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Erivations of Elected Quations: Equation 2-3
Erivations of Elected Quations: Equation 2-3
D ERIVATIONS OF S ELECTED
E QUATIONS B
Equation 2–3
The average value of a half-wave rectified sine wave is the area under the curve divided by
the period (2p). The equation for a sine wave is
v = Vpsin u
p Vp
area 1
VAVG = = Vpsin u du = (-cos u)|p0
2p 2p L0 2p
Vp Vp Vp
= 3-cos p - (-cos 0)4 = 3-(-1) - (-1)4 = (2)
2p 2p 2p
Vp
VAVG =
p
Equation 2–12
Refer to Figure B–1.
t
–
vC = Vp(rect)e RLC
Vp(rect)
Vr( pp)
0 tdis
T
䊱 FIGURE B–1
Therefore,
vC(min) = Vp(rect) a1 - b
T
RLC
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is
Vp(rect)T Vp(rect)T
Vr(pp) = Vp(rect) - VC(min) = Vp(rect) - Vp(rect) + =
RLC RLC
Vr(pp) ⬵ a bV
1
fRLC p(rect)
Equation 2–13
To obtain the dc value, one-half of the peak-to-peak ripple is subtracted from the peak value.
Vr(pp)
= Vp(rect) - a bV
1
VDC = Vp(rect) -
2 2fRLC p(rect)
VDC = a1 - bV
1
2fRLC p(rect)
Equation 6–1
The Shockley equation for the base-emitter pn junction is
IE = IR(eVQ>kT - 1)
where IE = the total forward current across the base-emitter junction
IR = the reverse saturation current
V = the voltage across the depletion layer
Q = the charge on an electron
k = a number known as Boltzmann’s constant
T = the absolute temperature
At ambient temperature, Q>kT ⬵ 40, so
IE = IR(eV40 - 1)
Differentiating yields
dIE
= 40IReV40
dV
Since IReV40 = IE + IR,
dIE
= 40(IE + IR)
dV
Assuming IR 6 6 IE,
dIE
⬵ 40IE
dV
The ac resistance r¿e of the base-emitter junction can be expressed as dV>dIE.
dV 1 25 mV
r¿e = ⬵ ⬵
dIE 40IE IE
Equation 6–14
The emitter-follower is represented by the r parameter ac equivalent circuit in Figure B–2(a).
D ERIVATIONS OF S ELECTED E QUATIONS ◆ B-3
R1
βac Ib βac Ib
Rs || R1 || R2
B
Rs r ′e r ′e
E
Vs R2 RE Ie RE Ve = Vout
(a) (b)
䊱 FIGURE B–2
Conventional current direction shown.
By thevenizing from the base back to the source, the circuit is simplified to the form
shown in Figure B–2(b). Vout = Ve, Iout = Ie, and Iin = Ib.
Ve
Rout =
Ie
Ie ⬵ b acIb
With Vs = 0 and with Ib produced by Vout, and neglecting the base-to-emitter voltage drop
(and therefore r¿e),
Ve
Ib ⬵
R1 || R2 || Rs
Assuming that R1 7 7 Rs and R2 7 7 Rs,
Ve
Ib ⬵
Rs
b acVe
Iout = Ie =
Rs
Vout Ve Ve Rs
b acVe>Rs
= = =
Iout Ie b ac
Looking into the emitter, RE appears in parallel with Rs>b ac. Therefore,
Rout = a b || RE
Rs
b ac
VGS(off) 2
a b
0.5 = J 1 - K
F
VGS(off)
Solving for F,
VGS(off)
a b
F 1
10.5 = 1 - = 1 -
VGS(off) F
1
10.5 - 1 = -
F
1
= 1 - 10.5
F
1
F = ⬵ 3.4
1 - 10.5
Therefore, ID ⬵ 0.5IDSS when VGS = VGS(off)/3.4.
Equation 9–2
IDRS 2
ID ⬵ IDSS a1 - b = IDSS a1 - b a1 - b
IDRS IDRS
VGS(off) VGS(off) VGS(off)
I2DR2S IDSSR2S 2
= IDSS a1 - b = IDSS -
2IDRS 2IDSSRS
+ 2 ID + 2 ID
VGS(off) VGS(off) VGS(off) VGS(off)
Rearranging into a standard quadratic equation form,
IDSSR2S
a bI2D - a1 + b I + IDSS = 0
2IDSSRS
V2GS(off) VGS(off) D
The coefficients and constant are
R2SIDSS
A =
V2GS(off)
B = - a1 + b
2RSIDSS
VGS(off)
C = IDSS
In simplified notation, the equation is
AI2D + BID + C = 0
The solutions to this quadratic equation are
-B ; 2B2 - 4AC
ID =
2A
Equation 9–10
A general model of a switched-capacitor circuit, as shown in Figure B–3(a), consists of a
capacitor, two voltage sources, V1 and V2, and a two-pole switch. Let’s examine this circuit
D ERIVATIONS OF S ELECTED E QUATIONS ◆ B-5
0 T/2 T
Position 1 Position 1 Position 1
I1 1 2
V1 C V2 Position 2 Position 2
0 T/2 T
(a) (b)
䊱 FIGURE B–3
for a specified period of time, T. Assume that V1 and V2 are constant during the time period
T and V1 7 V2. Of particular interest is the average current I1 produced by the source V1
during the time period T.
During the first half of the time period T, the switch is in position 1, as indicated in
Figure B–3(b). The capacitor charges very rapidly to the source voltage V1. Therefore, an
average current I1 due to V1 is charging the capacitor during the interval from t = 0 to
t = T/2. During the second half of the time period, the switch is in position 2, as indicated.
Because V1 7 V2, the capacitor rapidly discharges to the voltage V2. The average current
produced by the source V1 over the time period T is
Q1(T/2) - Q1(0)
I1(avg) =
T
Q1(0) is the charge at t = 0 and Q1(T/2) is the charge at t = T/2. Therefore, Q1(T/2) - Q1(0)
is the net charge transferred while the switch is in position 1.
The capacitor voltage at T/2 is equal to V1, and the capacitor voltage at 0 or T is equal to
V2. By substituting CV for Q in the previous equation,
CV1(T/2) - CV2(0) C1V1(T/2) - V2(0)2
I1(avg) = =
T T
Since V1 and V2 are assumed to be constant during T, the average current can be expressed as
C(V1 - V2)
I1(avg) =
T
Figure B–4 shows a conventional resistive circuit with two voltage sources. From Ohm’s
law, the current is I1 R
V1 - V2 V1 V2
I1 =
R
The current I1(avg) in the switched-capacitor circuit is equal to I1 in the resistive circuit.
䊱 F I G U R E B –4
C(V1 - V2) V1 - V2
I1(avg) = =
T R
By solving for R and canceling the V1 - V2 terms,
T(V1 - V2)
R =
C(V1 - V2)
T
R =
C
As you can see, a switched-capacitor circuit can emulate a resistor with a value deter-
mined by the time period T and the capacitance C. Remember that the two-pole switch is
in each position for one-half of the time period T and that you can vary T by varying the
frequency at which the switches are operated.
B-6 ◆ A PPENDIX B
Equation 10–1
An inverting amplifier with feedback capacitance is shown in Figure B–5. For the input,
V1 - V2
I1 =
XC
Factoring V1 out,
V1(1 - V2 > V1)
I1 =
XC
The ratio V2>V1 is the voltage gain, -Av.
V1(1 + Av) V1
XC > (1 + Av)
I1 = =
XC
䊳 FIGURE B–5 C
I1 I2
V1 Av V2
Equation 10–2
For the output in Figure B–6,
V2 - V1 V2(1 - V1>V2)
I2 = =
XC XC
Since V1>V2 = -1>Av,
V2(1 + 1>Av) V2 V2
XC>(1 + 1>Av) XC>[(Av + 1)>Av]
I2 = = =
XC
The effective reactance as seen from the output is
XC
XCout(Miller) =
(Av + 1)>Av
1 1
=
2pfCout(Miller) 2pfC[(Av + 1)>Av]
D ERIVATIONS OF S ELECTED E QUATIONS ◆ B-7
Cout(Miller) = C a b
Av + 1
Av
Av(tot) = Av(mid) a b
1
21 + ( fcl>f )2
The gain ratio is
Av(tot) 1
21 + ( fcl>f )2
=
Av(mid)
For a multistage amplifier with n stages, each with the same fcl and gain ratio, the product
of the gain ratios is
n
a b
1
21 + ( fcl>f )2
The critical frequency f cl ¿ of the multistage amplifier is the frequency at which
Av(tot) = 0.707Av(mid), so the gain ratio at f cl
¿ is
Av(tot) 1 1
= 0.707 = =
Av(mid) 1.414 12
Therefore, for a multistage amplifier,
n
= c d =
1 1 1
12 21 + ( fcl>f c¿ l)2 (21 + ( fcl>f c¿ l)2)n
So
21/2 = (21 + ( fcl>f cl
¿ )2)n
Squaring both sides,
2 = (1 + ( fcl>f cl
¿ )2)n
B-8 ◆ A PPENDIX B
a b = 221>n - 1
fcl
f cl
¿
fcl
f cl
¿ =
22 1>n
- 1
A similar process will give Equation 10–30:
¿ = fcu 221>n - 1
f cu
Vfinal
0.9 Vfinal
t
–
Vfinal 1 – e RC
0.1 Vfinal
t
0 tr
When v = 0.9Vfinal,
0.9Vfinal = Vfinal(1 - e - t>RC) = Vfinal - Vfinale - t>RC
Vfinale - t>RC = 0.1Vfinal
ln e - t>RC = ln (0.1)
t
- = -2.3
RC
t = 2.3RC
D ERIVATIONS OF S ELECTED E QUATIONS ◆ B-9
Equation 12–21
The formula for open-loop gain in Equation 12–19 can be expressed in complex notation as
Aol(mid)
Aol =
1 + jf>fc(ol)
Substituting the above expression into the equation Acl = Aol>(1 + BAol) gives a formula
for the total closed-loop gain.
Aol(mid)>(1 + jf>fc(ol))
1 + BAol(mid)>(1 + jf>fc(ol))
Acl =
Equation 14–1
In Figure B–7 the common-mode voltage, Vcm, on the noninverting input is amplified by
the small common-mode gain of op-amp A1. (Acm is typically less than 1.) The total output
voltage of op-amp A1 is
A similar analysis can be applied to op-amp A2 and results in the following output
expression:
Vin1 + Vcm +
Vout1 R3 R5
A1
–
R1
–
RG R2 A3 Vout = Acl (Vin2 – Vin1)
+
–
R4
A2
Vout2
Vin2 + Vcm + R6
䊱 FIGURE B–7
Op-amp A3 has Vout1 on one of its inputs and Vout2 on the other. Therefore, the differ-
ential input voltage to op-amp A3 is Vout2 - Vout1.
Equation 16–1
Vout R(-jX)>(R - jX) R(-jX)
= =
Vin (R - jX) + R(-jX)>(R - jX) (R - jX)2 - jRX
D ERIVATIONS OF S ELECTED E QUATIONS ◆ B-11
Equation 16–2
From the derivation of Equation 16–1,
R2 - X2 = 0
R2 = X2
R = X
1
Since X = ,
2pfrC
1
R =
2pfrC
1
fr =
2pRC
C C C
I1 I2 I3
Vin R R R Vout
䊱 FIGURE B–8
B-12 ◆ A PPENDIX B