public sd lines

RED

Color for built-up areas and area coverage of large cities

Pink

In year____O.W. Ferguson establish the Balanacan station

1906-1907

PPCS are also known as

PTM Grid

PLW
Zone I

Polilio Is.
Zone 3

Camiguin island
Zone 5

TTW
Zone 3

Zamboanga del Norte

Zone 4

Be consulted on minimum widths of roadways w/in residential sd

Local Gov’t Planning & Gov’t officer

A natural or artificially confined and usually smaller than a lake

Pond

A small body of standing/ stagnant water

Pool
 All isolated land surveys shall be plotted in pencil on the________ maps prior to its approval by RTD for
lands
Projection

AGENCY MAPS/PLANS MAP SIZE SCALE

Land Service Cadastral Map 54x54 1:4000
1:2000
1:1000
1:500
1:250
BBIM 54x54 1:4000
MBIM
Isolated Survey Plans 42x54 1:100 (for titling)
Mines Services Geologic Maps 75x55 1:50,000
Mineral Land Survey Map 54x54 1:250,000
PH Mineral Rights Master Maps 60x75 1:250,000
Forestry Services ISF Maps 54x54 1:4000
Forest license Map 54x54 1:4000
NAMRIA Land Classification Variable 1:25,000
(previous 1:26,000)
Parks & Wildlife NP Variable 1:50,000
services MPM Variable 1:50,000
MRM Variable 1:50,000
Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary Variable 1:50,000
Map
Municipal/Brgy. Tree Park 21x33 1:500

When an embankment is build the volume of the compacted earth is generally less than its volume
excavation from its original location. The difference is usually defined as:
Shrinkage

map or chart showing certain fundamental information used as a base upon which additional data of
specialized nature are compiled
Base map

All patented mineral lands within cadastral project be surveyed as

Regular lots

All other mineral land survey shall be projected by their tie lines or by coordinates and shall be indicated
on CM by
Dotted lines
1. Closely spaced contour lines indicate a steep slope

2. Widely spaced contour lines indicate a gentle slope

3. Evenly spaced contour lines indicate a uniform slope, while irregular spacing

indicates an irregular slope

4. Contour lines that are widely spaced at the top of the slope and closely spaced at the

bottom of the slope depicts a convex (middle thicker than edges) slope. Contour lines that are
closely spaced at the top of the slope and widely spaced at the bottom depict a concave (middle
thinner than edges) slope.

5. Contour lines may lie very close together, may even appear to coalesce. Such lines

indicate a very steep slope or cliff; however, contour lines never cross, merge, touch,

branch or fork.

6. Completely closed contour lines indicate tops of hills, mountains, peaks etc. These

contours would indicate higher elevation than the surrounding area in all directions

7. Bent contour lines indicate a rise in elevation (spur or ridge), or a drop in elevation (valley)

8. Lines depicting a valley bend up-valley, toward the higher elevation

9. Hachure marks within contour lines indicate a significant, closed depression

10. Brown is the color used by cartographers for most contour lines. Light brown is used for

intermediate contour lines. Every 4th or 5th contour line (depending on the contour interval)

is an index contour line, is a darker shade of brown and labeled with the appropriate

elevation. Index contour lines speed the process of interpretation.

11. The vertical distance between adjacent contour lines is known as the contour interval.

This contour interval is given in the marginal data of the map sheet. Unless otherwise

marked, points that lie between contour lines assume a value of one half of the contour

interval of the map.

Boundary lines of parcels shall not exceed _____ meters in length except those inside classified forest
lands.
500m/400 m

In executing closed circuit traverse in ILS, no traverse line shall not exceed___; the length of secondary
control lines shall not exceed ____ ; In ILS, boundary lines of a parcel shall be marked with concrete
monuments at interval not to exceed ____
500 m

In ILS, reference points from designated corner “1” of the tract be within but not beyond
2 km

Location monuments shall be any pairs and the distance between a pair of monuments shall not be less
than _____; preferable be about ____; with interval of _____
100 m, 300 m; 5-6 km

Traverse stations in ILS be placed as close as possible to corners that cannot be occupied:
Sideshots in residential lots (agricultural) (marshy) shall not exceed: ____
50 m (100m) (200m)

In regular homestead (regular sales tract) (regular lease tract), the length of one of the sides shall in
no case exceeds
800m (2000m) (6400m)

In tertiary control, the weight of steel tape per meter does not exceed
15000 kg

Grid azimuth derived from established geodetic control points within or near the cadastral project of at
least
2
When scheme of quadrilaterals is used in a control, there must be a measured baseline of at least
2

The location monument shall be connected by a control of secondary precision from previously est.
reference point that no lots shall have a distance of more than ____ from nearest reference point
1 km

A closed backward contour line represents

Depression

Terrestrial Survey Photogrammetry applies to photographic surveying using _____

Ground photos
It is simply a plane mirror with same device for pointing it that reflected sunlight will reach a distant
station.
Heliotrope

The angle in the plane of projection between straight line and CM of a rectangular coordinate system.
Grid Azimuth

the French officer, develops the first photogrammetrical devices and methods. He is seen as the initiator
of photogrammetry.
Aime Laussedat

The Viennese physicist, publishes the idea to use the stereoscope to estimate volumetric measures.
Ernst Mach

They were the first archaeological object recorded photogrammetrically.

ancient ruins of Persepolis

They present the first stereoscopical instrument for vectorized mapping.

Eduard Gaston and Daniel Deville

invents the double projection; invents the, “Perspektograph”, an instrument for optical rectification; finds
a way to create rectified photographs. He is considered as the initiator of aerial photogrammetry, since
he was the first succeeding to apply the photogrammetrical principles to aerial photographs.
Theodor Scheimpflug

creates the first “Stereokomparator” and revolutionates the mapping from stereopairs.
Pulfrich

were first used by U. Helava in 1957, revolutionate photogrammetry. They allow to apply more complex
methods: aerotriangulation, bundle-adjustment, the use of amateur cameras etc.
The analytical plotters

Daguerrotype
• an early type of photograph, developed by Louis Daguerre, in which the image is exposed
directly onto a mirror-polished surface of silver bearing a coating of silver halide particles
deposited by iodine vapor

Stereocomparator
• A stereoscope that has adjustable scales to allow the determination of distances and dimensions
from stereoscopic photographs.

Perspectograph
• An instrument for optical rectification
 • An instrument for obtaining, and transferring to a picture, the points and outlines of objects, so
as to represent them in their proper geometrical relations as viewed from one point

Metric Cameras
• They have stable and precisely known internal geometries and very low lens distortions.

Paper Strip Method

• This is the cheapest method, since only a ruler, a piece of paper with a straight edge and a
pencil are required. It was used during the last century

Optical Rectification
• Is done using photographic enlargeners. These should fulfill the so called “Scheimpflug
condition” and the “vanishing-point condition”.

Numerical Rectification
• Again, the object has to be plane and four control points are required. The image coordinates
of the desired object-points are transformed into the desired coordinate system (which is again
2D). The result is the coordinates of the projected points.

Differential rectification
• If the object is uneven, it has to be divided into smaller parts, which are plane. A prerequisite
for differential rectification is the availability of a digital object model, i.e. a dense raster of
points on the object with known distances from a reference plane; in aerial photogrammetry it is
called a DTM (Digital Terrain Model).

Monoplotting
• This technique is similar to the numerical rectification, except that the coordinates are here
transformed into a 3D coordinate system.

Digital Rectification
• It is somehow similar to “monoplotting”. But here, the scanned image is transformed pixel by
pixel into the 3D real-world coordinate system. The result is an orthophoto, a rectified
photograph, that has a unique scale.

Part of a beach that is usually dry and is reached only by the highest tides; by extension, a narrow strip of
relatively flat coast bordering the sea
Backshore

The chain is a convenient unit in cadastral surveys because 10 square chains equal 1 acre.

Process of preparing a separate drawing, engraving, or negative for each color required in the printing
production of a map or chart.
color separation
Preparation of a new or revised map or chart, or portion thereof, from existing maps, aerial photographs,
field surveys, and other sources.
compilation

Features constructed by man that are under, on, or above the ground which are delineated on a map.
culture

Line on a map or chart connecting points of equal depth below the datum.
depth curve

Rapid method for copying documents in which the image is developed by exposure to ammonia.
diazo process

Bank of earth or stone used to form a barrier, frequently and confusingly interchanged with levee.
Dike

That portion of a stream influenced by the tide of the body of water into which it flows; an arm of the sea
at a river mouth.
estuary

Process of preparing a separate drawing, engraving, or negative for selected types of data in the
preparation of a map or chart
feature separation

Lines, resembling contour lines, drawn to present a conception of the shape of the terrain without regard
to a true datum or regular spacing
Formlines

A picture in which the gradations of light are obtained by the relative darkness and density of tiny dots
produced by photographing the subject through a fine screen.
Halftone

Science or art of determining terrain relief, by any method.

Hypsometry

Coding system of categories and subcategories designed for use on a map to designate land or water use.
land use classification system

Line weighted with lead for making depth soundings in water.

lead line

Artificial bank confining a stream channel or limiting adjacent areas subject to flooding
levee
Map copy suitable for reproduction without the use of a screen; a drawing composed of lines as
distinguished from continuous- tone copy
line copy (line drawing)

Thematic map in which areas are colored, shaded, dotted, or hatched to create darker or lighter areas in
proportion to the density of distribution of the theme subject.
map, choropleth

Map showing relief by any convention, such as contours, hachures, shading, or tinting.
map, hypsometric

Map composed of lines as distinguished from photographic imagery

map, line

Orderly system of lines on a plane representing a corresponding system of imaginary lines on an adopted
terrestrial or celestial datum surface
map projection

Family of maps conforming generally to the same specifications and designed to cover an area or a
country in systematic pattern; sections of a larger map
map series

Area of salt-tolerant vegetation in brackish and (or) saline-water habitants subject to tidal inundation.
marsh, coastal

Tract of low wet ground, usually miry and covered with rank vegetation.
marsh, freshwater

Period of 235 lunations or about 19 years. devised by Meton, an Athenian astronomer (5th century B.C.)
for the purpose of obtaining a period at the end of which the phases of the moon recur in the same order
and on the same days as in the preceding cycle
Metonic cycle

19-year Metonic cycle (National Tidal Datum Epoch). (mean water)

Metes-and-bounds traverse approximately along the mean high water line of a permanent body of water;
differs from other metes and bounds surveys in that it does not ordinarily determine or fix boundaries.
meander line

Stereoplotter of the double-projection type characterized by its use of reduced- scale diapositives and
stationary lamphouses with condensing lenses
multiplex

Line separating the body of a map from the map margin

neatline

Comparatively flat zone of variable width that extends from the outer margin of the rather steeply
sloping shoreface to the edge of the continental shelf.
Offshore

Any portion of a map lying outside the nominal map border (neatline).
overedge

Printing or drawing on a transparent or translucent medium intended to be placed in register on a map or

other graphic and which shows details not appearing or requiring special emphasis on the base
material.
overlay

New material printed on a map or chart to show data of importance or special use, in addition to those
data originally printed.
overprint

Public lands are subdivided by a rectangular system of surveys established and regulated by the Bureau of
Land Management. The standard format for subdivision is by townships measuring 6 miles (480 chains)
on a side. Townships are further subdivided into 36 numbered sections of 1 square mile (640 acres) each.
public land system

1 township = 36 sections
1 section = 640 acres= 1 square mile

Middle exposure of a phototriplet (three consecutive aerial photographs) take so that the middle
photograph is exposed directly above the center of the quadrangle and the preceding and following
photographs are exposed directly above the boundaries of the quadrangle.
quad-centered photograph

Four-sided area, bounded by parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude used as an area unit in
mapping (dimensions are not necessarily the same in both directions).
Quadrangle

Determination of the location of points by the successive intersection and resection of direction lines
radiating from the radial centers of overlapping aerial photographs.
radial-line plotting

The process of scanning and reprojecting a photograph onto a horizontal plane in differential elements to
remove displacements caused by tilt and relief. The process may be accomplished by any one of a
number of instruments developed specifically for the purpose.
rectification, differential
Projection of an aerial photograph (mathematically, graphically, or photographically) from its plane onto
a horizontal plane by translation, rotation, and (or) scale change to remove displacement due to tilt of
the camera
rectification, simple

Technique for making hypsography on a map appear three dimensional by the use of graded shadow
effects. Generally, the features are shaded as though illuminated from the northwest
relief shading

Summation of all processes involved in printing copies from an original drawing. A printed copy of an
original drawing made by the processes of reproduction
reproduction

Unit of subdivision of a township; normally a quadrangle 1 mile square with boundaries conforming to
meridians and parallels within established limits, and containing 640 acres as nearly as practicable
section

Coordinate systems established by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (now the National Ocean
Survey), usually one for each state, for use in defining positions of points in terms of plane rectangular
(x,y) coordinates.
state plane coordinate system

Production of a map or chart manuscript from aerial photographs and geodetic control data by means of
photogrammetric instruments.
Stereocompilation

Decrease in the elevation of land surface due to tectonic, seismic, or artificial forces, without removal of
surface material.
subsidence

Orderly process of determining data relating to any physical or chemical characteristics of the Earth. The
associated data obtained in a survey. An organization engaged in making a survey.
survey

Surveying instrument designed for use in the rapid determination of distance, direction, and difference of
elevation from a single observation, using a short base which may be an Intergral part of the instrument.
tacheometer (tachymeter)

Military grid system based on the transverse Mercator projection, applied to maps of the Earth's surface
extending from the Equator to 84 Degrees north and 80 degrees south latitudes
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid

Instrument for observing starts near the zenith

zenith telescope
It is an interpolation method of contour line which is mentally traced by moving clockwise observing
that it will join only all points of same elevation until it closes itself.
By inspection method

The azimuth in cadastral project

Grid Azimuth
Basis for preparation of development plan for lots, roads and drainage canals in a housing subdivision
project is
Topographic Survey

Sketch plans on political boundary disputes be prepared for settlements.

Ordinary full lines = lot lines
Heavy full lines = Tax. Dec.

In underground survey, except in nearly level working, the distance from station to the next station is
measured in
Slope distance

Taken with the camera axis directed intentionally between horizontal and vertical
Oblique Photograph

Approximately horizontal underground passageway running from the surface into the mine working;
used for drainage and ventilation
Adit

Portion of the earth’s surface of undisturbed rock formations which is included between walls or sides of
mineral deposit
Apex

Steel roof supports beams (configured in the form of an arch)

Arches

Roof of an underground area; top of passageway; top of a drift, cross cut, slope
Back

Stratum in earth’s crust w/c has been formed/ deposited in a nearly horizontal layer
Bed

a tunnel driven at right angles to the main headings

Bord

Initial cut in the ground when excavations are to commence in new area
Box Cut

A wall of separation to barricade designed to direct air flow or restrict it

Bratice

a wall or structure used for blocking off an underground opening

Bulkhead

A safety barrier constructed from material(usually broken rock) on the side of a ramp, pit edge/ vertical
opening to prevent vehicles from entering/ passing over it
Bundwall

a platform attached to a winding rope used for transporting personnel, supplies xxx in a mine shaft
Cage

An explosive/ blasting material used for loading a blast hole

Charge

Natural opening made fractures in coal beds. The coal will break more easily in a parallel parting than in
other direction
Cleat

An underground that drive across a coal seam; horizontal passageway across/ approximately at right
angles to the strike
Cross-cut

Horizontal pillars across a coal seam

Crown Pillars

A roadway/ ventilation passage that interconnect main workings

Cut through

Top of a pit wall, rill, window or dig face

Crest

Narrow inclined passage used for drawing off broken ore from a stope/ raise
Chute

Timbers around a top of shaft/ outer edge of a hole

Collar
One of smaller passageway of a large shaft divided by timber partitions
Compartment

Passageway w/c is driven from one accessible part of the mine to another
Connection

A horizontal opening in or near a mineral deposit and parallel to the course of the vein or long dimension
of the deposit
Drift

A fracture in the earth’s crust along w/c slipping/ shearing has occurred
Fault

Bottom of passageway/ of a seam of bed

Floor

A vertical wall of a drive in direction w/c the mine is heading

Face

Waste material (rock) used to fill excavated holes/areas

Fill

Preliminary passage driven into a rock/ ore ahead of main excavations; a roadway/ cross-cut in an
underground operation
Heading

Distance between the two parts of same vein w/c is divided by a fault, measured along the strike of the
fault; expansion of shot ground after a blast
Heave

A steel structure built around a mine shaft for supporting winding systems, cages and skips
Headframe

The wall at the edge of a pit; very tall and very steep
High wall

Horizontal passageway run at different levels along the deposit/ adjacent to it for working the mine;
main underground passageway / roadway system
Levels

Small passage from one level into next level above/ below into stopes
Manhole
Passage between the stope and a level through w/c the ore is conveyed
Mill hole

A rich aggregation of ore within a vein

Ore shoot

A piece of timber w/c prevents any rock in the roof from falling, or known as post
Prop

A block of coal/ rock that hasn’t been mines

Pillar

An entrance to an underground mine

Portal

A passage driven steeply upward from any portion of the mine; an excavation from w/c ore has been
extracted either above or below a level
Raise

Place other than the passageway from w/c ore has been extracted; usually refers to the bed deposits
Room

A vertical/ near vertical entrance into underground workings

Shaft

an open space left in underground mine as a result of using a stoping method to remove wanted ore.
Surveyors survey these spaces using cavity monitoring system
Stope

Horizontal underground workings that are not connected to main shaft

Sub-level

small nail/hook in the roof w/c marks a survey station

Spad

Bed of mineral or small vein

Seam

Line of intersection of the vein w/ horizontal plane

Strike

A piece of timber wedged in crosswire between the sidewalls of a passageway

Stull
A horizontal working passageway open at both ends
Tunnel

Vertical distance between the planes representing the two parts of same vein w/c is divided by a fault;
used only in regard to deposits w/c are nearly horizontal
Throw

The bottom edge of a high wall, rill or dig face. It can also refer to the area at the base of a ramp where
it flattens out
Toe

Dig face that has been excavated slightly further from below the crest of a face; creates an unstable edge
above and material can fall easily
Undercut

a mineral body of flattened shape

Vein

Rock on each side of mineral body; upper wall is calling hanging wall and lower wall as feet wall rooms
formed by excavation of ore above/ below a level
Wall

A subsidiary shaft not starting from the surface; a vertical inclined driven downward for connecting the
upper wall and lower level of transferring elev.
Winze

Loose material that has been pushed to an edge, generally to prevent vehicles from driving off high walls
Window/ rill

The formula for tilt displacement

d= [(i a)2*sin(t)]/f
i= point of rotation
a= displacement point
t= tilt angle

The value of C-FACTOR lies in between

500-1500

1. Photo theodolite is a combination of ________________

a) Theodolite, terrestrial camera

2. Focal length of photo theodolite is around _____________

15-30 cm
3. Vertical circle provided in the photo theodolite is graduated up to _____________
30 min
4. The plane perpendicular to the camera axis can be given as ___________
Picture plane

5. Which of the following is having the same principle as that of photo-theodolite?

Plane-table surveying

6. Among the following, which doesn’t belong to the parts of photo-theodolite?

Theodolite

7. Telescope fitted in the photo-theodolite can be rotated in a horizontal plane.

a) False Telescope fitted in a photo-theodolite is capable of rotating only in a vertical direction but not in
any other direction.

8. The axis of camera passes through ____________

Centre of the camera lens

10. Which of the following describes the principle point?

Intersection of the camera axis with picture plane or the camera plate

1. Stereoscopic measurement involves in __________

Fusing photographs

3. Which process is capable of covering maximum area with minimum effort?

Terrestrial photogrammetry

8. Which of the following processes cover entire area in a short span?

Terrestrial photogrammetry

5. Which among the following is the best mapping procedure?

Aerial photogrammetry

9. Which of the following indicates the correct set of terrestrial photogrammetric classification?
Plane-table, terrestrial stereo

1. The lens used in aerial photogrammetry is having a maximum coverage capacity of _________ (in
angles)
a) 930 minimum coverage area of 630

4. Focal plane varies while aerial photogrammetry is carried out.

False
6. Vertical photograph coincides with the__________
Direction of gravity
9. Perspective projection is produced from__________
Straight lines radiating a common point

8. Focal plane is provided at _____________

Point of intersection
The provision of a focal plane is done at the point of collimation

9. Which of the following doesn’t come under drive mechanism?

Binding the film

5. If all the ground points are projected vertically downward on the mean sea level, which scale is
recommended to be used?
Datum scale

7. Which of the following indicates the right step for determination of scale?
a) Measuring ground distance
b) Comparing angles
c) Joining elevation points
d) Comparing zenith levels

8. The value of horizontal distance can be determined by which of the following methods?
a) Traversing
b) Triangulation
c) Theodolite surveying
d) Compass surveying

12. For finding the scale of a photograph, the points must be equally elevated.
True

2. Among the following, which must be known for determining scale in a tilted photograph?
a) Focal length
b) Datum height
c) Azimuth
d) Zenith

3. The geometric process involved in the determination of scale for titled photograph is____________
a) Spherical
b) Cylindrical
c) Analytical
d) Co-ordinate

3. Distance from isocentre is taken into consideration in tilt displacement.

True
4. Relief distortion depends on which of the following?
a) Zenith
b) Flying height/ distance of image from nadir point/ elevation from ground and the position of that
point from principle line.
c) Datum
d) Focal length

7. What is the position of relief displacement on vertical photograph?

Radial

9. Tilt displacement of a point on nadir point is _________

a) Half inward
b) Completely outward
c) Half outward (But in case of the point upward of a half tilted photograph is full inward.
d) Completely inward

4. Determine the distance of flight strips if the height lens placed is given as 56m.
For calculation of distance of the flight strips, W = 1.22*H is used.
W = 1.22*56
W = 68.32m

5. What will be the distance between the flight strips if the value at point B is given as 6m?
The calculation of distance between flight strips along with a point can be determined by using the
relation, W = 2*B.
W = 2*6
W = 12m.

7. Overlapping increases the amount of work to be done.

a) True

9. Calculate the flying height if the contour interval is given as 6m.

Flying height = contour interval * c-factor. The value of c-factor lies in between 500-1500.
Flying height = 6*500 = 3000m.

2. Minimum 4 mirrors are used in case of a mirror stereoscope.

a) True

3. Which of the following doesn’t indicate the purpose of stereoscope?

a) Relation between convergence and accommodation
b) Line of sight justification
c) Perception of depth
d) Assisting eyes on the image

4. Which of the following indicates the correct set of Stereoscope classification?

c) Mirror stereoscope and lens stereoscope

5. Which of the following processes help in placing the image on fovea?

a) Convergence
b) Magazine
c) Focal length
d) Aperture

6. Which of the following is involved in obtaining spatial relation?

a) Focal length
b) Binocular vision
c) Polarization
d) Telescopic vision

7. Which of the following won’t serve as a reason for the impression of depth?
a) Relative size of objects
b) Light effects
c) Calculation of azimuth
d) Simultaneous view

8. The stereoscopic vision can be applied to ____________

a) Photogrammetry

9. Lens used in the stereoscope can be flattened by which among the following methods?
Accommodation (Because of the accommodation process, we might be able to determine the
approximate depth. We can have less strain on our eyes.

10. The difference between the images on retina is given as __________

a) Retinal disparity (The object which we are visualizing is somewhat different from the reality. Due to
the combination of the picture from the left eye and right eye positions of the objects can be mismatched.

11. Which of the following doesn’t come under the ideal conditions of stereoscopic views?
a) Elevation of camera position
b) Measuring iso centric distance
c) Making camera axis vertical
d) Overlapping of photograph

2. Which of the following can be used to view stereo pair?

Stereoscope

3. Which of the following doesn’t come under the category of depth perception?
c) Divergence
Depth perception involves determining the relative distance between the objects from the observer. It
involves certain clues which are required for photogrammetry. Those are head parallax, convergence,
accommodation, retinal display.
6. The distance between nodal point and plane of photograph depends on datum height (focal length of
the lens.)
False (tan (t)= d/f

7. Displacement due to successive exposures can be given as _____________

Parallax

10. Which of the following doesn’t serve as a condition for an aerial stereoscopic view?
a) Excessive overlapping
b) Elevation of camera for exposure
c) Vertical camera axis
d) Sufficient overlapping

27. What are the dimensions of the Johnson table?

45*60 cm

Surveying is defined as determining the relative positions of points above or beneath the surface of the
earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance and direction and elevation

4. Which of the following classification in surveying is based on the instrument used?

a) Traverse surveying

Compass surveying is recommended when the area is large, undulating and crowded with many details.
It is not recommended for areas where the local attraction is suspected due to the presence of a magnetic
substance.

7. Which of the following is not required for chain surveying?

a) Dumpy level
b) Pegs
c) Arrows
d) 20 m chain

9. What is the last step in chain surveying?

a) Fixing
b) Reconnaissance
c) Running survey lines
d) Marking

10. Which of the following cannot be done with the help of theodolite in surveying?
a) Measuring horizontal distances
b) Prolonging survey lines
c) Laying off horizontal angles
d) Locating points on lines
Theodolite is the most precise instrument designed for the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles.
11. Which of the following is an indirect method of surveying?
a) Countouring
b) Chain surveying
c) Tacheometry
d) All of the mentioned

15. Which among the following surveying methods is meant to be having high precision?
Aerial photogrammetry]

16. Which of the following doesn’t describe the use of hydrographic surveying?
a) Nautical charts for navigation
b) Establishing mean sea level
c) Laying an Alignment
d) Making underground investigations

18. The length of a survey line was measured with a 20 m chain and was found to be equal to 1200 m. If
the length again measured with 25 m chain it is 1212 m. On comparing the 20 m chain with the test
gauge, it was found to be 1 decimeter too long. Find the actual length of 25 m chain used.

incorrect length of 20 m line is 20+0.10 = 20.10 m.

True length of line = 1200×(20.10/20) = 1206 m.
Actual or True length of 25 m chain = (1206×25)/1212 = 24.88 m.

19. Which of the following is a part of surveyor’s compass?

a) Jewel bearing
b) Brake pin
c) Agate cap
d) Prism cap
Prism cap, prism, brake pin, spring brake, pivot, agate cap etc are parts of the prismatic
compass.

The surveyor’s telescope is an adaptation of Kepler’s telescope. It employs two convex lenses. The one
nearest to the object is called the objective and the other near the eye is called eyepiece.

26. Which of the following doesn’t involve the method of traversing?

a) Plane Table surveying
b) Tacheometric surveying
c) Chain surveying
d) Theodolite surveying

28. Which of the following describes the usage of the traversing method?
Survey line placement

31. Which of the following serves as a solution for three point problem?
Mechanical method

32. Which type of surveying can be employed in a magnetic area?

c) Plane table surveying

33. Let the instrument station be V and there is a displacement of 50 cm in its placement in the direction
of ray. What is the true position if the scale is 1cm = 700 meters?
The true position due to displacement can be considered as
a*aꞌ = e*s meters. The value of s can be given as s = 1/700 and e = 50 cm.
a*aꞌ = 50/700 = 0.071 cm.

34. Calculate the area by M.D method, if the value of m1, m2, m3 are given as 233.4 m, 12.78 m, 99.98
m respectively and latitudes are 110 m, -15 m, 89 m.
The formula of meridian and distance method can be given as,
A = ∑ (m*L).
A = 233.4*110 + 12.78*-15 + 99.98*89
A = 34372.51 sq. m.

38. Which of the following curves is not used in case highways?

Reverse curve

41. Find the value of mid-ordinate if the radius of the curve is given as 40.62 m and length as 10.2m
Mid-ordinate calculation involves the following procedure,
O0 = R – (R2 – (l/2)2)1/2.
O0 = 40.62 – (40.622 – (10.2/2)2)1/2
O0 = 0.33.

42. Determining points of strategic importance are called _______

Military surveying

Method of correlates involve in reducing the arithmetic work. It includes determination of the
corrections for wave length and their weights which help in establishing a network of information.

44. If longitudes of A and B are given as 32˚12ꞌ W, 44˚2ꞌ W having latitude 29˚24ꞌ. Find the distance in
km between the points A and B.
Distance = difference of longitude * cos latitude * 1.852
Distance = (44˚2ꞌ W – 32˚12ꞌ W)*cos29˚24ꞌ * 1.852
Distance = 19.1km.
Zenith telescope is used in case of obtaining high precision in the measurement of star positions. It
involves the simplification of telescope construction. The actual purpose of designing it involves in the
management of zenith.

These are among the list of equipment required for chain surveying they are
20 m chain,
10 arrows,
ranging rods
offset rods,
plumb bob etc.

49. In soft ground, spikes or nails are driven into the ground it comes under which step of surveying?
Marking

50. At what step of chain surveying surveyor should investigate various difficulties that may arise and
think of their solution?
Before selecting survey stations

51. Which of the following is not a natural error in compass surveying?

a) Local attraction due to the proximity of local attraction forces
b) Pivot being bent
c) Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and Strom’s
d) Variation in declination

52. While doing construction work, which among the following is more suitable?
a) Height of the Instrument method (H.I)
Height of the Instrument method is less tedious than Rise and fall method. Moreover, this process is
suitable for taking numerous readings from same instrument setting. Traversing is a process of
establishing control points and Compass surveying involves in finding the bearings.