Goals of Lecture 1-2

EE 332 • Explore the history of electronics.

DEVICES AND CIRCUITS II • Quantify the impact of integrated circuit
technologies.
Lecture 1
• Describe classification of electronic signals.
Introduction to Electronics(1)
• Review circuit notation and theory.
• Introduce tolerance impacts and analysis.
• Describe problem solving approach

The Start of the Modern Electronics Era Electronics Milestones

1874 Braun invents the solid-state 1958 Integrated circuit developed by
rectifier. Kilby and Noyce
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum 1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild
tube. Semiconductor
1907-1927 1963 IEEE formed from merger or IRE
First radio circuits de-veloped from and AIEE
diodes and triodes. 1968 First commercial IC opamp
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent 1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented
filed. by Dennard at IBM.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell 1971 4004 Intel microprocessor
Laboratories invent bipolar introduced.
transistors. 1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor 1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
production at Texas Instruments. 1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell The first germanium bipolar transistor. receive Nobel prize.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share
Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented Roughly 50 years later, electronics Nobel prize
the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of
the world GDP

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 Evolution of Electronic Devices Microelectronics Proliferation

• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.

• World transistor production has more than doubled every
year for the past twenty years.
Vacuum Discrete
• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all
Tubes Transistors
previous years combined.
• Approximately 109 transistors were produced in a recent
year.
SSI and MSI VLSI • Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the world .
Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits *Source: Gordon Moore’s Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid
State Circuits Conference.

Rapid Increase in Density of

Device Feature Size Microelectronics
• Feature size reductions
enabled by process
innovations.
• Smaller features lead to
more transistors per unit
area and therefore higher
density.

Memory chip density Microprocessor complexity

versus time. versus time.

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 Signal Types Analog and Digital Signals

• Analog signals take on

continuous values -
typically current or
voltage.
• Digital signals appear at
discrete levels. Usually
we use binary signals
• Analog signals are • After digitization, the
which utilize only two
levels. continuous in time and continuous analog signal
voltage or current. becomes a set of discrete
• One level is referred to as
(Charge can also be used values, typically separated
logical 1 and logical 0 is
assigned to the other level. as a signal conveyor.) by fixed time intervals.

Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion

• Analog input voltage vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number.

• For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed • For a four bit converter, 0 -> vx input yields a 0000 -> 1111 digital
as: −1 −2 −n
VO = (b1 2 + b2 2 + ... + bn 2 )VFS •
output.
Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the n-
bit output. Error is expressed as:
• The smallest possible voltage change is known as the least
significant bit or LSB. Vε = v x − (b1 2 −1 + b2 2 −2 + ... + bn 2 − n )V FS
VLSB = 2−n VFS

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 A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic Notational Conventions

• Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal

v T = V DC + V sig
iT = I DC + i sig

• Resistance and conductance - R and G with same

subscripts will denote reciprocal quantities. Most
convenient form will be used within expressions.
1 1
Gx = and gπ =
Rx rπ
Vε = v x − (b1 2−1 + b2 2−2 + ... + bn 2−n )VFS

Problem-Solving Approach What are Reasonable Numbers?

• Make a clear problem statement. • If the power suppy is +-10 V, a calculated DC bias value of 15 V (not
• List known information and given data. within the range of the power supply voltages) is unreasonable.
• Define the unknowns required to solve the problem. • Generally, our bias current levels will be between 1 uA and a few
hundred milliamps.
• List assumptions.
• Develop an approach to the solution. • A calculated bias current of 3.2 amps is probably unreasonable and
should be reexamined.
• Perform the analysis based on the approach.
• Peak-to-peak ac voltages should be within the power supply voltage
• Check the results.
range.
– Has the problem been solved? Have all the unknowns been found?
– Is the math correct?
• A calculated component value that is unrealistic should be rechecked.
For example, a resistance equal to 0.013 ohms.
• Evaluate the solution.
– Do the results satisfy reasonableness constraints?
• Given the inherent variations in most electronic components, three
significant digits are adequate for representation of results. Three
– Are the values realizable?
significant digits are used throughout the text.
• Use computer-aided analysis to verify hand analysis

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 Circuit Theory Review: Voltage Circuit Theory Review: Voltage
Division Division (cont.)
v1 = i s R1 and v 2 = i s R2 Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
Applying KVL to the loop,
8 kΩ
v s = v1 + v 2 = i s (R1 + R2 ) v1 = 10 V = 8.00 V
8 kΩ + 2 kΩ
vs
and is = 2 kΩ
R1 + R2 v 2 = 10 V = 2.00 V
8 kΩ + 2 kΩ
Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula:
R1 R2 Design Note: Voltage division only applies when both
v1 = v s v2 = vs
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 resistors are carrying the same current.

Circuit Theory Review: Current

Circuit Theory Review: Current Division Division (cont.)
vs vs
i s = i1 + i 2 where i1 = and i 2 = Using the derived equations
R1 R 2 with the indicated values,
Combining and solving for vs,
3 kΩ
1 RR i1 = 5 ma = 3.00 mA
vs = is = i s 1 2 = i s R1 || R2 2 kΩ + 3 kΩ
1 + R2
1 1 R
+ 2 kΩ
R1 R2 i 2 = 5 ma = 2.00 mA
2 kΩ + 3 kΩ
Combining these yields the basic current division formula:
R2 R1
i1 = i s i2 = i s Design Note: Current division only applies when the same
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 voltage appears across both resistors.

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 Circuit Theory Review: Thevenin and Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Norton Equivalent Circuits Thevenin Equivalent Voltage
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent voltage at the output.
Solution:
• Known Information and
Given Data: Circuit topology
and values in figure.
• Unknowns: Thevenin
equivalent voltage vTH.
• Approach: Voltage source vTH
is defined as the output voltage
with no load.
• Assumptions: None.
• Analysis: Next slide…

Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage
Applying KCL at the output node,
v −v v
βi1 = o s + o = G1 (v o − v s ) + G S v o
R1 RS
Current i1 can be written as: i1 = G1 (v o − v s )
Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (cont.)
Using the given component values:
(β + 1)R S v = (50 + 1)1 kΩ v = 0.718 v
vo =
(β + 1)R S + R1 s (50 + 1)1 kΩ + 1 kΩ s s

Combining the previous equations and

G1 (β + 1)v s = [G1 (β + 1) + G S ]v o v TH = 0.718v s

G1 (β + 1) RR (β + 1)R S v
vo = vs × 1 S =
G1 (β + 1) + G S R1R S (β + 1)R S + R1
s

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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Thevenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)
Problem: Find the Thevenin Applying KCL,
equivalent resistance.
Solution: i x = −i1 − βi1 + G S v x
• Known Information and = G1v x + βG1v x + G S v x
Given Data: Circuit topology
and values in figure. = [G1 (β + 1) + G S ]v x
• Unknowns: Thevenin
equivalent voltage vTH. Test voltage vx has been added to the vx 1 R1
previous circuit. Applying vx and Rth = = = RS
• Approach: Voltage source solving for ix allows us to find the i x G1 (β + 1) + G S β +1
vTH is defined as the output Thevenin resistance as vx/ix.
voltage with no load.
R1 20 kΩ
• Assumptions: None. Rth = RS = 1 kΩ = 1 kΩ 392 Ω = 282 Ω
• Analysis: Next slide… β +1 50 + 1

End of Lecture 1