Chapter One Introduction to Surveying

Contents
1. Introduction to Surveying ................................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Definition...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Need for Surveying ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Types and Principles of Surveying ............................................................................................... 4
1.3.1. Primary divisions of surveying (Based on the shape of the earth) ........................................ 4
1.3.2. Functional classifications of surveying ................................................................................. 6
1.3.3. Classification of survey based on instruments used.............................................................. 7
1.4. Care & Handling of Surveying Instruments ................................................................................. 8
1.4.1. Procedures of surveying ........................................................................................................ 8
1.4.2. Field Books & Field Notes.................................................................................................... 9
1.4.3. Requirements of Good Notes ................................................................................................ 9
1.5. Units of Measurements and Scale ................................................................................................ 9
1.5.1. Units of Measurements ....................................................................................................... 10
1.1.2. Scale .................................................................................................................................... 14
1.1.3. Theory of Errors in Measurements ..................................................................................... 17
1.2. Theory of Errors in Surveying.................................................................................................... 18
1.2.1. Accuracy and Precision ....................................................................................................... 18
1.2.2. Sources of Errors ................................................................................................................. 20

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CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction to Surveying

The art of surveying is as old as recorded civilization. As long as property ownership was there
in the history of mankind, there had been a means of distributing and distinguishing one’s
property line from the other. Division of land and other constructions can be cited as examples
of early surveying works:

 Babylonian maps on tablets (2500 B.C)

 Irrigation ditches constructed in Babylon (1800 B. C)

 Division of land in Egypt by surveyors known by harpedonapata (rope stretchers) using

ropes with knots to reestablish boundary marks removed by flooding of Nile river and
for the purpose of taxation (1400 B.C)

 The construction of the great Egyptian pyramids using the 3:4:5 method of right angle
setting and a level made of isosceles triangle and plum bob.

 Calculation of earth’s circumference (250 B.C)

 The Development of the science of geometry by Greeks and its usage for precise land
division.

 Contribution of Romans through their practical surveying techniques in their

construction of roads and Military camps in their empire (adoption of system of
rectangular coordinate, invention of odometer).

Since beginning of the industrial revolution the importance of “exact boundaries” and the
demand for public improvements (railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying in to a prominent
position. More accurate instruments and science of Geodetic and plane surveying were
developed.

1.1. Definition

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative and absolute position of various points
above, on or below the surface of the earth. The relative positions are determined by measuring

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horizontal distance, vertical distances (elevations), horizontal angles and vertical angles accurately
using various surveying instruments. After taking the measurements in the field, computations are
done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office. These plans and maps are used for planning
and designing of engineering works, making of boundaries, computations of areas and volumes, and
various other purposes. Surveying also includes the art of setting out or locating the points on the
ground from the plan or map.

The first stage in all big projects is generally to survey the area and to prepare plans. These plans are
used in the preparation of the detailed drawing, design and estimate of the project cost and time. After
finalizing the drawings, setting out is done by establishing the various points and lines on the ground
from the drawing.

Surveying, although simple in concept, requires great skill and practice for doing the work accurately
and economically. It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such as mathematics, physics,
geodesy and astronomy. The need for accurate surveying is increasing rapidly with the development in
technology. The construction of modern buildings, highways, railways, high dams, long bridges, and
tunnels requires accurate surveying. As the cost of the land and property is increasing rapidly, high
accuracy is required in making the boundaries and the land subdivision.

1.2. Need for Surveying

Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout and construction of our physical
environment and infrastructure. The term infrastructure is commonly used to present all the
constructed facilities and systems which allow human communities to function. Surveying is the link
between design and construction. Roads, Bridges, Buildings, water supply sewerage, drainage
systems and many other essential public works, projects could never be built without the
application of surveying.

In addition to its customary applications in construction and land-use projects, surveying is playing
an increasingly important role in modern industrial technology.

Most commonly for ordinary local projects the surveying process starts with the reconnaissance
survey i.e. on arrival at the site the survey team simply walks over the area with a view to establish
the best sites for survey stations, and other purposes need to be considered.

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Next the necessary data for the project will be collected by the principle of basic measurements in
surveying, then computations of the collected data has to be done to produce plans or topographic
maps depending up on the objectives of the project. The produced plans or maps are used for
planning Engineering projects, marking boundary corners or lines, computations of areas &
volumes and other purposes. Surveying also includes the art of setting out the new points on the
ground from the plans or maps according to the design of the project.

To sum up; the first stage in all big projects is generally to be surveyed the area and prepare plans
or maps which will be used in the preparation of detailed drawings, design and cost estimation of
the project .After finalizing the design or detail drawing, setting out will be done.

1.3. Types and Principles of Surveying

1.3.1. Primary divisions of surveying (Based on the shape of the earth)

Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is considered
or whether the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is an
ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator (see figure 1.1). The length of
the polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of the equatorial axis is about 12756.602 km as
computed by Clark in 1866. Thus the polar axis is shorter than the equatorial axis by about 43.43km.

polar semi-axis = b
equatorial semi-axis = a

oblate spheroid

equator

Figure 1

Because of the curvature of the earth’s surface, the measured distances on earths are actually curved.
However, when the distances are small, compared with the radius of the earth, there is no significant
difference between the curved distances and the corresponding straight-line distances, and the
curvature of the earth can be neglected.

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Surveying is thus primarily divided in two types:

1. Plane surveying

2. Geodetic surveying

1. Plane surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is
assumed to be a flat surface. All distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on to a
horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a point is the plane, which is perpendicular to the vertical line at
that point.

Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portions of the earth’s surface
and the areas involved are less than 250 sq. km or so. It is worth noting that the difference between an
arc distance of 18.5 km on the surface of the earth and the corresponding chord distance is less than
10mm. Further the difference between the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle having an area of
200 sq.km on the earth’s surface and that of the corresponding angles of the plane triangle is only 1
second. In plane surveying, the angles of polygons and triangles are considered as plane angles.

2. Geodetic surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken in to
consideration, and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main object of geodetic
surveying is to determine the precise location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of the
earth. In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor axes are computed accurately and a spheroid
of reference is visualized.

The spheroid is a mathematical surface obtained by revolving an ellipse about the earth’s polar axis.
The earth’s mean-sea-level surface, which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every point, is
represented by a geoid (see also figure 1.2). Because of variation in the earth’s mass distribution, the
surface of the geoid is irregular. However, if the irregularities of the surface are neglected, the geoid
can be very closely approximated as spheroid. The dimensions of the spheroid are selected so as to
give a good fit to the geoid over large area.

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actual earth surface

geoid
sea
direction of gravity
ellipsoid

Figure 2

1.3.2. Functional classifications of surveying

Based on the purpose for which they are conducted, surveys may be classified as follows:

1. Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely spaced
control points using the principles of geodetic surveying.

2. Land surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine the boundaries and areas of tracts of
land. These are the oldest types, as land surveys have been used since the early civilization. These
are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or cadastral surveys. These surveys are also
used to provide data for making a plan of the area.

3. City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning. These are
required for the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.

4. Topographical surveys: Topography is defined as the shape or configuration of the earth’s surface.
These surveys are required to establish horizontal locations of the various points as well as their
vertical locations. Information pertaining to relief and undulations on the earth’s surface is generally
shown in the form of contours of equal elevations.

5. Route surveying: These surveys are special types of surveys conducted along a proposed route for
highway, railway, sewer line etc. Route survey is done along a wide strip. In general, route surveying
also includes the staking out and calculation of the earth work.

6. Mine surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and elevations of
mines, shafts, bore holes etc for underground works. Mine surveys are useful to plan the working of
mines and to compute volumes of materials in mines.

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7. Hydrographic surveys: These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water, such as lakes,
rivers, bays, harbors.

8. Engineering surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the designing and
planning of engineering works such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water
supply lines. These surveys generally include surveys discussed above.

9. Astronomic surveys: These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes, Azimuths, local
time etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).

10. Satellite surveys: These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter datum and
interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth’s satellites.

11. Geological surveys: Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about different strata
of the earth’s surface for geological studies.

12. Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned survey is conducted to obtain information required
for preparation of maps, plans, and sections etc. After the plans have been prepared and the
structures designed, the construction survey is conducted. The points and lines are established on
the ground, and the layout plan of the structure is marked on the ground.

1.3.3. Classification of survey based on instruments used

Based on the instruments used, the surveys can be classified as under:

1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are taken
with a chain or tape.

2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape.

3. Leveling: This is a type of survey in which a leveling instrument is used for determination of relative
elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.

4. Plane table surveys: In plane table surveys, a map is prepared in the field while viewing the terrain
after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements with telescopic
alidade.

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5. Theodolite surveys: A theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles. The theodolite surveys can be broadly classified in two types:

(1) Traverse, (2) Triangulation.

6. Tachometric surveys: A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a stadia
diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair. In
tacheometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured with a
tacheometer.

7. Photogrammetric surveys: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the help of

photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are generally used for topographic mapping of vast areas.

8. EDM Surveys: Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each triangle are
measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed indirectly from the known
sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides and angles are determined.

The various techniques of surveying are used for two distinct purposes; namely

i. The measurement of existing land, buildings, and other features (collecting data);
ii. The setting out works (to lay out designs)

1.4. Care & Handling of Surveying Instruments

Surveying instruments are precious, delicate pieces of equipment varying in Price from a few-to many hundreds
of thousands of Birr even a million.

Proper care & handling or protecting them from damage is necessary in order to keep the instruments in
accurate adjustment and operating conditions. Certain Procedures and requirements must be observed in using
surveying instruments to prevent unnecessary damage and wear & to reduce the occurrences of accidents
during operating, transporting, storing, etc.

1.4.1. Procedures of surveying

In almost all cases of surveying works, surveyors should have full information about the Project location, road
access, availability of health centres, its objective, and in what scale to do, etc.

Hence, any work of Surveying can be performed in the following steps.

1. Desk study and office works- collecting and analysing information, collecting maps, etc.

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2. Research, analysis & decision making- selecting the survey methods, equipments, performing
reconnaissance surveys of the site & so on are performed.
3. Fieldwork or data acquisition- Making measurements and recording data in the field.
4. Computing or data processing- performing calculations based on the recorded data to determine
locations, areas, volumes and so on.
5. Mapping or data representation- Plotting measurements or computed values to prepare maps plans or
charts or Portraying the data in a numerical or computer format.
6. Marking or placing monuments- to delineate boundaries or pages to guide construction operations.
7. Reporting- Preparing a concise written report forms, logical conclusions over the entire surveying task,
and finally all the documents should be documented for future study or use.
1.4.2. Field Books & Field Notes

Most surveyors are confused of field books and field notes, this explanation makes clear or avoid the
ambiguities that field notes are figures, remarks, sketches, etc whereas field books are special formats that the
field notes are recorded. In general, they are valuable documents b/c the time and expense involved in
obtaining such data. No Parts of the operations of surveying is greatest important than the field notes.

1.4.3. Requirements of Good Notes

There are points, which considered in appraising a set of field notes. These are

- Accuracy;
- Integrity;
- Legibility;
- Arrangement and;
- Clarity.

1.5. Units of Measurements and Scale

Surveying basically consists of the following four measurements.

Horizontal distance: A horizontal distance is measured in a horizontal plane. If a distance is measured

along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.

Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at that point. The
vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in elevations (height) of the various points.

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Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is horizontal at that
point.

Vertical angle: Vertical angles are measured between two lines in a plane that is vertical at a point.

1.5.1. Units of Measurements

1.5.1.1. Introduction

The units of scientific measurement have been defined internationally, and have been adopted almost
universally crossing linguistic and cultural boundaries.

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by

convention and/or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical
quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of
measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity and meter is a unit of length that represents a
definite predetermined length.

There are two main systems of measurements

I. M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second) Metric system (SI = System International)

The SI was developed in 1960 from the old meter-kilogram-second system, rather than the centimeter-
gram-second system, which, in turn, had a few variants. International System of
Units (abbreviated SI from the French le Système International d'unités) is the modern form of
the metric system and is generally a system devised around seven base units (i.e. meter, kilogram,
second, ampere, Kelvin, candela, and mole) and the convenience of the number ten.

It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and in science.

The older metric system included several groups of units. Because the SI is not static, units are created
and a definition is modified through international agreement among many nations as the technology of
measurement progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves. Metric unit system is easy
to handle because everything is a multiple or a fraction of ten.

II. F.P.S. (Foot, Pound, Second) British system

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The imperial system is one of many systems of English or foot-pound-second units, so named because
of the base units of length, mass and time. Although most of the units are defined in more than one
system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one
area rather than the other.

1.5.1.2. SI Units of Different Units of measurement

I. The unit of length is the base unit meter (m)

1 Decameter = 101 m = 1dam

1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm

1 kilometer = 103m = 1km

1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm

1 Giga meter = 109m = 1Gm

1 Tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm

1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm

1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mn

1 Micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm

1 Nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm

1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm

II. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter square

1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 X 100 m = 1 ha

1 square kilometer = 10 6 m 2 = 1000m X 1000m = 1km2 = 100 ha

III. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)

1000 cu millimeter = 1 cubic centimeter meter

1000 cu centimeter = 1 cubic decimeter

1000 decimeters = 1 cubic meter

Summary:

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1 chain = 100 links = 4 rods = 20.1168m

1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048m (exactly)

1 inch = 25.4mm

1 mile = 5280 feet = 80 chains

1 nautical mile = 6076.10 feet = 1 minute of arc at the equator

1 hectare = 10,000 m2 = 2.471 acres

1 acre = 4 roods =160 perches = 10 square chains

The SI units for plane Angles

There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal graduation
and radian.

a. Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)

10 = 1/360 full circle = 2π/360 rad = π/180 rad

10 = 60’ (minutes) and 1’ = 60 ‘’ (seconds)

b. Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.

1 full circle = 400 gon/grad

1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2π/400rad = π/200rad

1 gon = 100 c gon (centigon)

1 c gon = 10 milli gon (million)

1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)

c. Radian: The radian (rad is the basic unit of measurement of angles; one radian is defined as the
angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle.
The circumference of a circle equals 2π radians in a circle :

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360 0 = 2π radian and 1 radian = 57.300

1.1.1.1. Conversion of Units

We can convert measurements from one unit to another unit within the same system (English or
Metric) or between the two systems. To convert measurements, it is necessary to know conversion
factors between measurements. A conversion factor is a clever way of writing 1 as a fraction in which
the numerator is equal to the denominator but the numerator and the denominator have different
units.

Conversion of length Conversion of area

1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm

1 foot = 0.3048m 1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm

1mile = 1.6093 km 1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km

Conversion of Volume

1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm

1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m

Conversion of Angles

Examples

- From gon to degree, 48.0488 gon

48.0488 gon X 9/10 = 43.24390

- From degree to gon

43.24390 X 10/9 = 48.048 gon

- From Degree decimal value to degree, minute, second (0, ’, ”)

43.24390 = 430+0.24390

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= 430 + 0.2439X60

= 430 +14.6340’

= 430 +14’+0.6340’X60

= 430+14’+38”

=43014’38”

From degree, minutes, seconds (0, ’,”) to decimal value

430 14’ 38” = 430 +14’/60+38”/3500 = 43.24390

1.1.2. Scale

A plan, graphically represents the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a horizontal
plane. A map generally shows Natural and man-made features on the earth’s surface with additional
information such as relief’s, hachure and contour lines to indicate undulation on the ground. The plan
of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or the map of a town, city country cannot be prepared in
full size on a drawing sheet.

Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to measuring instrument to measure the line or measurement
is used which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a reduced size, this operation being
known as drawing to scale.

1.1.2.1. Scale of a map

Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding distance on the
ground. A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The scale of the
map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the ground or vice versa. The
ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth's surface, is an important factor in
planning and executing military missions. Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and
small. A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than a small scale map. Large denominator
numbers refer to small scale, where as small denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.

Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500

Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000

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Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000

1.1.2.2. Representations of Scale

The following methods are used to represent a scale of a map:

I. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)

II. By representative fraction

III. By graphical Scale

I. By statement (Engineer’s Scale)-According to this representation, a specified distance on the map

represents the corresponding distance on the ground. For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1 cm
on the map represents 100m on the ground.

II.By Representative Fraction (RF)-it is the ration between the distance on the map (plan) and the
distance on the ground.

This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is always
written with the map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure (yards, meters, inches,
and so forth).

R= Dm/Dg Where: Dm = map distance

Dg = corresponding actual distance on the ground

Note: The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same (scale is unit less).

Example: 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm on the ground.

III.By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that its map distance corresponds
to a convenient unit of length on the ground and it is used to convert distances on the map to actual
ground distances. It is also used to determine straight line distance between two points on a map.

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1.1.2.3. Types of measuring scale

1. Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It consists of a line
divided in to suitable numbers of equal parts or units, the first of which is subdivided in to smaller
parts.

5km 3hm

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectometer kilometer

2. Comparative scale- The scales having the common representation fraction but graduated
comparatively to read different units called comparative scales, such as the scales showing
comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree and radians, time and
distance traveled, etc. The advantage is that measurements are taken directly in the desired unit
without any calculations.

centimeter

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1 2 3 4
inch

3. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents either three units or only one unit and its fraction
up to second place of decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable number of equal
parts. The first part is subdivided into suitable number of equal parts, each of which is further
divided into smallest parts by diagonals.

325m

100 0 100 200 300 400

meters meters

4. Vernier Scale - A vernier scale is, an additional, scale which allows a distance or angle
measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly divided straight or

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circular measurement scale. It is a sliding secondary scale that is used to indicate where the
measurement lies when it is in between two of the marks on the main scale

1.1.3. Theory of Errors in Measurements

1.1.3.1. Introduction

In ordinary life, most of us are accustomed to counting but not as much to measuring. Surveying is
concerned with measurements of quantities that are exact or true values may not be determined, such
as distances, elevations, volumes directions etc, if a person were to measure the width of his desk with
a ruler divided in to tenths of an inch, he could estimate the width to hundredths of an inch. If he were
to use a ruler graduated in hundredths of an inch, he could estimate the width to thousandths of an
inch; and so on. Obviously, with better equipment he can estimate an answer that is closer to the exact
value but will never be able to determine the value absolutely.

Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true value of the
quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but they cannot be determined).

1.1.3.2. Necessity for Accurate Surveys

The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to make very accurate measurements. This
fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of the construction of long bridges tunnels. Tall buildings,
and missile sites or the setting of delicate machinery, but it can be just as important in land surveying.

A few decades ago land prices were not extremely high except in and around the largest cities. If the
surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot or a few acres in a farm, it was usually not considered to be a
matter of great importance.

The instruments used for surveying before this century were not very good compared to today’s equipment,
and it was probably impossible for the surveyor to do the quality of work expected of today’s surveyor. Today,
land prices are in most areas very high, and evidently the climb has only begun. In many areas of high
population and in many popular resort areas, land is sold by so many dollars per square foot; therefore, the
surveyor must be able to do splendid work.

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1.2. Theory of Errors in Surveying

1.2.1. Accuracy and Precision

The reliability of measurements can be expressed through many terms, but the most common ones are
accuracy and Precision, since surveying is a measurement science, it is necessary to distinguish the two
terms accuracy & Precision, which, if not understood, cause unnecessary confusion.

The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their correct meanings are a
little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following definitions are presented:

1.2.1.1. Accuracy

Accuracy is the measure of the absolute nearness of a measured quantity

to its true value. Since the true value of a quantity can never be determined, accuracy is always an
unknown.

Accuracy is the degree of conformity with a standard or accepted value. Accuracy relates to the quality
of the result. It is distinguished from precision that relates to the quality of the operation used to
obtain the result. The standard used to determine accuracy can be:

A. An exact known value, such as the sum of the three interior angles of a plane triangle is 180°.
B. A value of a conventional unit as defined by a physical representation thereof, such as the
international meter.
C. A survey or map value determined by superior methods and deemed sufficiently near the ideal
or true value to be held constant for the control of dependent operations.

Although they are known to be not exact, higher order NGS control points are deemed of sufficient
accuracy to be the control for all other less exact surveys.

Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It denotes how close a given
measurement is to the true value of the quantity.

1.2.1.2. Precision

Precision is the degree of consistency between observations based on the sizes of the discrepancies in
a data set. The degree of precision attainable is dependent on the stability of the environment during

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the time of measurement, the quality of the equipment used to make the observations, and the
observer’s skill with the equipment and observational procedures.

Precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an operation (procedures and

instrumentation) or in the statement of a result. It is a measure of the uniformity or reproducibility of
the result.

If a quantity is measured several times and the values obtained are very close to each other, the
precision is said to be high.

Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity is measured. In
other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to another.

In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the distance
measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.

Example:- If a distance of 4200 ft is measured and the error is later estimated to equal 0.7ft, the
precision of the measurement is 0.7/4200 = 1/6000. This means that for every 6000ft
measured, the error would be one ft, if the work were done with this same degree of
precision.

1.2.1.3. Accuracy versus Precision

The accuracy of a field survey depends directly upon the precision of the survey. Although through luck
(compensating errors, for example) surveys with high order closures might be attained without high
order precision, such accuracies are meaningless. Therefore, all measurements and results should be
quoted in terms that are commensurate with the precision used to attain them. Similarly, all surveys
must be performed with a precision that ensures that the desired accuracy is attained. However,
surveys performed to a precision that excessively exceeds the requirements are costly and should be
avoided.

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The figure above illustrates the difference between accuracy and precision. Target A has poor precision because
the points have a large spread. Target B has good precision because the points are very close to each other. The
average location of the points on Target A would be inside the smallest ring. The average location of the points
on Target B would be close to the outer ring in the top left quadrant. The accuracy of the points on Target B is
not as good as the accuracy of the points on Target A.

1.2.2. Sources of Errors

1.2.2.1. Errors

Error is the difference, after mistakes have been eliminated, between a measured or calculated value
of a quantity and the true or established value of that quantity. Surveying deals with the measurement
of distance and angles.

 The true value of such quantities is never known.

 The true value of a quantity is a value, which is absolutely free from all types of errors.
 The true value cannot be determined because some errors always creep in the measured
quantities.
 The errors occur because the instrument cannot be absolutely perfect. Moreover, a surveyor
cannot take the observations correctly because of human limitations. Further, a change in
climatic conditions also limits the accuracy of the measurement.
 True error is the difference between true value and observed value.

Error =True value –Observed value

Surveying deals with the measurement of distance and angles. The true value of such quantities is
never known. The true value of a quantity is never known. The true value of a quantity is a value, which

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Chapter One Introduction to Surveying

is absolutely free from all types of errors. The true value cannot be determined because some errors
always creep in the measured quantities. The errors occur because the instrument cannot be
absolutely perfect. Moreover, a surveyor cannot take the observations correctly because of human
limitations. Further, a change in climatic conditions also limits the accuracy of the measurement. A
major concern in surveying is the precision of the work. The ever present difference between
measured quantities and the true magnitude of those quantities are classified here in as either
mistakes or errors. A mistake (or blunder) is a difference from a true value caused by the inattention of
the surveyor. For instance, he/she may read a number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record the
wrong quantities in the field notes, or may add a column or numbers incorrectly. An error is a
difference from a true value caused by the imperfection of the person’s senses, by the imperfection of
his equipment, or by weather effects, Errors cannot be eliminated but they can be minimized by careful
work, combined with the application of certain numerical corrections. The result is that all
measurements are imperfect.

1.2.2.2. Sources of Errors

There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature. Accordingly, errors in measurement
are generally said: personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some errors do not clearly fit in to
one of these categories and may be due to a combination of factors.

1. Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and touch.

For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor cannot read it perfectly and will
always be either a little large or a little small.

2. Instrumental errors occur because instruments cannot be manufactured perfectly and the different
parts of instruments cannot be adjusted exactly with respect to each other. Moreover, with time the
wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.

3. Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as temperature, wind, humidity,
refraction, and magnetic field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20c, but the field
temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to temperature variation.

1.2.2.3. Types of Errors

In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the following two types.

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1. Systematic or cumulative errors

2. Accidental or random errors

3. Mistakes or Gross errors

1. Systematic errors: Systematic errors follow some well-defined mathematical or physical law or
system. The magnitude and the sign of the systematic errors can be determined and a suitable
correction can be applied to the measured quantity. A systematic error will always have the same sign
and magnitude under the same conditions. For example, if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at a
temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c the tape will be about 3.5mm too long. This
means when the measured distance is 30m, the actual (real) distance is 30.0035m.

There is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every 30m-tape length. The systematic errors are cumulative
in nature. For example, if in the above case the total distance is 300m (i.e. 10 tape lengths) the total
systematic error will be 35mm for a field temperature of 30c.

2. Accidental errors: Accidental errors are random in nature and occur beyond the control of the
surveyor. Random errors do not follow any fixed pattern or law. These errors can be positive or
negative. These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series of measurements, and are, therefore, also
called compensating errors. For instance, when a person reads an angle with a surveying instrument,
he or she cannot read it perfectly, one time he or she will read a value that is too large and the next
time will read a value that is too small since these errors are just as likely to have different signs as the
other, they tend to a certain degree to cancel each other or compensate for each other.

Accidental errors occur due to:

 Imperfection in the instruments

 Human limitation or

 Change in atmospheric conditions

Errors, which remain in the measured quantities after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated or corrected, are generally the accidental errors.

Mistakes occur in measurements due to carelessness inattention, inexperience or poor judgment of

the surveyor.

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For example, if the surveyor reads 13m on a tape as 31m, it would be a mistake.

1.2.2.4. Degree of Accuracy

The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in the measurements .It is usually expressed as
the ratio of the error to the measured quantity. For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000
indicates that there is an error of 1 unit in 10,000 units.

1. Linear measurements. The degree of accuracy of the linear measurement is usually expressed as the
ratio of the standard deviation to the measured distance for example if there is a standard deviation of
+ 0.05m in a measured distance of 584.65m, the degree of accuracy is 1 in 11700 as degree of accuracy
s tan dard devation

Measured dis tan ce
0.05 1
  1
584.65 11693 11700

These days the trend is to express the degree of accuracy as the ration of the standard error (  ) stead
of he probable error thus.

s tan dard error

Degree of Accuracy
measured distace

Traverse. The degree of accuracy of a traverse is usually expressed as the ratio of the
error of closure to the perimeter of the traverse thus:
Error of closure
D.of . Accu 
Total Perimeter of traverse

2. Angular measurements- For angular measurements, the degree of accuracy is usually expressed as

k N

W/r N = Number of angles measured

Angular error of closure

K=
Number of angles measured

K
For example: For an error of 140" in ten (10) angles

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Chapter One Introduction to Surveying

140
K  44" : - degree of acc = 44 N seconds.
10

Leveling- For leveling the degree of accuracy is usually expressed as

Where L= Horizontal length of the route in meter.

K=

For example: - if there is an error of 0.24m in a route of 1000m

0.24
K=  0.0024 Degree accuracy = 0.0024 L W/r L is in meters
10, 000

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