Engr. A. N.

Aniedu
Electronic and Computer Engineering
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
 INTRODUCTION
• In order to sense and measure physical variables
such as pressure, flow, & motion, you need to use
transducers (sensors), which convert physical
variables into electrical signals and transmit these
signals either to a signal conditioning device or
directly to a data acquisition board.
• Instruments measuring physical quantities such
as temperature, stress, displacement, pressure,
flow, etc use respective sensors.
 Introduction contd.
• The sensors receive an insignificant amount of
energy from the medium and produces and
electrical output depending in some way on the
quantity being measured.
• The term ‘transducer’ is also interchangeably
used with the term ‘sensor’ in practice.
• The transducer refers to a device that converts
energy in one form to another, whereas the
sensor refers to a device that receives a signal
and responds with electrical signal

Excitation

Physical Quantity sensor Electrical output

 DEFINITION
• A sensor (also called detector) therefore is a
converter that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal which can be read by an
observer or by an instrument.
• For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer
converts the measured temperature into
expansion and contraction of a liquid which can
be read on a calibrated glass tube.
• A thermocouple converts temperature to an
output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter.
• For accuracy, most sensors are calibrated against
known standards.
 Defn. Contd.
• The relationship between the measurand and the
transducer output signal is referred to as transducer
sensitivity

Transducer sensitivity = Output signal increment

Measurand increment

• A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's

output changes when the measured quantity changes.
• For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1
cm when the temperature changes by 1°C, the
sensitivity is 1cm/°C (it is basically the slope dy/dx
assuming a linear characteristic).
 Defn. Contd.
• Sensors that measure very small changes must
have very high sensitivities.
• Technological progress allows more and more
sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic
scale as microsensors using MEMS (Micro-
Electro-Mechanical Systems) technology.
• In most cases, a microsensor reaches a
significantly higher speed and sensitivity
compared with macroscopic approaches.
• Sensitivity of a transducer should be usually as
high as possible since then it becomes easier to
take the measurements
 Defn. Contd.
• Ideal sensors are designed to be linear to some simple
mathematical function of the measurement, typically
logarithmic.
• The output signal of such a sensor is linearly
proportional to the value or simple function of the
measured property.
• The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between
output signal and measured property.
• For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has
a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the
unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is
constant at all points of measurement.
Sensors may output signals in different formats:
– Analog level (voltage or resistance)
– Analog waveform
– Digital level
– Digital waveform
Most Modern computers require digital inputs
• Actuators convert electrical energy into
mechanical action. They are used as control
elements in process control systems for
controlling the opening or closing of valves, the
precise positioning or movement of objects, the
angle of rotation etc.

• The dc motors, ac motors, stepper motors,

solenoids, and reed relays are a few examples of
actuators
 CLASSIFICATION
Conventionally, sensors are classified into two broad
groups based on energy requirements

1. Sensors generating electrical output on their own

without the need of external power are classified into
Active sensors

2. Sensors requiring external excitation for their

operation are classified into Passive sensors
– Example, thermocouple which generates thermal emf is
classified as active sensor and a resistive temperature
detector (RTD) which requires a current to be passed
through the sensor for its operation is classified as passive
sensor.
 Classification Contd.
Classification based on the type of output

• Analogue transducers:
– These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon
into an analogous output which is a continuous function of
time
– Eg. Strain gauge, thermocouple, thermistor or a linear
voltage differential transformer

• Digital transducers:
– These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon
into an electrical output which may be in a form of pulse
– Eg. Shaft encoders, digital tachometers, limit switches
 Classification Contd.
Classification based on electrical principle involved
• Variable – resistance type:
– Eg, strain and pressure gauges, thermistors, resistant thermometers,
photoconductive cell etc
• Variable - inductance type:
– Eg, linear voltage differential transformer (LVDF), Reluctance pick-up,
Eddy current guage etc
• Variable – capacitance type:
– Eg, capacitor microphone, pressure gauge, dielectric gauge
• Voltage – generating type:
– Thermocouple, photovoltaic cell, rotational motion tachometer,
piezoelectric pick-up
• Voltage – divider type:
– Potentiometer position sensor, pressure-actuated voltage divider
 Classification Contd.
Classification based on property:
 Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, Resistant Temperature
Detectors (RTD’s), IC and many more.
 Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers,
(Linear variable differential transofrmer) LVDT, electronic.
 Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement,
thermal mass, etc.
 Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar,
thermal displacement, etc.
 Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive,
magnetic, ultrasonic.
 Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon
resonance, Light addressable potentio-metric.
 Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS
 Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance,
Electrochemical.
 Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
 Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor,
force, viscosity.
 Classification Contd.

Classification based on Material and Technology

 Surface Plasmon resonance and Light addressable

potentio-metric from the Bio-sensors group are the new
optical technology based sensors.
 CMOS Image sensors have low resolution as compared
to charge coupled devices. CMOS has the advantages of
small size, cheap, less power consumption and hence
are better substitutes for charge coupled devices.
 Accelerometers are independently grouped because of
their vital role in future applications like aircraft,
automobiles, etc and in fields of videogames, toys, etc.
 Magnetometers are those sensors which measure
magnetic flux intensity B (in units of Tesla or As/m2).
 Classification Contd.

Classification based on Application:

 Industrial process control, measurement

and automation
 Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical
products, Automobiles, Consumer
electronics, other type of sensors.
 Classification Contd.

In the current and future applications, sensors can be

classified into groups as follows:

 Accelerometers - These are based on the Micro Electro

Mechanical sensor technology. They are used for patient
monitoring which includes pace makers and vehicle dynamic
systems.
 Biosensors - These are based on the electrochemical technology.
They are used for food testing, medical care device, water
testing, and biological warfare agent detection.
 Image Sensors - These are based on the CMOS technology. They
are used in consumer electronics, biometrics, traffic and
security surveillance and PC imaging.
 Motion Detectors - These are based on the Infra Red, Ultrasonic,
and Microwave / radar technology. They are used in videogames
and simulations, light activation and security detection.
 Selection of sensors/transducers
A good sensor must obey some basic rules.
These include:
• It must be sensitive to the measured property
only
• It must be insensitive to any other property
likely to be encountered in its application
• It does not influence the measured property
The following major considerations need to be
looked into while selecting a sensor:
• Mechanical suitability in terms of
– Physical size, weight and shape
– Mounting arrangement
– Ruggedness
• Electrical suitability in terms of
– Sensitivity
– Frequency response
– Ease of signal transmission
• Environmental suitability in terms of
– Sensitivity to temperature and self-heating effects
– Magnetic fields
– Vibration, dust and humidity
– Supply frequency etc
• Transducer performance in terms of
calibration accuracy
• Desired measurement accuracy and range,
power requirements, overload protection and
vulnerability to sudden failure
• Purchase aspects
• We will describe sensors for measuring
– Temperature
– light
– Pressure/force
– Flow
– Proximity
– Advanced operations
• The principles of operation, their
characteristics, range of operation etc
 TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• Thermocouple
• Resistive temperature detector (RTD)
• Thermistors
• lC temperature detector
 Thermocouple
• widely used in industries for measuring temperatures from
-200°C to + 1750oC.
• Works on the Seebeck principle (ie when two dissimilar
metals or alloys are joined at both ends and one of the
junctions is heated, current flow through the loop (fig 1a).
• If the loop is broken at the center, a potential difference
(thermal emf) is generated between the functions (fig 1b).
• The magnitude of the potential difference depends on the
material forming the function and is proportional to the
temperature difference between the junctions
• Hence the measure of the emf is the measure of the
temperature difference.
• Junction being exposed to heat is known as
hot junction or measuring junction while the
other one is known as cold junction or
reference junction. See fig 1.

_ +
A

Hot cold
B
A B B A
Hot cold

(a) (b)

Fig 1: Principle of operation of thermocouple

 Characteristics of Thermocouples
• The thermal emf produced by thermocouples is
very low and is in the range of-10mV to +50 mV
• Sensitivity is also low and is between 5 to
55uV/oC. It needs high gain amplification. Usually,
a high gain and high input impedance
instrumentation amplifier is used.
• Cold junction introduces errors in measurements.
It needs cold junction compensation.
• The temperature vs. voltage relationship of
thermocouples is non-linear. It needs
linearization.
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)
• This works on the property that resistivity of
metals increases with increase in temperature.
• RTDs use metals like platinum, nickel, tungsten
and copper
• Because resistivity of metals is very small and the
temperature coefficient of resistance is still
smaller, metals used in the RTDs should have
relatively high resistivity and high temperature
resistance coefficient.
• Platinum is the ideal metal for RTDs.
 I

Vo = I(R+∆R)
R+∆R
RTD

Fig 2: Temperature measurement with RTD

• The basic method of measuring temperature with the RTD
is illustrated in Fig 2.
• A constant current is passed through the sensor and the
voltage across the sensor is measured. As the voltage
across the sensor is proportional to the resistance and the
resistance in turn is proportional to the temperature, the
voltage can be calibrated in terms of temperature.
 Characteristics of RTD
• Sensitivity of the RTD is related to temperature resistance
coefficient of the metal used in the RTD.
• It is a very small value therefore it needs signal-conditioning that
effectively increases the measurement sensitivity.
• Bridge circuits are normally used for measuring the small changes in
resistance values.
• Resistance vs. temperature relationship is non-linear for wide range
of temperature. It needs linearization for wide range of
measurements.
• Since, the RTD is a low-resistance device, the connecting lead-wires
also contribute their resistances considerably in measurements. So,
the signal-conditioning circuits for the RTD should eliminate the
effect of lead wire resistances.
• The RTD requires excitation current. Hence, a stable current source
is essential.
 Characteristics of RTD contd.
• Excitation current dissipates power equal to I2R in the device that
leads to sensor selfheating. Hence, it is required to keep the current
through the device at a minimum value.
• Response is very slow and typically the response time varies from
0.5 to 5 seconds. This is mainly because, the temperature of the
device attains the temperature of the medium by thermal
conduction.
• Used for measurements in the temperature range from -250 to
+850°C.
• More accurate and more linear than thermocouple
• Excellent stability and repeatability
• Expensive
• Highly suitable for very precise temperature measurements.
 Thermistor
• Thermistor is a temperature sensitive resistor
made of semiconducting materials
• Their resistance normally decreases as the
temperature of the device increases (negative
temperature coefficient, NTC)
• They have relatively high resistance and high
NTCs.
 Characteristics of thermistors
• Range of measurement is limited to temperatures from
-75 to +300oC only.
• They are available with resistances ranging from few
ohms to 10Mohm.
• High resistance value thermistors (100kΩ to 500kΩ at
25oC) are used for measuring high temperatures (from
150-300oC)
• Intermediate value thermistors (10Ω to 2kΩ) are used
for measuring temperatures (from 75 -150oC)
• Low resistance thermistors (100kΩ to 500kΩ at 25oC)
are used for measuring high temperatures (from -75 to
+75oC)
• Thermistors are highly sensitive and have high NTC.
Comparatively, they are much more sensitive than
RTDs.
• They have very fast response time
• Variation of resistance with temperature is highly non-
linear hence it needs signal conditioning for
linearization of output.
• They are used in applications where precise
measurement is not required.
• They require excitation current which leads to self-
heating.
• Thermistors with positive temperature coefficients
(PTC) are also available. They have different
temperature vs. resistance characteristics and are used
in switching applications. They are used as thermostats
to sense and regulate oven temperatures
 IC Temperature Sensor
• These are active sensors and require power
for operation just like any other IC component
• They consist of electronic circuits that exploit
the temperature characteristics of active
semiconductor junctions.
• They produce current or voltage outputs
proportional to temperature
• Examples are AD590, LM135, LM235, LM335
 Characteristics of IC temperature
sensors
• Available in sensors producing voltage or current
proportional to the temperature.
• Produces comparatively high level outputs
• Mostly linear
• Inexpensive
• Current devices have remote sensing capabilities
• Temperature range is very limited (-50 to +150oC)
• Does not require complex signal conditioning
circuits.
Comparison of characteristics of temperature sensors
SIGNAL
SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS CONDITIONING RANGE, OC
NEEDS
Thermocouple Low output voltage Cold-junction -200 to +1600
compensation,
high amplification,
linearization
RTD Low sensitivity, non-linear Current excitation, -250 to +850
output, wide range, low linearization
resistance output, low
sensitivity
Thermistor Resistance 10 to 10ΩM Voltage excitation, -100 to +200
NTC, high sensitivity, reference resistor,
highly non-linear, fast linearization
response time
IC temperature High level voltage or Power source, -50 to +150
sensor current output, linear moderate gain
output amplifier
FORCE AND PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
• To convert force or pressure (force/area) to a
proportional electrical signal, two most
common methods are used:
– strain gauges or
– linear variable differential transformers (L VDTs).
• Both of these methods involve moving
something. This is why we refer to them as
transducers rather than sensors.
 Strain Gauges and Load Cells
• A strain gauge is small resistor whose value changes when its length
is changed.
• It may be made of thin wire, thin foil, or semiconductor material.
• Figure 3a shows a simple setup for measuring force or weight with
strain gauges.
• One end of a piece of spring steel is attached to a fixed surface.
• A strain gauge is glued on the top of the flexible bar. The force or
weight to be measured is applied to the unattached end of the bar.
• As the applied force bends the bar, the strain gauge is stretched,
increasing its resistance. Since the amount that the bar is bent is
directly proportional to the applied force, the change in resistance
will be proportional to the applied force.
• If a current is passed through the strain gauge, then the change in
voltage across the strain gauge will be proportional to the applied
force.
Strain gauges
Spring steel strip Strain gauges Spring steel strip

Weight b a
(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 3: Strain gauge used to measure force:

a) Side view b) Top view (expanded) c) circuit connections
• Unfortunately, the resistance of the strain-gauge element also changes with
temperature. To compensate for this problem, two strain-gauge elements,
mounted at right angle as shown in Fig 3b are often used.
• Both of the elements will change resistance with temperature, but only
element A will change resistance appreciably with applied force.
• When these two elements are connected in a balance-bridge configuration,
as shown in Fig 3c, any change in the resistance of the elements due to
temperature will have no effect on the differential output of the bridge.
• However, as force is applied, the resistance of the element under strain will
change and produce a small differential output voltage. The full-scale
differential output voltage is typically 2 or 3m V for each volt of excitation
voltage applied to the top of the bridge. For example, if 10v is applied to the
top of the bridge, the full-load output voltage will be 20 or 30mV.
• This small signal can be amplified with a differential amplifier or an
instrumentation amplifier.
• Strain-gauge bridges are used in many different forms to measure many
different types of force and pressure.
• If the strain-gauge bridge is connected to a bendable beam structure, as
shown in 3a, the result is called a load cell and is used to measure weight.
 Mutual Inductance Transducer
• A two-coil mutual inductance transducer
consists of two coils: an energizing coil X and a
pick-up coil Y (fig 4).
• A change in the position of the armature by a
mechanical input changes the air gap.
• This causes a change in the output from coil Y,
which may be used as a measure of the
displacement of the armature, ie the
mechanical input.
Figure 4: Mutual Inductance Transducer
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and is
commonly used to measure force (or weight,
pressure and acceleration etc which depends on
force) in terms of the amount of direction of
displacement of an object.
• The LVDT consists of:
– one primary winding (p),
– two secondary windings (s1 and s2) which are placed
on either side of the primary winding and mounted on
the same magnetic core,
– And a magnetic core (fig 5a and b)
Figure 5: Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
a) and b) Composition and connections
c) Pressure measurement in LVDT
• When the core is in the center (called
reference position) the induced voltage E1 and
E2 are equal and opposite hence they cancel
out and the output voltage Vo is zero.
• When the external applied force moves the
core towards coil s2, E2 is increased but E1 is
decreased in magnitude they are still
antiphase with each other. The net voltage
available is (E2-E1) and is in phase with E2.
• Similarly, when the movable core moves
towards coil s1, E1>E2 and Vo = E1-E2 and is in
phase with E1
• The magnetic core is free to move axially inside the coil
assembly and the motion being measured is
mechanically coupled to it.
• The two secondaries s1 and s2 have equal number of
turns but are connected in series opposition so that
emfs (E1 and E2) induced in them are 180o out of
phase with each other and hence, cancel each other
out.
• The primary is energized from a suitable A.C. source
• Hence the magnitude of Vo is a function of the
distance moved by the core and its polarity or phase
indicates which direction it has moved.
• If the core is attached to a moving object, the
magnitude and polarity of Vo gives the position of the
object (fig 5c).
 Touch Sensor

• A touch sensor acts as a variable resistor as

per the location where it is touched. The
figure is as shown in fig 1 below.
• A touch sensor is made of:
– Fully conductive substance such as copper
– Insulated spacing material such as foam or plastic
– Partially conductive material (see fig 1)
Touch Sensor: Principles of Operation

Fig 6: Touch sensor working principle

 Touch Sensor: Principles of Operation
• The partially conductive material opposes the flow of current.
• The main principle of the linear position sensor is that the current
flow is more opposed when the length of this material that must be
travelled by the current is more.
• As a result, the resistance of the material is varied by changing the
position at which it makes contact with the fully conductive
material.
• Generally, software are interfaced to the touch sensors. In such a
case, a memory is being offered by the software.
• They can memorize the ‘last touched position’ when the sensor is
deactivated. They can memorize the ‘first touched position’ once
the sensor gets activated and understand all the values related to it.
• This act is similar to how one moves the mouse and locates it at the
other end of mouse pad in order to move the cursor to the far side
of the screen.
 Touch Sensor: Application
The touch sensors being cost effective and durable are
used in many applications such as
• Commercial – Medical, vending, Fitness and gaming
• Appliances – Oven, Washing machine/dryers, dishwashers,
refrigerators
• Transportation – Cockpit fabrication and streamlining
control among the vehicle manufacturers
• Fluid level sensors
• Industrial Automation – Position and liquid level sensing,
human touch control in automation applications
• Consumer Electronics – Provides a new feel and level of
control in various consumer products
 very important
LIGHT/PHOTO SENSORS note

• A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the

intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that
exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically
called “light”, and which ranges in frequency from “Infra-
red” to “Visible” up to “Ultraviolet” light spectrum.
• Light sensors are more commonly known as
“Photoelectric Devices” or “Photo Sensors” because they
convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).
• Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main
categories,
1. Those which generate electricity when illuminated, such
as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives etc, and
2. Those which change their electrical properties in some way
such as Photo-resistors or Photo-conductors. This leads to
the following classification of devices.
• Photo-emissive Cells:
– These are photodevices which release free electrons from
a light sensitive material such as caesium when struck by a
photon of sufficient energy.
– The amount of energy the photons have depends on the
frequency of the light and the higher the frequency, the
more energy the photons have converting light energy into
electrical energy.
• Photo-conductive Cells:
– These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when
subjected to light.
– Photoconductivity results from light hitting a
semiconductor material which controls the current flow
through it.
– Thus, more light increase the current for a given applied
voltage.
– The most common photoconductive material is Cadmium
Sulphide used in LDR photocells.
• Photo-voltaic Cells:
– These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the
radiant light energy received and is similar in effect to
photoconductivity.
– Light energy falls on to two semiconductor materials
sandwiched together creating a voltage of approximately
0.5V.
– The most common photovoltaic material is Selenium used
in solar cells.
• Photo-junction Devices
– These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor
devices such as the photodiode or phototransistor which
use light to control the flow of electrons and holes across
their PN-junction.
– Photojunction devices are specifically designed for
detector application and light penetration with their
spectral response tuned to the wavelength of incident
light.
Some photo-junction devices include:

1. Photodiodes :
– "Photodiodes" are semiconductor junction diodes which are
connected into a circuit in reverse bias, so giving a very high
resistance, so that when light, falls on the , junction the diode
resistance drops and the current in the circuit rises appreciably
– A photodiode can be used as a variable resistance device controlled by
the light incident on it.
– These diodes have a very fast response to light

2. Photo resistor :
– It has a resistance which depends on the intensity of the light falling
on it, decreasing linearly as the intensity increases.
– The cadmium sulphide photoresistor is most responsive to light having
wavelengths shorter than about 515 nm and the cadmium selinide
photoresistor for wavelengths less than about 700 nm.
– An array of light sensors is often required in a small space in order to
determine the variations of light intensity across that space.
3. Photo transistors :
– The phototransistors have a light-sensitive collector-base P-N junction.
When there is no incident light there is a very small collector-to-emitter
current. When light is incident, a base current is produced that is directly
proportional to the light intensity. This leads to the production of a
collector current which is then a measure of the light intensity.
– Phototransistors are often available as integrated packages with the
photo transistor connected in a Darlington arrangement with a
conventional transistor (Fig. 6). Since this arrangement gives a higher
current gain, the device gives a much greater collector current for a given
light intensity.

Figure 7: Photo Darlington

• To control the flow rate of some material in electronics
factory, it needs to be measured. Depending on the
material, flow rate, and temperature, different methods
could be used
• One method of measuring flow is with a differential
pressure transducer, as shown in Figure 8.A wire mesh or
screen is put in the pipe to create a difference in pressure
between the two sides of the screen. The pressure
transducer gives an output proportional to the difference in
pressure between the two sides of the resistance. In the
same way that the voltage across an electrical resistor is
proportional to the flow of current through the resistor, the
output of the pressure transducer is proportions to the
flow of a liquid or gas through the pipe.
 FLOW SENSORS
• Flow is defined as the rate (volume or area per unit time) at which a
substance travels through a given cross section and is characterized
at specific temperatures and pressures.
• To control the flow rate of some material in electronics factory, it
needs to be measured.
• The instruments used to measure flow are termed flow meters.
• The main components of a flow meter include the sensor, signal
processor and transmitter.
• Flow sensors use acoustic waves and electromagnetic fields to
measure the flow through a given area via physical quantities, such
as acceleration, frequency, pressure and volume. As a result, many
flow meters are named with respect to the physical property that
helps to measure the flow.
 Common Types of Flow Meters
• The flow rate as determined by the flow sensor is
derived from other physical properties. The
relationship between the physical properties and
the flow rate is derived from fundamental fluid
flow principles, such as Bernoulli’s equation.

1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters

• These sensors work according to Bernoulli’s
principle which states that the pressure drop
across the meter is proportional to the square of
the flow rate.
Examples include:
1a Orifice Meter
• Orifice plates are installed in flow meters in order to calculate the
material balances that will ultimately result in a fluid flow
measurement on the sensor.
• An orifice plate is placed in a pipe containing a fluid flow, which
constricts the smooth flow of the fluid inside the pipe.
• By restricting the flow, the orifice meter causes a pressure drop
across the plate. By measuring the difference between the two
pressures across the plate, the orifice meter determines the flow
rate through the pipe.
• Orifice meters used in conjunction with DP (Differential Pressure)
cells are one of the most common forms of flow measurement.
• Orifice meters are not only simple and cheap, they can also be
delivered for almost any application and be made of any material.

Figure 8: Orifice Meter

1b Venturi Meter
• These can pass 25 – 50% more flow than an orifice meter.
• Here the fluid flowrate is measured by reducing the cross
sectional flow area in the flow path, generating a pressure
difference.
• After the constricted area, the fluid is passes through a
pressure recovery exit section, where up to 80% of the
differential pressure generated at the constricted area, is
recovered.
• The Venturi meter is most commonly used for measuring very
large flow rates where power losses could become significant.
• It has a higher start up cost than an orifice, but is balanced by
the reduced operating costs.

Figure 9: Venturi Meter

1c Flow Nozzle
• Flow nozzles are often used as measuring elements for air and gas flow in
industrial applications.
• At high velocities, Flow Nozzles can handle approximately 60 percent
greater liquid flow than orifice plates having the same pressure drop.
Hence for measurements where high temperatures and velocities are
present, the flow nozzle may provide a better solution than an orifice
plate.
• Its construction makes it substantially more rigid in adverse conditions and
the flow coefficient data at high Reynolds numbers is better documented
than for orifice plates.
• Liquids with suspended solids can also be metered with flow nozzles.
• However, the use of the flow nozzles is not recommended for highly
viscous liquids or those containing large amounts of sticky solids. The
turndown rate of flow nozzles is similar to that of the orifice plate. The
flow nozzle is relatively simple and cheap, and available for many
applications in many materials.

Figure 10: Flow Nozzle

1d Pitot Tubes
• Pitot tubes measure the local velocity due to the pressure
difference between points 1 and 2 as in fig below.
• Unlike the other differential flow meters, the pitot tubes only
detect fluid flow at one point rather than an overall calculation.
• Each pitot tube has two openings, one perpendicular to the flow
and one parallel to the flow. The impact tube has its opening
perpendicular to the fluid flow, allowing the fluid to enter the tube
at point 2, and build up pressure until the pressure remains
constant. This point is known as the stagnation point. The static
tube, with openings parallel to the fluid flow gives the static
pressure and causes a sealed fluid of known density to shift in the
base of the tube. Pressure drop can be calculated using the height
change along with the fluid densities and the equation below.

• with Δp as the pressure drop, ρA as the known fluid density, ρ as

flowing fluid’s density, and g as the acceleration due to gravity.

Figure 11: Pitot Tube

2. Direct Force Flow Meters
• These flow meters are governed by balancing forces within
the system.Examples include:

2a Rotameter
• A rotameter is a vertically installed tube that increases in
diameter with increasing height.
• The meter must be installed vertically so that gravity effects
are easily incorporated into the governing equations.
• Fluid flows in through the bottom of the tube
and out through the top. Inside the glass tube
there is a float that changes position with the
flow rate.
• When there is no liquid flow, the float rests in
the bottom of the meter.

Figure 12: Rotameter

2b Turbine Meter
• A turbine wheel is placed in a pipe that holds the flowing fluid.
• As the fluid flows through the turbine, the turbine is forced to rotate at a
speed proportional to the fluid flow rate.
• A magnetic pick-up is mounted to the turbine wheel, and a sensor records
the produced voltage pulses.
• Voltage information can then be translated into the actual flow meter
reading.
• main advantages of the tubine meter over conventional differential head
devices is they are more accurate registration of flow in the low flow range
of process operation. This results from the registration being proportional
to the velocity rather than the velocity square
• Another advantage to using this type of flow
meter is reliability. Additionally, the turbine flow
meter does not have a high installation cost.
• However, due to the turbine wheel motion, a
low to medium pressure drop can result. Turbine
wheel replacement may also be required due to
abrasion caused by particles within the fluid.
Figure 13: Turbine Meter
2c Propeller Flow Meter
• Propeller flow meters have a rotating element similar to
the wheel in turbine meters, hence rotation is caused by
fluid flow through the propeller, and voltage pulses are
created as the propeller passes a magnetic or optical
sensor.
• Similarly, the frequency of the pulses is proportional to flow
rate of the fluid and the voltages can be directly correlated
with the fluid flow rate
• Propeller flow meters are often used specifically with
water, though other fluids may also be used.
• Low cost coupled with high accuracy make propeller flow
meters a common choice in many applications.

Figure 14: Propeller Flow Meter

2d Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
• A Coriolis flow meter harnesses the natural phenomenon wherein an object
will begin to “drift” as it travels from or toward the center of a rotation
occurring in the surrounding environment. A merry-go-round serves as a
simple analogy; a person travelling from the outer edge of the circle to its
center will find himself deviating from his straight-line path in the direction
of the ride’s rotation.
• Coriolis flow meters generate this effect by diverting the fluid flow through
a pair of parallel U-tubes undergoing vibration perpendicular to the flow.
• This vibration simulates a rotation of the pipe, and the resulting Coriolis
“drift” in the fluid will cause the U-tubes to twist and deviate from their
parallel alignment. This Coriolis force producing this deviation is ultimately
proportional to the mass flow rate through the U-tubes.

where Fc is the Coriolis force observed, w is the angular velocity

resulting from rotation, and x is the length of tubing in the flow meter.
• Because the Coriolis flow meter measures the mass flow rate of the fluid,
the reading will not be affected by fluctuations in the fluid density.
Furthermore, the absence of direct obstructions to flow makes the Coriolis
flow meter a suitable choice for measuring the flow of corrosive fluids. Its
limitations include a significant pressure drop and diminished accuracy in
the presence of low-flow gases.
Figure 15: Coriolis Flow Meter
3. Frequency Flow Meters
• These flow meters use frequency and electronic signals to calculate the flow
rate. Examples include

3a Vortex Shedding Flow Meter

• A blunt, non-streamline body is placed in the stream of the flow through a
pipe.
• When the flow stream hits the body, a series of alternating vortices are
produced, which causes the fluid to swirl as it flows downstream.
• The number of vortices formed is directly proportional to the flow velocity
and hence the flow rate.
• The vortices are detected downstream from the blunt body using an
ultrasonic beam that is transmitted perpendicular to the direction of flow.
As the vortices cross the beam, they alter the carrier wave as the signal is
processed electronically, using a frequency-to-voltage circuit.
• Vortex-shedding flow meters are best used in turbulent flow with a Reynolds
number greater than 10,000.
• One advantage of using this type of flow meter is its insensitivity from
temperature, pressure, and viscosity. The major disadvantage to using this
method is the pressure drop caused by the flow obstruction
Figure 16: Vortex Shedding Flow Meter
 PROXIMITY SENSOR

• A proximity sensor detects the presence of

objects that are nearly placed without any point
of contact.
• Since there is no contact between the sensors
and sensed object and lack of mechanical parts,
these sensors have long functional life and high
reliability.
• The different types of proximity sensors are
Inductive Proximity sensors, Capacitive Proximity
sensors, Ultrasonic sensors, photoelectric
sensors, Hall-effect sensors, etc.
 Proximity Sensor: Working Principles

• A proximity sensor emits an electromagnetic

or electrostatic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (such as infrared),
and waits for the return signal or changes in
the field.
• The object which is being sensed is known as
the proximity sensor's target.
Proximity Sensor: Working Principles

Fig 17: Ultrasonic sensor working principle

 Proximity Sensor: Types
• Inductive Proximity sensors
– They have an oscillator as input to change the loss resistance by the proximity of an
electrically conductive medium. These sensors are preferred for metal targets.
• Capacitive Proximity sensors
– They convert the electrostatic capacitance variation flanked by the detecting
electrode and the ground electrode. This occurs by approaching the nearby object
with a variation in an oscillation frequency. To detect the nearby object, the
oscillation frequency is transformed into a direct current voltage which is compared
with a predetermined threshold value. These sensors are preferred for plastic
targets.
• An ultrasonic sensor
– They are used to detect the presence of an object. It achieves this by emitting
ultrasonic waves from the device head and then receiving the reflected ultrasonic
signal from the concerned object. This helps in detecting the position, presence and
movement of objects. Since ultrasonic sensors rely on sound rather than light for
detection, it is widely used to measure water-levels, medical scanning procedures
and in the automobile industry. Ultrasonic waves can detect transparent objects
such as transparent films, glass bottles, plastic bottles, and plate glass, using its
Reflective Sensors.
 Proximity Sensor: Applications

Sensors are used in many kinds of applications such

as:
• Used in automation engineering to define operating
states in process engineering plants, production
systems and automating plants
• Used in windows, and the alarm is activated when the
window opens
• Used in machine vibration monitoring to calculate the
difference in distance between a shaft and its support
bearing
• Shock Detection
• Machine monitoring applications
Proximity Sensor: Applications contd.

• Vehicle dynamics
• Low power applications
• Structural Dynamics
• Medical Aerospace
• Nuclear Instrumentation
• As pressure sensor in Mobiles ‘touch key pad’
• Lamps which brighten or dim on touching its base
• Touch sensitive buttons in elevators
 ADVANCED SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

• Sensor technology is used in wide range in the

field of Manufacturing. The advanced
technologies are as follows:
 Advanced Sensor Technology : Bar-code
Identification
• The products sold in the markets has a Universal
Product Code (UPC) which is a 12 digit code.
• Five of the numbers signify the manufacturer and
other five signify the product.
• The first six digits are represented by code as light and
dark bars.
• The first digit signifies the type of number system and
the second digit which is parity signifies the accuracy of
the reading.
• The remaining six digits are represented by code as
dark and light bars reversing the order of the first six
digits. Bar code is shown in figure 3 below.
Advanced Sensor Technology : Bar-
code Identification

Fig 18: Example of a bar code

 Advanced Sensor Technology : Transponders

• In the automobile section, Radio frequency device is

used in many cases.
• The transponders are hidden inside the plastic head of
the key which is not visible to anyone. The key is
inserted in the ignition lock cylinder.
• As you turn the key, the computer transmits a radio
signal to the transponder. The computer will not let the
engine to ignite until the transponder responds to the
signal.
• These transponders are energized by the radio signals.
The figure of a transponder is as shown in figure 4
below
Advanced Sensor Technology : Transponders

Fig 19: Example of a transponder

 Advanced Sensor Technology : Others

• Electromagnetic Identification of Manufactured

Components
– This is similar to the bar code technology where the data can
be coded on magnetic stripe. With magnetic striping, the data
can be read even if the code is concealed with grease or dirt.
• Surface Acoustic Waves
– This process is similar to the RF identification. Here, the part
identification gets triggered by the radar type signals and is
transmitted over long distances as compared to the RF
systems.
• Optical Character Recognition
– This is a type of automatic identification technique which uses
alphanumeric characters as the source of information. In
United States, Optical character recognition is used in mail
processing centres. They are also used in vision systems and
voice recognition systems.