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Electronic Circuits I
Topic 1
Introduction to Electronics
Chap 1 - 1
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Topic Goals
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell The first germanium bipolar transistor.
Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented Roughly 50 years later, electronics
the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of
the world GDP.
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Chap 1 - 4
Electronics Milestones
Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors
Chap 1 - 10
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Microelectronics Proliferation
• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
• World transistor production has more than doubled every
year for the past twenty years.
• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all
previous years combined.
• Approximately 1018 transistors were produced in a recent
year.
• To compare:
– Number of cells in a human body - 1014
Chap 1 - 11
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Microelectronics Proliferation
• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
• World transistor production has more than doubled every
year for the past twenty years.
• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all
previous years combined.
• Approximately 1018 transistors were produced in a recent
year.
• To compare:
– Number of cells in a human body - 1014
– Number of seconds elapsed since Big Bang –
• The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
• The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
• The most significant bit (MSB) - VMSB
?
• The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
• The most significant bit (MSB) - V 1
MSB 2 VFS , f .i. {1000000}
• The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
• The most significant bit (MSB) - V 1
MSB 2 VFS , f .i. {1000000}
• Then for an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:
• The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
• The most significant bit (MSB) - V 1
MSB 2 VFS , f .i. {1000000}
• Then for an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:
VO (b1 21 b2 22 ... bn 2 n )VFS
(b1 2n 1 b2 2n 2 ... bn 20 )2 n VFS
• The least significant bit (LSB) - the smallest possible binary number
(smallest voltage change) is known as resolution of the converter.
VLSB 2 n VFS , f .i. {0000001}
• The most significant bit (MSB) - V 1
MSB 2 VFS , f .i. {1000000}
• Then for an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
VFS
VLSB / 2
16
1 1
Gx and g
Rx r
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Chap 1 - 47
5. Circuit Theory Review: Thévenin and
Norton Equivalent Circuits
Thévenin
Norton
Thévenin
Norton
Thévenin
Norton
1 1 1 1 RS
vo vi , vo vi
R1 RS R1 1 RS R1
v th 0.718v i
Applying KCL,
vx
i1 i1 ix 0
RS
vx
where i1
R1
v 1 ( 1) RS R1
we get ix x vx 0 , or ix vx 0
RS R1 R1 RS
vx RS R1 (1 k)(20 k)
Rth 282
ix ( 1) RS R1 (50 1)(1 k) 20 k
Applying KCL,
i1 i1 in 0
0 vi vi
Where 1 i
R1 R1
1
Thus in vi
R1 Short circuit at the output causes
zero current to flow through RS.
50 1 vi
in vi (2.55 mS)vi
20 k 392
Rth is equal to Rth found earlier.
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Chap 1 - 61
Final Thévenin and Norton Circuits
Check of Results: Note that vth = inRth and this can be used to check the
calculations: inRth=(2.55 mS)vi(282 ) = 0.719vi, accurate within
round-off error.
2 bk
2 1
A0 a0 , Ak ak bk , k tan
ak
Signal Spectrum
The spectrum of the periodic signal is the graph of the Fourier coefficients
vs the harmonic frequencies.
Chap 1 - 67
NJIT ECE-271 Dr. S. Levkov
Circuit Analysis with Tolerances
• Worst-case analysis
– Parameters are manipulated to produce the worst-case min and
max values of desired quantities.
– This can lead to over design since the worst-case combination of
parameters is rare.
– It may be less expensive to discard a rare failure than to design for
100% yield.
• Worst-case analysis
– Parameters are manipulated to produce the worst-case min and max
values of desired quantities.
– This can lead to over design since the worst-case combination of
parameters is rare.
– It may be less expensive to discard a rare failure than to design for 100%
yield.
• Monte-Carlo analysis
– Parameters are randomly varied to generate a set of statistics for desired
outputs.
– Based on that we calculate the average values and optimize the design
so that failures due to parameter variation are less frequent than failures
due to other mechanisms.
– In this way, the design difficulty is better managed than a worst-case
approach.
Now we need to figure out how to find the min and max possible of the
voltage and current in question.
Now we need to figure out how to find the min and max possible of the
voltage and current in question.
R1 V
VO VI I
R1 R2 R2
1
R1
Now we need to figure out how to find the min and max possible of the
voltage and current in question.
Now we need to figure out how to find the min and max possible of the
voltage and current in question.
Now we need to figure out how to find the min and max possible of the
voltage and current in question.
1 max 1 min
R1 18 K (1.05) R1 18K (0.95)
WC WC