1 - Chapter One Introduction To Surveying

AASTU
CEng 2303
Chapter One
Introduction to Surveying
August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 1
Out line
Introduction
 Definitions
The Importance of Surveying
Classification of surveying
Units of Measurements & Theory of Errors
 Basic Measurements in surveying
 Units of Measurements
 Scale
 Measurements & Theory of Errors
August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To 3
Surveying
BRAINSTORMING
 what does Surveying mean?

DEFINITIONS OF SURVEYING

Definition of Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining
the relative positions of natural and man-made
features above, on, or beneath the earth’s
surface, and the presentation of this
information either graphically or numerically.
Why it is an art?
Why it is a Science?
Why relative positions?

Why it is an art?
Because only a surveyor who possesses through
understanding of surveying techniques will be able to
determine the most efficient methods required to
obtain optimal results over a wide variety of surveying
problems.
Why it is a Science?
Because the use of mathematical techniques to
analyze field data, accuracy and reliability depends on
understanding scientific principles underlying and
affecting survey measurement.

Why relative positions?
When we say the relative positions of points it means that

determining the relative positions of points in reference to
another Objects reference point/station.
For example, AASTU is found at about 3 km North- east of

Akaki Town. In this example, it is obvious that the (relative
position) location of AASTU is described with reference to
Akaki Town.

Definition of Surveying …
 After taking the measurements in the field,

computations are done and the plans and the
maps are prepared in the office.
 These plans and maps are used for:
- planning of engineering works
- making boundaries
- computation of areas and volumes, and
- various other purposes.

Definition of Surveying …
Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses

all methods for measuring, processing, and
disseminating information about the physical
earth and our environment.

Surveying
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING

Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important arts
because, as noted previously, from the earliest times it has
been necessary to mark boundaries and divide land.
Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way
of life. The results of today’s surveys are being used to:
1. Map the earth above and below sea level.
2. Prepare navigational carts for use in the air, on land and at
sea.
3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural
resources information which aid in managing our environment
5.Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic
fields of the earth
6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets.
Surveying
Importance of Surveying
There are two fundamental reasons for taking
measurements in Surveying.
i.to determine the relative positions of
existing points or objects on or near the
surface of the earth.
ii.to layout or locate the desired positions of
new points or objects which are to be placed
or constructed on or near the surface of the
earth.

Importance of Surveying…
♠ Surveying plays an essential role in the
planning, design, layout and construction of
our physical environment and
infrastructure.
♠ Surveying is the link between design and
construction.
♠ In addition to its customary applications in
construction and land-use projects,
surveying is playing an increasingly
important role in modern industrial
technologies.
Thus, surveying is the Firs stage for all Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized
are:
to fix the national and state boundaries;
to establish control points;
to collect field data;
to prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
to analyze and to calculate the field parameters for
setting out operation of actual engineering works.

Surveying activities during the construction process
Before Construction Under construction After construction
Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)

data collection phase plan or map
of construction on the construction
Observations
in the field
Presenting
Processing the Field checks of documentation
observations construction to the client
(office)
Drawing maps,
plans or providing Deformation
Providing data
numerical data Monitoring/
and services to
the client Load Tests
Presenting
documentation
to the client
August 8, 2021 16
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Classification of Surveying
Since surveying is a vast discipline, it

can be classified based on different
norms & aspects:
Based on the shape of the earth
Based on the purpose for which they
are conducted
Based on the instrument used

Based on Shape of the Earth

Classifi…Shape of the Earth
 The shape of the

earth is an oblate
spheroid.
 It is an ellipsoid of
revolution,
flattened at the
poles and bulging
at the equator

Earth’s surface showing

mountains and other irregularities
GEOID – equipotential surface perpendicular

to gravity and approximating mean sea level
b ELLIPSOID – models the surface of the geoid

a
using a mathematically definable figure
(a = semi-major axis; b = semi-minor axis)
Surveying is categorized in to two based on

the basis whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or the earth is assumed to be a
flat plane.
i. Plane Surveying
ii. Geodetic Surveying

i. Plane Surveying is the type of surveying in
which the curvature of the earth is neglected
and the earth is assumed to be a flat surface.
♠ All distances and horizontal angles are
assumed to be projected on to a horizontal
plane.
♠ Plane surveying can safely be used when one is
concerned with small portions of the earth’s
surface and the areas involved.

ii. Geodetic Surveying is the type of surveying
in which the curvature of the earth is taken
in to consideration, and a very high standard
of accuracy is maintained.
♠ Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the
measurements and representation of the
Earth, including its gravity field, in a three-
dimensional time varying space.
♠ The main object of geodetic surveying is to
determine the precise location of a system of
widely spaced points on the surface of the
earth.
Based on Instruments Used

Classifi…Instrument Used
Based on the instruments used, surveys can
be classified as under:
i.Chain surveying
- is the simplest type of surveying in which
linear measurements are taken with a chain or
tape
ii.Compass surveying
- is a type of surveying, the horizontal
angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass, in addition to the line or
measurements with a chain or a tape.

iii. Leveling
This is a type of survey in which a leveling
instrument is used for determination of
relative elevations (levels) of various points
in the vertical plane.
iv. Theodolite surveys
A theodolite is a very precise instrument
for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles.

v. Photogammetric surveys
Photogrammetry is a science of taking

measurements with the help of
photographs, mainly used for topographic
mapping of vast areas.

Based on Purpose of the
Surveying

Class… Purpose of the Surveying
Based on the purpose for which they are
conducted, surveys may be classified in to
following types:
i.Route surveying
-These surveys are special types of
surveys conducted along a proposed route for
establishing precise position of highway,
railway, sewer line etc.
-Route survey is done along a wide strip.
-In general, route surveying also includes
the staking out and calculation of the earth
work
ii. Property survey
It is performed in order to establish the
positions of boundary lines and property
corners
Are usually performed
- when ever ownership is to be transferred
- when a large tract of land is to be
subdivided in to smaller parts called parcels.
- before the design and construction of any
public or private land- use project can get
underway
- to mark property corners with permanent
monument
iii. Control Survey
- Made to establish the
horizontal and vertical
positions of arbitrary
points.
- It consists of establishing
the horizontal and vertical
positions of widely spaced
control points using the
principles of geodetic
surveying

iv. Topographic Survey
- Made to gather data to produce a

topographic map showing the configuration
of the terrain and the location of natural
and man-made objects.

v. Construction survey
- is performed in order to mark the position of new

points on the ground
- It is applicable in most/many engineering projects in

order to represent the location of building corners,
road center lines and other facilities that are to be
built such as pipe lines, bridges, canals…etc.
Other types of Surveying

• City survey
• Mine survey
• Hydrographic survey
• Astronomic survey
• Satellite survey
• Geological survey
• Engineering survey
Units of Measurements
&
Theory of Errors

Basic Measurements in Surveying

Basic measurements in surveying
Surveying basically consists of the following four
measurements
1. Horizontal distance
- A horizontal distance is
measured in a
horizontal plane.
- If a distance is measured
along a slope, it is
reduced to its
horizontal equivalent.
2. Vertical distance
- The vertical distances are measured to determine
the difference in elevations (height) of the various
points.
- The vertical direction is parallel to the direction of
gravity; at any point, it is the direction of a freely
suspended plum bob cord or string.
- The most commonly used reference surface for
measuring vertical distance is mean sea level
(MSL).

3. Horizontal angle
An angle measured
between two
intersecting lines in a
horizontal plane is
called horizontal
angle.

4. Vertical angle
A vertical angle
between two lines of
sight is measured in a
plane that is vertical
at the point of
observation.

Relationship between Zenith and Vertical Angle
Phases of Surveying
There are two phases:

- Field Phase
- Office Phase

Phases of Surveying
• Office Work phase
1. Planning and design of the survey specifications
2. Calculations and adjustment of data
3. Preparation of plans, maps, etc.
• Field Work phase
1. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed
2. Care, handling and adjustment of instrument
3. Performing measurements
4. Setting out in the field
5. Recording of measured data

•A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of
a physical quantity, defined and adopted by
convention or by law, that is used as a standard

for measurement of the same physical quantity.

Units of Measurements…
There are two systems of measurements:
• M.K.S (meter, kilogram, second): Metric system (SI =
System International)
• F.P.S (foot , pound, second):British System (Imperial)
Linear units of measurements
Basic metric units of : length (m), Area (m2), volume (m3)
Linear units of measurements
Imperial units of measurement:
length (mile), Area (ft2), volume (cu ft)
Units of Measurements…
Angular units of measurements
There are three systems in use for angular unit:
i) Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in

to 360 parts. 1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
ii) Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided

in to 400 parts. 1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.

1 radian = 57.300
Conversion of Units
•We can convert measurements from one unit
to another unit within the same system
(English or Metric) or between the two systems.
•To convert measurements, it is necessary to
know conversion factors between
measurements.
•A conversion factor is a clear way of writing 1
as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to
the denominator but the numerator and the
denominator have different units.

Conversion of Units…
i. The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m)
1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1km
1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm
1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm
1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm
1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mn
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm
1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm

Surveying
ii. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter
square (m2)
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 X 100 m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 106 m 2 = 1000m X 1000m
= 1km2 = 100 ha
iii. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic
meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter meter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
Surveying
» Conversion of length » Conversion of Angles
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 gon = 9/10 deg
1 foot = 0.3048m 1 deg = 10/9,
1 mile = 1.6093 km 400 gon = 3600
» Conversion of area » Conversion of Volume

1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm 1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm 1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km

Surveying
Examples
1. Convert 50.4460 to D-M-S
2. Convert 256016’54” to gon
3. Convert 348 gon to decimal degree
4. Convert 2.5 sq. kilometer to sq. meter
5. Convert 150 feet to yard

Surveying
Scale of a Map

Scale of a map
 The scale of a map is defined as the ratio of
a distance on the map to the corresponding
distance on the ground
 The scale of the map permits the user to
convert distance on the map to distance on
the ground or vice versa
 Scales of a map are generally classified as
large, medium and small
 A large scale map shows the features in a
bigger size than a small scale map

Surveying
Scale of a map…
 Large denominator numbers refer to small
scale, where as small denominator numbers
are indicative of a large scale
-----Large scale:- 1: 1,000 or more
example 1:500
-----Medium scale:- 1:1,000 to 1:10,000
example 1: 5,000
-----Small Scale:- 1: 10,000 or less
example 1:50,000

Surveying
Representations of Scale
Scale of a map can be represented:
i. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
ii. By representative fraction
iii. By graphical Scale
i. By statement (engineer’s Scale)-According

to this representation, a specified distance
on the map represents the corresponding
distance on the ground.
For example 1cm = 100 meters, that
means 1cm on the map represents 100m on
the ground.
Surveying
Representations of Scale…
ii. By representative fraction (RF)-
 This scale is usually written as a fraction
and is called the representative fraction.
 The RF is always written with the map
distance as 1 and is independent of any
unit of measure (yards, meters, inches,
and so forth).
Note:
The unit in the numerator and denominator
must be the same (scale is unit less).
E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on
the map represents 5000 cm (50m) on
the ground.
Surveying
Representations of Scale…
iii. By graphical Scale:
 A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the
map so that its map distance corresponds to a
convenient unit of length on the ground
 It is used to convert distances on the map to
actual ground distances
 It is also used to determine straight line
distance between two points on a map

Measurement and Theory of Errors

Measurement
• Measurement is the process of Comparing
unknowns with standards or

• Measurement is the process of estimating or
determining the magnitude of a quantity
•The difference between the measured and its
true value is called the measurement error

Theory of errors
♠ It can be stated unconditionally that
1.no measurement is exact,
2.every measurement contains errors,
3.the true value of a measurement is
never known, and thus
4.the exact sizes of the errors present
are always unknown.
****The true value of a quantity is, a value
which is, absolutely free from all types of
errors*****
Sources of Errors
Natural errors
• Curvative, refraction, strong winds, Temperatures
variations loose muddy and swampy areas
Instrumental errors
• Sag, Vertical and horizontal Axis, lateral and
collimation error plate level test, cross hair ring Test,
collimation in azimuth test, vertical circle, Index Test.
Personal Errors
• Mistakes in reading and recording, focusing, setting
up, holding staffs

Types of Errors in measurements
 The surveyor’s task is to keep errors in measurement
with in prescribed limits.
 In order to do so, he/she must know source of errors,
types of errors, the effects of errors and how to
evaluate his/her results.
 There are three basic types of errors. These are;
– Mistakes (Gross errors)
– Systematic errors
– Accidental errors

Mistakes (Gross errors)
• These are serious fault and occur when the
surveyor blunders through lack of experience and
lack of care.
Example: Incorrect booking of measurements For
example, recording 79.36 or 73.69 instead of
73.96
• Mistakes can be eliminated only by proper and
careful methods of observing & booking and
constantly checking both operations.
Systematic (cumulative) errors
• These are constant errors, which can be calculated
and so corrected.
• For example
• if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at a
temperature of 20c but the field temperature is
30c the tape will be about 3.5mm too long.
• This means when the measured distance is 30m, the
actual distance is 30.0035m.
• Hence, there is a systematic error of -3.5mm in
every 30m tape length.

Accidental (Random) Errors
• These errors are remaining after mistakes &
systematic errors have been eliminated.
• They are caused by factors beyond the
control of the surveyor.
• These errors can be +ve or -ve.
• These errors tend to cancel themselves in a
series of measurements, and are, therefore,
also called compensating errors.
Accuracy & Precision
• The accuracy of a measurement is an
indication of how close it is to true value of
the quantity that has been measured.
N.B: Accuracy – Result to be right
• The precision of a measurement has to do
with the refinement used in taking the
measurement, the quality of an instrument.
N.B: Precision – Method to get right
Accuracy Vs Precision
ACCURACY
High Low
Low
PRECISION
High

Some Surveying Instrument
Compass
Theodolite
Total Station
August 8, 2021 71
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
Questions
1. Give a brief definition of Surveying, and
describe its two fundamental purposes.
2. Briefly describe why surveying may be
characterized as both an art and science.
3. Why is surveying is an important
technical discipline?
4. What is the basic assumption for plane
surveying?
…cont’d
5. How does geodetic surveying differ
from plane surveying? Under what
circumstance it is necessary to conduct a
geodetic survey?
6. Is a horizontal distance a perfectly
straight line? why?
7. Is surveying an independent profession?
why?

Surveying

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AASTU

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 4

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 5

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 6

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 7

When we say the relative positions of points it means that

For example, AASTU is found at about 3 km North- east of

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 8

 After taking the measurements in the field,

- planning of engineering works

- computation of areas and volumes, and

- various other purposes.

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 9

Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To 10

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 11

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 13

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 15

Before Construction Under construction After construction

Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 17

Since surveying is a vast discipline, it

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 18

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 19

 The shape of the

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 20

Earth’s surface showing

GEOID – equipotential surface perpendicular

b ELLIPSOID – models the surface of the geoid

Surveying is categorized in to two based on

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 22

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 23

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 25

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 26

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 27

Photogrammetry is a science of taking

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 28

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 29

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 33

- Made to gather data to produce a

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 34

- is performed in order to mark the position of new

- It is applicable in most/many engineering projects in

Other types of Surveying

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 37

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 38

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 40

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 41

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 42

There are two phases:

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 44

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 46

a physical quantity, defined and adopted by

convention or by law, that is used as a standard

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 47

There are three systems in use for angular unit:

i) Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in

ii) Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided

iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 50

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To 51

» Conversion of area » Conversion of Volume

August 8, 2021 Chapter One Introduction To 53