CHAPTER 1

Structural Modeling Techniques

and Guidelines

T
he modeling and design of structures without the use of computers is
now the exception rather than the rule. In recent years, not only has
computer modeling become more efficient and user-friendly, our
customers have generally come to expect that this will provide them the
most economical and cost-efficient design. Building codes and standards
have also continued to change and in many instances require the use of
more complicated analysis techniques. In some cases modeling of the
structure, including 3D spatial, stiffness, and nonlinear effects, is mandated
by code provisions. Building materials continue to increase in strength.
While this has the benefit of using less material, it is at the cost of reducing
the local and overall stiffness of the structures. The result is that the
engineer is faced with the task of designing the structure for more
complicated codes and standards which inherently have less stiffness, in a
faster amount of time than in years past. While the use of computers and
software can aid in designing the structure, it is increasingly important for
the engineer to ensure that the level of modeling agrees with the details of
what is actually built. Assumptions of stiffness, load, load path,
connections, effects of nonstructural components, and so on should all be
verified at critical steps in the design process.
This book will provide a background of how STAAD.Pro handles modeling
and design of beams, plates, connections, and other structural elements as
well as the distribution of forces and structure displacements. It will also
explain the development of the appropriate loads and load combinations to
be included in the model. In regards to wind and seismic, the code
provisions and their effect on the structural model will be explained
including the design of individual elements such as collectors, drag struts,
and diaphragms. The prescribed analysis methods required from steel and
concrete codes, including the recently adopted Direct Analysis Method for
steel design, will be covered. The design and detailing of individual
elements, such as beams and columns, to meet the code specifications and
detailing requirements will be presented for both steel and concrete. The
required details to provide proper bracing and stability to the structure and
individual members will also be presented. The ability of the STAAD.Pro
model to export to other programs such as STAAD.foundation and RAM
Connection will also be discussed along with appropriate examples.
Complete building examples for steel and concrete will be provided to
present all concepts in a single concise format.
STAAD.Pro is state-of-the-art software that enables the engineer to handle a
wide range of structures, building codes, materials, and loading
requirements. The engineer should have an intimate knowledge with all of
the program assumptions and limitations. Structures such as steel and
concrete buildings, process towers, bridges, tank farms, transmission towers
may be analyzed and designed; however, it is the engineer who must decide
how to develop the analytical model to represent these physical structures.
The engineer must know the differences in the physical structure and the
analytical model. For example, while most design drawings are based on
and dimensioned from finish floor or top of steel, the analytical model
utilizes the centerline of the element. While this has little effect on a braced
frame structure, an analytical model of a moment frame developed using
the top of steel would exhibit a greater displacement under lateral loads.
The result of which could be heavier columns and beams to control the drift
of the building. On the other hand, considering a column base sitting on a
concrete pier and foundation to be “fixed” may result in underestimating the
building drift since rotation of the foundation can occur. Consideration
should also be given to the design criteria and assumptions that are used as
input into the analytical model. The accuracy of this information and its
application to a particular structure should be given careful consideration. If
information is general in nature or perhaps from referenced standards, it
may be prudent to utilize a greater level of safety in the design. For
example, the soil subgrade modulus is an important parameter for mat
foundation and slab design. However, the test methods to determine this
value can vary and the type and magnitude of load can affect this parameter.
For this situation, multiple analyses may be considered so that a bounded
solution is obtained. Connections of individual elements should also be
evaluated to ensure that the analytical model represents the physical
condition. Differences may occur due to brace work points, connection
eccentricity, offsets of the physical member from the theoretical intersection
and other conditions. The result is usually additional bending moment or
torsion required to be carried by the member.

FIGURE 1–1 Physical Model at a Braced Joint

FIGURE 1–2 Analytical Model at a Braced Joint

In the preceding figure the analytical beams intersect the column at

different locations. This is due to the use of different beam depths. The
actual brace and analytical brace centerline may or may not intersect the
centerline of the beam to which it is connected. In addition the actual
column height coincides with the top of the beam and not the centerline. In
this case the typical method of modeling is shown Figure 1–3, with the top
of steel used as the work point for analytical beams, columns, and braces.

FIGURE 1–3 Typical analytical model using top of steel for intersection of member work
points

Another example of differences in the analytical and physical model is

shown in the following figure indicating elevated concrete slab construction
supported by steel framing. The analytical beam centerline and the
centerline of the concrete slab do not coincide. It would be possible to
model this condition using rigid links, member offsets, and so on; however,
this would greatly complicate the model making it difficult to interpret the
results and make any changes later that may be required. It would be typical
to model the beam and slab interface assuming that their centerlines are
coincident. It should be noted that there are some instances when it may be
necessary to model this offset condition, such as discontinuous diaphragms,
but this is not generally the case.

FIGURE 1–4 Physical Model at Elevated Slab

FIGURE 1–5 Difference in elevation between slab and beam centerline results in disjointed
structure
FIGURE 1–6 Typical analytical model using top of steel and bottom of slab for intersection
of member work points

Geometry Modeling
As mentioned previously, it is standard practice for the analytical model to
be based on centerline to centerline dimensions of members. It is also
generally acceptable to model floor to floor heights using the dimension
from top of member to top of member. This will usually result in a
conservative design; however, there are instances when this method will not
capture local effects on the member. It is crucial that the analytical model
and construction drawings be checked for consistency to ensure the design
intent is met. The following figure shows the analytical model for a braced
frame. Let’s examine and compare this with the actual construction details
that may be used to build the structure.
Detail 1 is at the intersection of the wide flange column and beam. Since the
connection of the simply supported W18 is to the flange of the W14
column, there will be an additional moment imparted to the column. This
moment will be equivalent to the beam end shear multiplied by one-half the
depth of the column.
The use of the OFFSET command in STAAD.Pro will allow the user to
model these types of conditions in the structure. Since the member offset
command will also reduce the length of the member, it is recommended to
perform the design using the centerline to centerline dimensions and then
verify the members selected using the OFFSET command in a separate
analysis. This command can be located under the Beam/Specification tab.
The user will need to assign the location as either the start or end of the
member and specify the offset dimension in the current model units. The
user also has the option of assigning the offset using the global or local
coordinate system. It should be noted that the use of the OFFSET command
creates a rigid link between the connection node and the offset beam. The
effect of this is to not only reduce the member length but also to increase
the overall stiffness of the structure. Care should be exercised when using
the OFFSET command and investigating member deflections, frame
stability, and so on.

FIGURE 1–7 Typical Braced Frame

FIGURE 1–8 Detail 1 – Beam to Column Flange Connection

FIGURE 1–9 STAAD.Pro OFFSET Command

Detail 2 is at the intersection of the column base and the vertical brace. In
many instances, construction details may dictate the geometry at this
location. It is not uncommon to raise the brace work point above the
column base to aid in the erection of the structure. This is especially true in
cases where the floor slab may be installed prior to receiving steel on site.
In lieu of modeling this condition with the OFFSET command it is
recommended to insert a node to represent the brace work point. This will
allow the proper calculation of beam shears and moments based on elastic
beam theory. Since the OFFSET command assumes a “rigid” end, it will
not properly model this condition.

FIGURE 1–10 Detail 2 – Brace Offset at Column Base

Detail 3 occurs at the intersection of the vertical bracing and a beam or

girder. Since the brace frames to a gusset plate welded to the bottom flange
of the W18, there is potential to introduce an additional moment to both the
beam and the brace depending on the connection details. Careful review of
the fabrication drawings is needed to ensure that the connection details
align with the design intent. Let us assume that the braces intersect at the
bottom flange. In this case the connection will produce an additional
moment in the beam as shown in Figure 1–11. The OFFSET command
could again be used to account for this connection eccentricity. There is also
additional moment introduced to the brace due to this connection detail.
Since the angle is attached to the face of the gusset, there is an eccentricity
equivalent to half the gusset thickness plus the distance to the member
center-of-gravity. The OFFSET command would not be appropriate for
accounting for this additional moment. The brace capacity would need to be
verified by hand or with a spreadsheet-type application. It is common
practice to consider this additional moment for braces loaded in
compression but ignore this effect for tension braces, as tension acts to
counteract the buckling effect of the additional moment.

FIGURE 1–11 Detail 3 – Vertical Brace Connection Eccentricity

Load Path Considerations

Computer modeling has in many ways improved the ability of the engineer
to model and design complicated structures. But for this very reason, it has
made it more difficult to determine and isolate the load path through the
structure. While allowing the analysis software to distribute loads
throughout the structure due to stiffness and connection parameters may
seem logical, it produces several issues that must be addressed:

• Isolating a single load path through the structure allows the engineer,
fabricator, and connection designer to easily understand the specific
design requirements. If the load path is left unidentified, it becomes
 extremely difficult to convey the proper information to a connection
engineer, as well as to check the fabrication drawings for compliance with
the design documents.
• The inherent redundancy of the structure is reduced by allowing
distribution of loads throughout the system. If, for example, a member is
required to be relocated or moved in the future, the load distribution could
change substantially.
• A complicated load path is more difficult to check and may result in
errors that would be difficult to address after fabrication.
Let’s consider a typical floor framing plan supporting a grating floor. The
lateral stability of the floor is provided by a horizontal truss system. Struts
are provided to brace beam compression flanges as well as to provide a path
to deliver local loads to the horizontal truss system. We will first compare
the results from a hand analysis (single load path), with the analysis in
STAAD.Pro (multiple load paths). We will then look at modeling
techniques that may be employed to ensure that the loads follow the
intended load path.
FIGURE 1–12 Process Structure Floor

FIGURE 1–13 Loading to Horizontal Truss

FIGURE 1–14 Hand Analysis Results

FIGURE 1–15 STAAD Analysis Results

From the preceding results it can be seen that there can be a significant
difference between the STAAD results and traditional hand analysis. While
these STAAD results may represent the actual distribution of loads through
the structure, the load path is much more complicated. The use of the
appropriate beam specification will provide the ability to more closely
match the traditional hand results. In the original STAAD model for this
floor, the beam releases MY and MZ were used to signify that the members
were all simply supported. If we were also to release the horizontal shear,
FZ, then we would prevent the beams from being able to distribute weak
axis shear. This would more closely match the constructed condition as it is
not typical to design connections for this weak axis shear. Since our model
consists of horizontal trusses in both directions, the use of the INACTIVE
member command can be used. This command instructs the program to
make the selected members inactive. This command may be used for a
selected load case and then these members reactivated using the PERFORM
ANALYSIS followed by the CHANGE command.
Using the previous example, let’s modify the STAAD file to account for
these additional specifications.
FIGURE 1–16 Interactive Members

LOAD 1 LOADTYPE None TITLE E1

MEMBER LOAD
4 9 31 TO 36 57 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 UNI GX 0.5
PERFORM ANALYSIS
CHANGE
INACTIVE MEMBER 83 TO 89 100 101 106 107
LOAD 2 LOADTYPE None TITLE E2
MEMBER LOAD
22 24 38 39 43 TO 54 92 96 UNI GZ 0.5
PERFORM ANALYSIS
CHANGE
The above commands instruct the program to make the highlighted
members inactive for Load 2. The CHANGE command is used to reactivate
the members for further analysis if required.
FIGURE 1–17 Members with FZ Release

MEMBER RELEASE
1 TO 12 20 26 28 30 37 40 TO 42 91 93 97 START
FZ MY MZ
15 18 23 29 31 34 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 91 95 98 99
102 144 146 164 166 -
168 END FZ MY MZ
The above commands instruct the program to release not only the start and
end moments but also the weak axis shear. The results of the modified
analysis are shown in Figure 1–18. These results are in close agreement to
the hand calculations.

FIGURE 1–18 STAAD Analysis Results after Modification of Beam Specifications

Shortening of members can also result in load paths that differ from
traditional analysis methods. A typical example of this occurs for the
columns and vertical braces from relatively tall heavily loaded structures. In
this example, we will look at the differences in the computer analysis model
when compared to hand results for the load combination of D+L+W.

FIGURE 1–19 Gravity Load, D+L

From a hand analysis, which ignores member stiffness, the maximum

reaction at the base of the middle column is equal to 400 kips, compared to
323 kips from the STAAD model. In the STAAD model it can be shown
that the vertical braces actually share the load applied to the column. If you
were to increase or decrease the axial stiffness of this column member, the
reactions would increase and decrease, respectively. For the vertical brace,
the hand analysis indicates a maximum brace force of 70.7 kips, compared
to 122 kips from the STAAD analysis. It should be noted that the use of the
INACTIVE MEMBER command in STAAD.Pro may be used to verify the
results of the hand analysis.

FIGURE 1–20 Lateral Load, W

FIGURE 1–21 STAAD Results D+L+W
FIGURE 1–22 Hand Results D+L+W

Several design issues can arise as a result of these differences in the two
analysis methods. If, for example, a change in the building layout results in
vertical brace relocation, a column that was meeting the design
requirements may now be overstressed under gravity loads. Depending on
the situation, the engineer may be wise to design the vertical members
without aid from the lateral bracing elements. In addition, it can be seen that
the bracing forces increase by 73% as a result of the vertical loads being
shared by the braces. The fabrication and connection details should also be
investigated at the brace-to-column intersection to ensure that they support
the analysis assumptions. In tall structures, where this affect is magnified,
an analysis that considers all of these items should be considered.

Diaphragm Modeling
One of the main contributors to the stability of a structure is the horizontal
diaphragm. The diaphragm acts to distribute lateral loads from a floor or
roof level to the vertical frame elements of the lateral force resisting system.
It is important to understand the type and construction of the diaphragm to
be used and the effects of the diaphragm stiffness on the load distribution
and deflection of the system. The impact of discontinuities such as
openings, re-entrant corners, and offsets are important aspects of the
structural design as well. In some cases, the building code may even require
3D modeling to account for these effects. The two basic diaphragm types
are the rigid and flexible diaphragms, which are classified based on how the
load is distributed to the vertical resisting elements. In recent editions,
building codes have introduced the concept of the semi-rigid diaphragm
which is a hybrid of the two main types, and may be a truer representation
of the real structure behavior. It can result in a more complicated model that
also takes longer to analyze.

Rigid Diaphragm
The rigid diaphragm assumes that the in-plane deformations anywhere
within the diaphragm are equal. The stiffness of the diaphragm is assumed
to be much greater than the supporting frames resulting in rigid body
behavior in both translation and rotation. It is typically constructed of
concrete or concrete fill on metal deck. The loads in rigid diaphragms are
distributed to the supporting frames based on the relative stiffness of those
frames. Torsional effects must be considered when the center of mass and
center of frame stiffness do not coincide. In general, concrete slabs are
considered rigid when the span to depth ratio is 3 or less. If large or
multiple openings are present, the use of the rigid diaphragm assumption
should be carefully evaluated.
The modeling of rigid diaphragms in STAAD.Pro is a straightforward
process. Let’s create a rigid diaphragm for the structure in Figure 1–23. For
this example, a load of 20 kips is applied at each column line. The stiffness
of all three X-braced frames is also modeled to be equal.
FIGURE 1–23 Rigid Diaphragm Example

From the General > Specifications tab select the Node . . . button to bring
up the Node Specifications window. In this window select the node that will
be the master for all other nodes that make up the diaphragm. It is generally
not important which node is selected as long as it is part of the diaphragm
and in the same plane as the other nodes of the diaphragm. Then select the
degrees of freedom for which all other nodes will be linked to the master.
The Rigid option links all degrees of freedom and is the default. For the
case of the horizontal diaphragm we only want to link the translations in the
plane of the diaphragm and the rotation about the axis perpendicular to the
diaphragm. For our example, we will unselect the default Rigid option and
then select the ZX box. Note this is equivalent to selecting the FZ, FX, and
MY degrees of freedom. After closing the node specification window, we
then need to select all nodes, including the master, which make up the
diaphragm.
FIGURE 1–24 Rigid Diaphragm Results

Flexible Diaphragm
The flexible diaphragm system assumes that the diaphragm will behave as
an elastic beam, and that its stiffness is relatively small when compared to
the supporting frames. The deflection of the diaphragm is based on its
stiffness and is not dependent on the stiffness of the supporting frames.
Flexible diaphragms are typically constructed of wood or metal deck. In
creating a flexible diaphragm model, it is common to distribute the loads to
the supporting frames based on hand calculations and to not include the
stiffness of the diaphragm in the model. If this option is used, care should
be taken in determining the proper distribution of load to the supporting
frames. Also if changes that may affect the load distribution take place (i.e.,
heavy equipment moves in the building or brace locations change),
additional time may be needed to verify or change the loads in the model.
Using the structure in Figure 1–23, the load distribution to the supporting
frames using the flexible diaphragm idealization would be as shown in
Figure 1–25. These reactions would then be applied in the analysis model to
design the frames.

FIGURE 1–25 Flexible Diaphragm Results

“Real” Diaphragm
The finite element modeling capabilities make STAAD.Pro a useful tool in
modeling the real-world effects of both the frame and diaphragm stiffness
of the structure. This is particularly useful for structures of complicated
construction or with diaphragm or frame irregularities. The process
involves modeling the diaphragm with plate elements with material
properties and thickness applied to represent the actual construction. It is
typical to mesh the plate elements such that they are connected with the
major framing members of the structure to which the diaphragm is
connected. This is necessary to ensure proper distribution of the loads
applied to the beams into the diaphragm and then to the supporting frames.
For all but the simplest of cases it is not recommended to apply the loads
directly to the plate elements, as this can introduce a high degree of
complication, if loads are required to move or additional members are
added to the model. The PLANE STRESS plate specification should be
used to ensure that the diaphragm is modeled in such a way as to not
provide any transverse stiffness, which may act to share the load with the
beam members. Also, as was demonstrated previously in the horizontal
diaphragm example, the FZ release should be specified so that the beams do
not act to share a portion of the lateral load through weak axis bending.
Revisit the rigid diaphragm model from Figure 1–23 and model the floor as
a 6" thick concrete slab and again as a metal deck. There are several
methods available for creating the plate elements. Since the beam spacing is
equal, one method is to create one plate between adjacent beams and then
subdivide to the desired number of plates. These plate elements can then be
copied to the remaining beams.

FIGURE 1–26 Plate Tool Location

FIGURE 1–27 Draw a plate between nodes 3, 17, 26, and 4.

FIGURE 1–28 Using the plate Selection cursor, right-click on the plate and then select
Generate Mesh.

FIGURE 1–29 The user has the option of selecting polygonal or quadrilateral meshing.
Select quadrilateral meshing.
FIGURE 1–30 Select the desired number of divisions for the plate and select apply.

FIGURE 1–31 Select all of the newly created plates and use the copy/paste feature. Select
the reference point option. Use the paste command to copy the plates to the remaining
beam spans.

Another option is to use the parametric meshing capabilities built into

STAAD. This provides the ability to preview the mesh and make changes
prior to merging it with the model. It also has the benefit of being able to be
modified later in case of geometry changes. From within the Geometry tab
select the Parametric Models tab and then select the Add button.

FIGURE 1–32 Parametric Model Display

In the New Mesh Model window the user has the option to name the mesh
model. This is useful if multiple areas or floors are required to be meshed
within the same model. The user can also choose to use nodes and beams
within the outer boundary drawn to create additional density points and
lines. It is typical to leave this checked as the default. Once OK is selected,
the plate draw tool is activated and the user can draw the outer boundary of
the area to be meshed.
FIGURE 1–33 Name the Diaphragm

FIGURE 1–34 Options for Mesh Creation

Once the outer boundary is drawn, the mesh parameters window is

displayed. This window gives the user many options for defining the mesh
requirements. It should be noted that all of these can be modified later after
the preliminary mesh is created. For our example we will choose the
standard meshing method along with the quadrilateral element type. For
boundary connectivity, it is typical to choose option C and have
STAAD.Pro optimize the mesh quality. The user may choose to enter a
target element size and the default number of divisions along the boundary
edges, but since we have chosen the optimize mesh options these are not
necessary inputs. Once the user is satisfied with the options chosen, the user
should select OK. At this point, an additional window will open to allow the
user to input any openings in the mesh, and the user should select NO for
this example. The preliminary mesh will be generated and displayed
onscreen along with the initial mesh parameter assumptions. If necessary,
the user may choose to modify the initial settings in the Parametric Models
window on the right-hand side of the screen. Once satisfied with the mesh,
select the merge mesh button to generate the plate elements in the actual
model. Nodes will be automatically created for plate connectivity to the
supporting beams.
At this point, the properties of the plate elements and the plate
specifications can be created. From the General<Properties tab select the
Thickness . . . button in order to specify the plate thickness and material.
From the thickness window, input the 6" slab thickness and specify the
material to be concrete before selecting ADD. Note that the default concrete
material specification assumes the compressive strength to be 3,000 psi. If
different materials need to be created, then the General<Material tab can be
selected. Assign the newly created property to all of the plates in the model.
From the General<Spec tab select the Plate . . . button to create the
appropriate specifications for the diaphragm.
FIGURE 1–35 Visual Display of Mesh Created

Since we do not want to include the transverse stiffness of the plates, the
PLANE STRESS specification should be assigned. There are no additional
settings for this parameter, so select ADD at this point and then assign it to
all of the plates in the model.
FIGURE 1–36 Member Properties

FIGURE 1–37 Assign Plate Thickness and Material Property

FIGURE 1–38 Element Specifications

FIGURE 1–39 Available Plate Specifications

FIGURE 1–40 Results of “Real” Concrete diaphragm

There are many options available for modeling the stiffness effects of
corrugated metal deck including its connections. The stiffness of the metal
deck can be greatly influenced by the type and number of connections,
concrete fill, rigid board topping for roof application, and so on. All of
these influences should be considered when modeling this type of system. It
is recommended to perform a parametric study with varying deck stiffness
to determine the effects of this parameter on both load distribution and
building displacement. For bare steel deck, the Steel Deck Institute
indicates that the stiffness of metal deck is an order of magnitude less than
flat continuous plates of similar thickness. This can be used as the initial
input into the model, which can be adjusted later once the diaphragm shear
and subsequent connection requirements are known. Per the Steel Deck
Institute’s Diaphragm Design Manual:
Effective Modulus, G = G′/t, with steel base material G = 11,300 ksi.
For this example, assume G′ = 15 kip/in resulting in an equivalent plate
thickness of 0.00133 inches. The result of replacing the concrete thickness
from the previous example with this steel plate is shown in the following
figure.

FIGURE 1–41 Results of “Real” steel diaphragm

Torsion
There are many situations in which torsion can be introduced to a member.
Many times, for simplicity, the design model does not include all
miscellaneous framing, outriggers, parapet support details, bent plates for
slab edges, equipment supports, and many other conditions where torsion
could be imparted to the supporting members. Proper detailing can
eliminate or greatly reduce the impact of torsion on supporting elements.
When this can’t be done, then torsional effects should be accounted for in
the design model. Some typical situations where torsion may occur are
shown in Figures 1–42 to 1–45. The end connections of members required
to resist torsion must also be properly specified and designed in order to
agree with the modeling assumptions. These connection assumptions can
have a significant impact on the amount of rotation the member may
undergo as well as the torsional stresses developed. The specific torsion
design requirements for steel and concrete will be presented later in their
appropriate chapters. Due to specific design requirements and guidelines, it
may be desirable to use STAAD.Pro to determine the member forces,
moments, and reactions and use a specialized application to perform the
appropriate code checks.

FIGURE 1–42 Lug-Supported Vessel

FIGURE 1–43 Channel Outrigger

FIGURE 1–44 CMU Wall Support

FIGURE 1–45 Precast Double-Tee Support

Modeling the torsional effects in STAAD.Pro can be handled by utilizing

the built-in load application features within the program, or to model the
eccentricity using member elements. In order to properly capture the
torsional stresses along the length of the beam, it is recommended to model
the torsion using member elements. Figure 1–46 indicates a steel beam with
a channel outrigger, with the ends of the member being pinned or fixed for
torsion. A load is applied at the end of the outrigger, which as detailed will
result in twisting the supporting member. The theoretical model and the
resulting torsional moment diagram is shown in Figure 1–47. To model the
effect of the torsion using the load parameters use the concentrated force
selection located under the member force tab. See Figure 1–48 for the
resulting torsional moment diagram. Since there is no node located at the
center of the beam for this option, the results at the member ends are the
same, but the moment along the beam does not match the theoretical.
Therefore, it can be determined that if only the end forces or reactions are
of concern, the load application method may be used. However, if the local
beam effects are desired, the torsion should be modeled using member
elements.
FIGURE 1–46 Steel Beam with Channel Outrigger

FIGURE 1–47 Modeling torsion with member elements

FIGURE 1–48 Modeling torsion with built-in loads

Member Releases and Supports

In STAAD.Pro, member releases can be used to specify the appropriate end
condition of the member. If no release is specified, the member is assumed
to be fully restrained to resist bending and torsional moments as well as
forces. Member releases should not be applied to members where the
TRUSS, MEMBER TENSION, or MEMBER COMPRESSION
specification has also been applied. The program will recognize only the
last command that has been assigned to that member. It is important to
verify that the modeled releases agree with the connection and member
details on the construction drawings.
The following figure shows a typical bay of a cantilevered roof framing
system. The roof girders frame over the top of the interior column followed
by a beam splice. The girder splice is typically detailed to allow shear
transfer through the member webs with the flanges unconnected such that
moment will not be transferred across the joint. Therefore, the moment Mz
should be released at the start and end of the simply supported middle
portion of the girder. The column connection to the girder is typically
designed to transfer shears through end bearing and will not resist sufficient
moment to be “fixed.” Depending on the column orientation, Mz or My
should be released at the column end supporting the girder.

FIGURE 1–49 Cantilever Beam Framing System

FIGURE 1–50 Analytical Model with Releases Assigned

A column splice in a steel wide flange is another location often overlooked

in creating the analytical model. The standard column splice details in the
AISC Code of Standard Practice are intended for bearing conditions only,
and are not specifically detailed for moment, shear, or uplift resistance.
They are detailed to meet the OSHA requirement of a 300 pound load
located 18 inches from the column face. There are many types of structures
such as open towers or high seismic areas where this detail would not be
sufficient to resist the intended forces.
FIGURE 1–51 Moment Diagram with Releases Assigned

FIGURE 1–52 Column Splice with Moment Release

Partial moment releases may be used in STAAD.Pro to model connections

which do not provide complete “fixity” at the joint. This may occur at
locations where the beam or column moments are not fully developed and
there is some rotation allowed at the joint. It is important to use partial
moment releases at connections not being designed for the moment capacity
of the member as additional lateral displacement may occur at these
locations. If this additional displacement is not accounted for, it is possible
that the allowable drifts set in the design criteria may be exceeded, since the
displacement will be underestimated. Figure 1–54 shows a pipe bridge bent
with X-bracing below the first tier and a moment connection for the second
tier to allow clearance for the piping. Initially the analysis is performed
assuming a fully fixed second tier. The maximum moment required to be
developed at the member end is 10.5 ft-k, which is less than half of the full
moment capacity of the W10x15. In order to save on the connection cost it
may be desirable to design the connection for the moment required rather
than the capacity. The use of partial moment releases could be used to
model this condition. It should be noted that the value specified for the
partial moment release results in a reduction in rotational stiffness. This
number may need to be adjusted if a specific reduction in moment is
required. Partial moment releases can be assigned under the General <<
Specification tab and then selecting the Beam . . . button. This will open a
new window where all beam related specifications can be created. From the
release window, the start or end of the member should be chosen. The
Partial Moment Release type button should then be selected. The user has
the option of choosing MP, which will apply the release factor to all three
moments, or choosing to assign the factor individually to the three
moments. For this example, we are concerned only with the strong axis
moment so the MPZ option will be checked. The Add button is then
selected and the release then needs to be assigned to the appropriate
member. This is repeated for both the start and ends of the member.
FIGURE 1–53 Member Specification Options
FIGURE 1–54 Pipe Bridge Bent

FIGURE 1–55 Fully Fixed Second Tier

Mmax = 10.5 ft-k
Δmax = 0.351 in
Global Joint Rotation = 0.108 deg
FIGURE 1–56 Partially Fixed Second Tier (50% Release)
Mmax = 8.6 ft-k
Δmax = 0.377 in
Global Joint Rotation = 0.160 deg

Another useful function of the partial moment release is to eliminate

instabilities that may occur at member ends. It is typical for the strong and
weak axis moments to be released at the member ends in a structural model.
During the analysis, very small loads or moments may be distributed
throughout the structure. At locations where this occurs and the moment is
completely released an instability warning may occur. Figure 1–57 shows
the warning message displayed after running the analysis. The graphical
display of instabilities is available in the post-processor as shown in Figure
1–58. For this example, there are My instabilities being reported. This
would indicate that a moment about the Global Y axis could not be resisted
at the joint. In general, this does not indicate a problem or failure within the
model, as long as a load or moment is not required to be transferred through
a joint with like load or moment released. However, if it is desired to
eliminate these instability messages, then the partial moment release may be
used. A partial moment release factor of 0.999 should provide sufficient
joint stiffness for this situation.
FIGURE 1–57 Instability Warning Display in Output File

FIGURE 1–58 Graphical Display of Instabilities in Post-Processor

CHAPTER 2

Gravity Loads and Application

G
ravity loads may be applied to the structure in many different ways
and can come from many different sources. They may consist of
the building materials of the structure itself, or the equipment
supported by the structure, or they may be specified minimums required by
the building code. The engineer is responsible for ensuring that not only are
the minimum code requirements met but also that the loads are applied
correctly so that structure performs as intended. STAAD.Pro offers many
load types and assignment methods to ensure that these requirements are
met.

Load Items
The following load items applicable to gravity loads are available for use in
STAAD.Pro (other load items not noted will be covered in subsequent
chapters):
• Selfweight
• Nodal load
• Member load
• Physical member load
• Area load
• Floor load
• Plate load
• Snow load

Selfweight
The Selfweight specification instructs the program to calculate the dead
load of the modeled structure. In order for this command to be used a
member property and material specification must be assigned from the
General << Properties and Materials tab. As a minimum the cross-sectional
area of the member and the density of the material must be included in
these specifications. It should be noted that the Selfweight command is
applicable only to elements included in the model geometry. The weight of
elements not included in the model should be accounted for using other
load item parameters (such as nodal or member load specifications). The
Selfweight command may be applied to all of the geometry or selected
members as appropriate. While the Selfweight command will be applied as
a uniform load to beam elements, it will be resolved to the nodes in lieu of
being applied as a uniform pressure to plate elements. The Selfweight
command is applied in any of the global coordinate directions X, Y, or Z
and may be factored.
FIGURE 2–1 The assignment of the command above will calculate the element weight
multiplied by a factor of –1 and apply it in the Global Y direction

FIGURE 2–2 Moment Diagram Produced from Uniform Load Due to Beam Selfweight
Specification

Nodal Load
Nodal loads are concentrated forces and moments that are applied directly
to the node. These loads may be applied only in the Global X, Y, and Z
directions. Loads required to be at angles to the global coordinate system
would need to be broken into components. In many cases, for example, at
heavy equipment or hanging loads, it may be required to use nodal loads
rather than concentrated member loads. Structures with concentrated loads
where a modal response spectrum analysis is performed would be one
example where nodal loads should be used in lieu of concentrated member
loads. This concept will be discussed further in later chapters.

FIGURE 2–3 Inclined forces should be broken into components

FIGURE 2–4 Component Forces from Figure 2–3

Member Load
The member load specification in STAAD.Pro allows the user many options
for applying uniform, concentrated, and varying forces and moments to
beam elements. When specifying member loads to members with the offset
specification, the load will be applied to the reduced length of the member.
The following specifications are available:

• Uniform force
• Uniform moment
• Concentrated force
• Concentrated moment
• Linear varying
• Trapezoidal
• Hydrostatic

Uniform Force
By default, loads applied using the uniform force specification are applied
over the entire length of the member and concentric with the local x-axis
(member shear center). However, parameters exist allowing the user to
define the start and end location of the load at specific points along the
beam length and provide a perpendicular offset value to the shear center of
the member. When using the offset parameter, care should be taken to
ensure the proper torsional load distribution in the member (see Chapter 1).
Since most often the floor is not included in the analytical model and a one-
way distribution is assumed, it is typical to convert design criteria pressures
into equivalent uniform loads that are then applied to the beam elements. In
these instances it is especially important to properly account for load of the
perimeter elements.

FIGURE 2–5 Floor Framing Plan

Design Criteria
Dead Load = 75 psf
Curb Load = 38 #/ft
Guardrail Load = 10 #/ft

Uniform Forces to Be Applied in STAAD.Pro

B1 = (75 psf)(5 ft) = 375 #/ft
B2 = (75 psf)(2.5 ft + 1.0 ft) + 38 #/ft + 10 #/ft = 311 #/ft

Varying Loads
There are three ways to generate varying loads along a member in
STAAD.Pro. These may be created by using either the linear varying,
trapezoidal, or hydrostatic load specification. Each of these has a slightly
different function and may be used for different conditions. The linear
varying load is the simplest to specify but does not offer the flexibility to set
start and end locations for the load along the length of the member. It allows
for a varying load along the entire member length, or a varying load with
the peak at the beam midpoint.

FIGURE 2–6 Varying Along Entire Member Length

FIGURE 2–7 Varying with Peak at Midpoint

Trapezoidal loads offer the ability to apply the varying load on only a
portion of the member length. Multiple trapezoidal loads may be applied to
a single member as needed. In the analysis, trapezoidal loads are divided
into a uniform load and a minimum of eight concentrated loads.
FIGURE 2–8 Varying Along Portion of Member Length

FIGURE 2–9 Multiple Varying Loads on Member

To specify hydrostatic or linear varying loads over multiple adjacent

members, the hydrostatic load specification should be used. The hydrostatic
specification instructs the program to create individual trapezoidal loads on
the selected members. While it does allow the quick application of varying
loads, if changes in member lengths or additional nodes are required to be
added, errors will occur in the load application. In these cases, the
individual trapezoidal loads should be deleted and the hydrostatic load
reapplied.

FIGURE 2–10 The hydrostatic specification above instructs the program to generate a load
in the global Y direction on the selected members. The load is interpolated along the global
X–axis (longitudinal axis of the beam)
FIGURE 2–11 After adding the hydrostatic specification, trapezoidal loads are created on
members 1, 2, and 3

FIGURE 2–12 Linear Varying Load Applied to Three Subsequent Members

Area Load/Floor Load

The area load specification may be used to assign a uniform pressure
loading to beam elements within a closed loop. The program will determine
the direction of the shorter span and assign a uniform load to beams in that
direction assuming a one-way distribution. This type of loading is best
suited to very uniform framing that will not require intermediate nodes
along the beams. If the distance between inserted nodes is closer than the
adjacent beam spacing, the program will not properly apply the area load to
these members. Steel roof joist systems or floor slabs with a uniform load
distribution are good candidates for this specification. It is also useful for
developing conceptual designs quickly. Since STAAD.Pro has developed
the floor load specification it is recommended that it be used for creating
loads of this type.
The floor load specification is used for loading conditions similar to the
area load specification. However, it has the advantage of allowing both one
and two-way distributions. The span direction can also set to the longest
direction by default or be set specifically by the user. This facilitates the
application of this load type to members where additional nodes are
required to be added. This might otherwise have resulted in errors using the
area load specification. This load can be specified to members in a given
range or to user-created floor groups. The floor group option also gives the
user the ability to indicate members that may be inclined to the global axis,
such as beams on a sloped roof. If members are added to the model
geometry after the creation of the floor group, these new members should
be added as appropriate. If the floor contains reentrant corners, then
multiple panel areas or floor groups should be defined for the program to
properly account for the load distribution. Multiple floor groups can also be
created if it is necessary to define different magnitudes of load.

FIGURE 2–13 Two-Way Slab Distribution with Multiple Floor Groups Due to Re-entrant
Corner

Example for One-Way Distribution

Problem
The floor beams are supporting a load of 100 psf applied uniformly over a
grating floor. Create the uniform loads required to be resisted by the beams.

FIGURE 2–14 Framing Plan

Solution
First create a floor group for the beams making up the floor. The group
must include beam elements such that a closed loop is formed. To create a
group, select Ctrl+G. The Define Group Name window will be displayed.
This floor group type will be named Area1. After selecting OK, the Create
Group window will be displayed. Select all of the members which define
the floor area and then associate them with the Area1 group. This window
may then be closed. If it is necessary to update this group, for example,
when new members are created, select Ctrl+G to display the Create Group
window again.
FIGURE 2–15 Naming the Group and Specifying Type

FIGURE 2–16 Select the member associated with the group.

FIGURE 2–17 Member Numbers

From the load items menu, select the floor load option to display the input
parameter for this specification. Select the group radio button in lieu of the
X, Y and Z range options. This will allow the selection of the Area1 group
defined above. A pressure load of −0.1 kips/ft2 or (100 psf) will be applied
in the Global Y direction, which is perpendicular to the beam elements. The
one-way distribution box will be selected since a two-way distribution is
not desired for this example. With the parameters defined select the ADD
button. This will prompt the program to create uniform loads on each of the
beams based on the pressure provided.
FIGURE 2–18 Floor Load Parameters
FIGURE 2–19 Uniform Loads Created

FIGURE 2–20 Floor Distribution Diagram

Live Load Reduction

STAAD.Pro has implemented the alternate live load reduction provisions
for floors per the 2000 and 2003 International Building Code and the 1997
Uniform Building Code. In order to use this feature, the live load has to be
applied using the FLOOR load option described earlier. The code stipulates
many requirements that must be met prior to using these provisions and the
user should ensure that these requirements are met. While STAAD.Pro will
calculate these reductions, the qualifications to be able to use them have not
been incorporated into the program. The reduction calculated will be based
on the tributary area of the floor beams and not the supporting vertical
elements (columns, piers, walls, etc). It should also be noted that the roof
live load reduction provisions have not been implemented. In lieu of using
the reduction provisions, the user may choose to use a reduction factor that
may be applied to the load case when creating load combinations. While the
program does limit the maximum reduction to 40% for floor beams, it does
not incorporate the equation limiting the reduction to the ratio of the dead to
unreduced live load. If the unreduced live load is greater than 1.36 times the
dead load, then the reduced load would be less than the minimum allowed
per code. Either the reduced loads should be calculated manually and
entered into the program as uniform live load, or factors should be applied
to increase the load to the code specified minimum. The following
equations and parameters are implemented in the program:

R = r(A–150)
with
R = Reduction in percentage
r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08% for floors
A = Area of floor supported by the member

Example
Problem
Instruct the program to apply uniform live loads to the floor members in
Figure 2–21 using the live load reduction provisions of the building code.
Design Parameters
Unreduced Live Load, Lo = 60 psf

FIGURE 2–21 Framing Plan

Solution
First create a floor group for the beams making up the roof. See the one-
way floor load distribution example presented earlier in this chapter. To
include the live load reduction provisions, the primary load case must be
created properly. The load type must be designated as Live, and the
“Reducible per UBC/IBC” toggle box should also be checked. Once these
parameters are set, select the ADD button to include in the model.
FIGURE 2–22 Reducible Live Load Case

Next, under the newly created load case, select ADD in order to specify the
60 psf unreduced floor live load required. This will be done as in the
previous example for one-way floor load. After adding this information to
the model, the reduced live loads are included in the model.

FIGURE 2–23 Display of Reduced Uniform Live Loads

From the graphical display, it can be seen that the perimeter beams receive a
load of –0.300 kips/ft and the interior beam receives a load of 2(–0.180
kips/ft) or –0.360 kips/ft. Since the tributary area for the perimeter beams is
equal to 150 ft2, there is no reduction. However, without the reduction the
interior beam live load would have been –0.600 kips/ft

Snow Loads
STAAD.Pro has the ability to generate balanced and unbalanced snow loads
per the ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures. Since the snow load generation is based on panel areas, similar
to the floor load specification, a group needs to be created for the roof
members receiving the snow load. The same requirements for re-entrant
corners and areas receiving different loads apply. The loads will be applied
to the beams based on a two-way distribution, since at this time the one-
way option is not available. Several code requirements, such as rain-on-
snow surcharge, drift, and sliding snow, are not included in the snow load
generation features and should be accounted for by other means.
There are two main steps needed for the program to create the appropriate
snow loads in the model. First the parameters must be defined in the snow
load generator, and then the snow load case must be created. In the snow
load generator the ground snow load, exposure factor, thermal factor, and
importance factor are defined. Multiple snow load types may be created as
needed to define the various snow loads in a single model. Additionally, the
load case specification defines the snow load type (from the snow
generator), balanced or unbalanced condition, obstructed or unobstructed,
roof type, and roof slope factor.
The snow load generator is used to calculate the appropriate flat roof snow
load from the user input values. These code-prescribed values should be
carefully selected based on the use and function of the building or structure.
If the code-given minimum values are greater than the generated loads, they
will be used in lieu of the calculated values. STAAD.Pro uses the following
equations, per ASCE 7, to establish the flat roof snow load:

pf = 0.7CeCt Ipg, the flat roof snow load for roofs with slopes less than 5°
In addition, for low slope roofs as defined in ASCE 7, then minimum value
of pf shall not be less than:

for pg ≤ 20 lb/ft2, pf = Ipg

for pg > 20 lb/ft2, pf = 20I

The parameters required for determining the sloped roof snow loads, ps are
set under the snow load item, within the load case specification. The roof
geometry is used in the model to not only determine if the minimum values
for low slope roofs apply, but also if the sloped roof snow load calculations
are applicable. STAAD.Pro uses the following equation, per ASCE 7, to
obtain the sloped roof snow load:

pf = Cspf

The value of Cs may be directly input by the user or calculated directly by

the program. For the program to calculate Cs correctly, the user should input
the appropriate value of the thermal factor Ct. This parameter establishes if
the roof will be considered “warm” or “cold.” In addition the determination
of the roof being obstructed or unobstructed shall be carefully considered.
Additional information on this subject is provided in ASCE 7 and its
commentary.

Example
Problem
Determine the snow load to be applied to the mono-slope roof structure
shown in Figure 2–24.
FIGURE 2–24 Mono-Slope Roof Structure

Design Parameters
Ground Snow Load, pg = 10
Exposure Factor, Ce = 1.0
Thermal Factor, Ct = 1.0
Importance Factor, I = 1.0
Roof Slope = 1.43 degrees

Solution
First create a floor group for the beams making up the roof. See the one-
way floor load distribution example presented earlier in this chapter.
Second, the snow load parameters must be defined in the program. From
the Load&Definition tab, expand the Definitions list located in the right-
hand menu and locate the Snow Definition. After selecting Add at the
bottom of the right-hand menu, the parameters may be input.
FIGURE 2–25 Snow Definition

FIGURE 2–26 Roof Beams Included in Floor Group

FIGURE 2–27 Snow Parameters

After defining the parameters, the primary snow load case should be
created. After creating a new primary load case, highlight the newly created
case and select Add. From the Add New: Load Items window, select the
Snow Load specification.

FIGURE 2–28 Snow Load Case

Steps
1. Select the appropriate floor group created from the drop-down list.
 2. Since the roof is mono-sloped, only balanced snow loads need to be
considered.
3. Select the defined snow load type (created previously in the definitions
phase).
4. The default roof type in STAAD.Pro is mono-slope.
5. Since the roof is low slope (< 5 degrees), the roof obstruction is
unimportant.
6. Since the roof is low slope (< 5 degrees), the roof slope factor is not
selected.
7. Select the Add button to complete the snow load requirements.
To view the generated snow loads created by the program, run the analysis
and view the results in the output file.

FIGURE 2–29 Snow Load Generation Results in Output File

Since the ground snow load is ≤ 20 lb/ft^2 and the roof slope is less than
0.5 in/ft (2.38˚), a rain-on-snow surcharge must also be included. Since we
have defined a floor group for the roof members, this can be accomplished
by adding an additional floor load under the snow load case. Since the
minimum snow load is 10 psf and the actual flat roof snow load is 7 psf, per
ASCE 7, an additional load of 2 psf needs to be included to account for the
rain.
In the case of gable and hip roofs, unbalanced snow loads should also be
considered. The program will first determine if the roof geometry requires
unbalanced snow loads to be investigated. If the roof slope exceeds 70˚ or is
less than 70/W + 0.5, then unbalanced loads need not be considered. The
following unbalanced conditions are considered:

For W ≤ 20 ft,

FIGURE 2–30 Unbalanced Snow Load, W ≤ 20 ft

For W > 20 ft,

FIGURE 2–31 Unbalanced Snow Load, W > 20 ft

It should be noted that the program considers the sloped member length
instead of the horizontal distance between the eave and the ridge. In all
cases, this should produce an equivalent or greater load than if the
horizontal distance were considered.

FIGURE 2–32 Code Definition of W

FIGURE 2–33 STAAD Definition of W

Example
Problem
Determine the snow load to be applied to the gable roof structure shown in
Figure 2–34. Consider balanced and unbalanced snow requirements.

FIGURE 2–34 Gable Roof Structure

Design Parameters
Ground Snow Load, pg = 35
Exposure Factor, Ce = 1.1
Thermal Factor, Ct = 1.2
Importance Factor, I = 1.0
Roof Slope = 16 degrees
Obstructed Roof
Solution
Due to the configuration of this structure, two floor groups need to be
created for the roof beams that lie on different planes. This will also
facilitate the application of the unbalanced snow loads. The ridge beam will
be needed in both groups. For this example, we will consider unbalanced
snow loads due to wind blowing from left to right. However, the code
requires consideration of wind in all directions and its effect on unbalanced
loads.

FIGURE 2–35 Windward Snow Group

FIGURE 2–36 Leeward Snow Group

Next, define the snow load parameters as in the previous example.

FIGURE 2–37 Snow Load Parameters

For this example two load cases will need to be considered. One load case
will be created for the balanced snow condition and another will be created
for the unbalanced snow condition. Note that since the ground snow load is
> 20 lb/ft^2, the rain-on-snow surcharge is not included.
For the balanced snow load case:
FIGURE 2–38 The condition is balanced and the roof type is mono. If the gable roof type
had been chosen, then the balanced snow would have been calculated as 0.3ps, which is
incorrect for this case. This specification should be entered for both floor groups that have
been created.

For the unbalanced snow load case:

FIGURE 2–39 Since W > 20 ft, a portion of the balanced snow remains on the windward
roof and is equivalent to 0.3ps. Therefore, the balanced condition is selected along with the
gable roof type.

FIGURE 2–40 For the leeward roof, the unbalanced condition is selected along with the
gable roof type.
FIGURE 2–41 Balanced Snow Load Results

FIGURE 2–42 Balanced Snow Moment Diagram

FIGURE 2–43 Unbalanced Snow Load Results

FIGURE 2–44 Unbalanced Snow Moment Diagram
CHAPTER 3

Wind Loads and Application

D
eveloping the appropriate wind load to be applied to buildings and
structures can be a time-consuming process. This process can be
simplified with the aid of design software. STAAD.Pro has the
ability to calculate the appropriate wind pressures, based on the Main Wind
Force Resisting System (MWFRS) procedures in the ASCE 7-95 and 7-02
standards, and apply those as nodal or uniform loads to the analytical
model. The provisions for many types of structures have been included,
such as buildings, chimneys and tanks, solid and open signs, lattice
framework and trussed towers. The program also allows the user the option
of inputting pressures that have been calculated by other means or methods.

Gust Effect Factor

The code-specified gust effect factors are dependent on whether the
structure is classified as rigid or flexible, and if flexible to what magnitude.
In order to determine this, the natural frequency of the structure needs to be
calculated. The code is not specific and there are many methods for
calculating the natural frequency all with varying degrees of complexity.
STAAD.Pro offers two options to aid in this calculation. The Rayleigh
procedure is an approximate static method considering only one mode of
vibration and can be used for most common structures. If a more in-depth
or dynamic calculation is needed, then the Modal Calculation procedure can
be used, which will produce results for multiple modes of vibration.
Another alternative is to use the approximate methods presented in the
earthquake loads portion of ASCE 7. It should also be noted that for
irregular structures not meeting the intent of the ASCE 7 standard, wind
tunnel testing or additional procedures may need to be employed to develop
a proper analysis. These methods will not be covered in this text.

Example—Frequency Determination for Building

Problem
Determine the natural frequency of the building structure in order to
classify it as rigid or flexible. Use the Rayleigh and Modal commands
within STAAD.Pro and compare to the results from the Earthquake Loads
section of ASCE 7.
FIGURE 3–1 Building Structure

Solution
In order to calculate the frequency for the lateral motion, the loads need to
be applied in the corresponding lateral direction. The calculation based on
the loads above would result in a frequency in the vertical direction, which
would not be correct for wind loads. Therefore, a new load case will be
created with the loads applied in the Global X direction. The Calculate
Rayleigh Frequency command is contained within the load case, and it
needs to be added as a load item. From the applicable load case, select
ADD and then select the Frequency tab. Select Rayleigh Frequency and
then ADD to include it in the load case.
FIGURE 3–2 Uniform Loads Applied in Lateral Direction

FIGURE 3–3 Load Case for Natural Frequency Using Rayleigh Method

After running the analysis, select the view output file icon to see the results
of the frequency calculation.

FIGURE 3–4 Natural Frequency Results in Output File

The procedure for determining the frequency based on the Modal

Calculation command is similar to that used for the Rayleigh frequency
calculation. Note, that while the Rayleigh command can be included in
multiple load cases, the Modal command can be included in only one. The
load case including the Modal command would be as shown in Figure 3–5.
FIGURE 3–5 Load Case for Natural Frequency Using Calculation Method

One advantage of the Modal Calculation command is its ability to view the
results graphically in the postprocessor. After running the analysis, and
opening the postprocessor, a new tab labeled Dynamics has been created.
Note that the results for the first mode are identical to those for the
Rayleigh method for this particular example, and that over 99% of the mass
is included in the first mode of vibration. In a dynamic analysis it is typical
to assume that enough modes have been considered when the mass
participation is > 90%.

FIGURE 3–6 Natural Frequency Results Using the Modal Calculation

The Earthquake Loads Section of ASCE permits the period for a building to
be determined by the following equation:
Ta = Ct hnx
For a moment frame building, Ct = .028 and x = 0.8. The resulting
approximate period then is 0.308 seconds with a corresponding frequency
of 3.25 Hz. This would indicate a more rigid type structure than resulted
from the computer analysis.
For earthquake loads and the resulting base shear, it is conservative to
assume a more rigid structure in the analysis. Also, the Equivalent Lateral
Force Procedure assumes a rigid connection of the structure base to the
foundation. Conversely, the values for gust factor calculations increase as
the building frequency decreases (becomes more flexible). If possible, it is
recommended to use the Rayleigh or Modal calculation methods, in lieu of
the approximate methods provided in the Earthquake Loads section of
ASCE 7, to calculate the natural frequency of the building or structure with
regard to gust factor calculations.

Open Structures
While ASCE 7 addresses enclosed building and clad structures, in many
cases it does not properly account for wind load on open structures. The
figures in ASCE 7 for trussed towers are intended for four-column
structures with many small lacing members. An open structure, more than
two bays deep, would not be adequately covered by these figures. ASCE
developed a task committee to develop a guideline for these types of
structures. The result was the “Wind Loads and Anchor Bolt Design for
Petrochemical Facilities,” which can serve as a guideline for calculating
wind loads on pipe bridge structures, open towers, and equipment or other
similar structures.
STAAD.Pro will generate wind loads for structures similar to truss towers,
or gives the user the ability to input the pressures generated by other
calculation methods, such as the guide for petrochemical facilities. The
wind loads are created by multiplying the pressure by the member width
and are applied as uniform loads to the members. There are two main steps
required to create these loads in the model. The first is to generate the wind
pressure profile by either assigning the appropriate parameters or manually
inputting the values. A new load case is then created, defining other
parameters, wind direction, and application to the structure.
Wind loads applied to equipment, ladders, and so on, are not included in the
wind load generation facilities and should not be included in the solid area
determination. These loads should be accounted for by other methods and
added as additional load items in the load case. In addition, when wind
direction is from angles other than normal to the windward face, it may be
required to combine multiple load cases with appropriate factors using the
LOAD COMBINATION or REPEAT LOAD commands. This will be
addressed in Chapter 5.

Example
Use the Wind Load generation facilities in STAAD.Pro to apply the
uniform member loads to the tower shown in Figure 3–7.

FIGURE 3–7 Steel Tower

Design Criteria (ASCE 7-02)

Category II Structure
Wind Speed = 90 mph
Exposure C
Structure Height = 115 ft
Structure Width = 20 ft
Ratio of Solid to Gross Area = 0.4
Frequency = 1.95 Hz
From the Load&Definition tab, expand the Definitions list located in the
right-hand menu and locate the Wind Definition. After selecting Add at the
bottom of the right-hand menu the option to name the wind load type will
be displayed. Multiple wind load types can be created, if necessary. For this
example, only one wind load type is needed. Now select the newly created
type and select Add once again to bring up the wind definitions window.
Select the “Calculate as per ASCE-7” button at the bottom of this window
to input the required parameters.

FIGURE 3–8 Wind Definition

FIGURE 3–9 Wind Type

FIGURE 3–10 Wind Parameters

There are three pages of data needed to define the wind load requirements.
The Common Data page allows the user to specify the code to be used
along with some of the basic design criteria information. If wind speed-up
over hills or escarpments needs to be included, this can also be selected at
this point. The structure type that best fits our example is the trussed tower
so that option is selected from the drop down list. In order for these changes
to take effect, the Apply button should be chosen before proceeding to the
next step.

FIGURE 3–11 ASCE 7 Wind Load Common Data

The Trussed Tower Data page allows the user to input structural
information such as overall geometry, member properties, natural
frequency, and damping ratio. It can sometimes be difficult to calculate ε,
the ratio of the solid area to gross area for a tower face, before detailed
calculations have been performed. Since the value of Cf generally increases
as ε decreases, a lower value of ε should be assumed initially so that the
resulting wind pressures are conservative. Values of Kzt, I, and Kd may be
overridden if required by selecting the appropriate box and inputting the
desired value. In order for these changes to take effect, the Apply button
should be chosen before proceeding to the next step.

FIGURE 3–12 ASCE 7 Structure-Specific Data

The Design Pressure page allows the user to override the values for gust
effect factor (G), and the force coefficient (Cf), if desired. This may be
useful if another method is used to determine these values. The wind
pressures generated with their corresponding height are also displayed here.
If changes are made on this page, the Apply button and then OK should be
selected.
FIGURE 3–13 ASCE 7 Design Pressure

The wind definitions window is once again displayed. This time the
Intensity page is populated with the calculated pressures and corresponding
heights. It is possible at this point to manually change the pressures
displayed in the Intensity vs. Height table. Note that once these values are
changed, the connectivity with the ASCE generator will be lost. Select Add
to complete this portion of the wind load creation. The Exposures page may
be displayed at this point. Since exposure factors are not required for open
structures, select Close to exit from this page. If the ASCE 7 parameters are
required to be edited, select Intensity under the Wind Definitions and then
Edit located at the bottom of the right-hand menu. The “Calculate as per
ASCE-7” button may then be selected and the parameters edited.
FIGURE 3–14 Wind Intensity with Respect to Height

After defining the wind pressures, the primary wind load case should be
created. After creating a new primary load case, highlight the newly created
case and select Add. From the Add New: Load Items window select the
Wind Load specification. A new wind load case should be created for each
direction under consideration.
FIGURE 3–15 Wind Load Case

Steps (for wind applied in the positive global Z direction)

1. Select the appropriate wind load type from the drop-down list.
2. Select either X or Z for the desired wind direction. For open structures,
it makes no difference if the positive or negative surface area is
selected.
3. Assign a positive factor to apply the load in the positive global
direction.
4. Define the global X, Y, and Z ranges to be used. If no range is selected,
wind load will be applied to all members in the structure.
5. Select the Open Structure checkbox.
6. Select Add to include in the load case.
7. Repeat these steps as necessary to apply loads to all required members.

Since the ASCE pressures created apply to the structure as a whole, there is
no clear direction on how to apply these wind pressures to the individual
members in the model. Since for our example, the frames have the same
solid area, the windward frame will experience greater forces than the
leeward frame. For this example, a 0.75 factor will be applied to the
windward frame load and a 0.25 factor will be applied to the leeward frame.
The lacing and strut members perpendicular to the global Z wind direction
will not be included.

FIGURE 3–16 Wind Load Case Including All Appropriate Ranges and Factors

FIGURE 3–17 Wind Pressures Applied to Members as Uniform Loads

FIGURE 3–18 Uniform Loads at Top of Tower

Enclosed Structures
Wind load application on enclosed structures may also be accomplished
with the STAAD.Pro wind generator. For enclosed structures, the program
will apply the generated wind pressure to panel areas defined by the joints
and members in the model. The ground level will also be used to form one
side of a panel if applicable. Joint loads will be applied based on the
tributary area to the joints defining the panel. In reality, since most cladding
systems are supported by the ground at the base and then to the structure
along the height, a portion of the load tributary to the ground would be
delivered to the slab or wall foundation and not be transferred to the
structure. The wind load generator will, however, deliver these loads to the
column bases, resulting in additional shear reaction. Depending on the
cladding system, this will result in conservative reactions for the design of
the column base and its attachment to the foundation. Loads will be
generated only for vertical walls, normal to the global wind direction. Uplift
loads on roof elements are not included and may be added using other
methods. Since components and cladding loads generally control the roof
framing, it is not usually necessary to consider in the analysis. However,
these uplift loads may contribute to column and/or anchor bolts tension
design loads at braced bays or moment frames, and can be added as nodal
loads at the top of column joints if desired.
The user has the option of assigning the generated load in the positive
global X and Z windward directions as well as the negative X and Z
leeward/sidewall directions. For enclosed structures multiple wind types
will need to be created, since the wind pressure generated will vary for
windward, leeward, and sidewall conditions. These types can then be
selected from the load case as needed to define the loads direction.
Proper modeling is essential, since the type of cladding and support system
can greatly affect the distribution of the wind loads to the structure. In many
cases, while the frame distribution and total base shear may be correct, the
local distribution of the loads does not reflect the actual system used. For
example, the load distribution of metal siding supported by horizontal girts
spanning to the columns is quite different than a precast wall spanning
vertically to the perimeter roof beams. Local beam failures can occur for
these systems even when the overall system loads are correct.
FIGURE 3–19 Typical Wind Load Distribution Without Consideration of Cladding System

Figure 3–20 shows the proper modeling of horizontal girt system framing to
the columns. The panel areas are based on the girt spacing and span
between the columns. This model ensures that the appropriate bending
moment will be considered for the supporting columns. Since the girts and
roof beams at the perimeter will likely be controlled by components and
cladding loads, they will need to be checked by other methods. If the girt or
column spacing was changed in the model, the wind load would need to be
reapplied in the load case.
FIGURE 3–20 Girt Framing to Columns

Figure 3–21 shows the proper modeling of precast wall panels framing
vertically to the perimeter roof beams. The panel areas are based on the
wall connection spacing and span between the ground and roof, and could
be modeled with beam elements as shown or plate elements. This model
ensures that the appropriate bending moment will be considered for the
supporting roof beams.

FIGURE 3–21 Precast Panels Framing to Roof Framing

Modeling the wall systems in this manner, to capture local effects, is not
always practical, and does introduce additional complication. If these types
of modeling systems are used, other steps are necessary to ensure that the
“false” panels do not provide additional stiffness or resistance to loads that
the building frames might normally resist. Modeling these elements with
very little stiffness and using the INACTIVE or MEMBER RELEASE
specifications may be a way to overcome these difficulties. The automatic
wind generation facility in STAAD.Pro is well suited to generate wind loads
to the main frames for analysis of the lateral force resisting system. If this
method is used without regard to local elements, the secondary members
should be checked by other calculation methods (i.e., local bending of
columns). In addition, elements such as parapets, ladders, and equipment
are not included in the load generation and should be accounted for by
adding additional load items.

Example
Use the Wind Load generation facilities in STAAD.Pro to apply the
appropriate frame loads to the enclosed building shown in Figure 3–22.
Create all load cases required for wind blowing from south to north.

FIGURE 3–22 Enclosed Building

Design Criteria (ASCE 7-02)

Category II Structure
Enclosed
Wind Speed = 90 mph
Exposure B

Since we need to consider windward, leeward, and sidewall pressures in

addition to positive and negative internal pressures, several wind types will
need to be created. The wind types needed are

• Windward(+GCpi)
• Windward(–GCpi)
• Leeward(+GCpi)
• Leeward(–GCpi)
• Sidewall(+GCpi)
• Sidewall(–GCpi)

To create the Windward(+GCpi) type, select Wind Definitions and then

Add as was done in the Open structure example. Name the type
appropriately so that you can use it more easily when the load cases are
created.

FIGURE 3–23 Wind Type Definition

FIGURE 3–24 ASCE 7 Common Data
FIGURE 3–25 ASCE 7 Data for Enclosed Building
FIGURE 3–26 Design Pressure with the Gust Effect Factor Set by the User to 0.85 and the
Value of (GCpi) Set to Positive 0.18

FIGURE 3–27 Wind Intensity with Respect to Height

FIGURE 3–28 Wind Exposure Factor

The remaining types are now created similarly, selecting the appropriate
windward, leeward, and sidewall and manually overriding the GCpi factor
to positive or negative. Since this is an enclosed structure, all the exposure
factors are set to one. For buildings with openings along the wall, the
exposure factor could be modified to adjust for the reduced tributary to the
joint.

FIGURE 3–29 Required Wind Types Created

FIGURE 3–30 Required Load Cases

Now that the wind types are defined, the appropriate load cases can be
created. In order to satisfy the code requirements that both positive and
negative internal pressures need to be considered, two load cases will need
to be defined. While these load cases will produce the same total base shear,
the distribution of the loads to local elements will be different and must be
considered. Four load items must be created within each load case.

For (+GCpi):

For (–GCpi):
FIGURE 3–31 Wind Loads Distributed to Panel Joints

FIGURE 3–32 (+GCpi) Loads Distributed to Frame

FIGURE 3–33 (–GCpi) Loads Distributed to Frame

CHAPTER 4

Seismic Loads and Application

T
he building code requirements for the determination and application
of loads due to seismic events have become increasingly
complicated. The code requirement that a mathematical model be
created which takes into account the strength and stiffness as well as mass
distribution throughout the structure makes computer modeling in many
cases a necessity. This is especially critical for structures with irregularities
such as torsion, in which case a 3D model is required. STAAD.Pro offers
the engineer the ability to generate and distribute the required seismic loads
to the building or structure. Also provided are the ability to select between
the appropriate analytical procedures depending on the seismic design
category and structural characteristics. The procedures available are the
equivalent lateral force procedure (ELFP), modal response spectrum
analysis, and seismic response history.

Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure

The ELFP is a method of representing the dynamic effects of a seismic
event using static procedures. STAAD.Pro implements the code
requirements for determining the seismic base shear and properly
distributing it throughout the structure. There are two main steps involved
in generating the seismic forces based on the ELFP. The first step is to
define the appropriate code, seismic parameters, building period, and
gravity loads contributing to the seismic mass. The second step is to create
the seismic load case where the direction is defined as well as a factor to
amplify the accidental torsion effects when required by the code. Lateral
loads generated will be in the Global X and Z directions assuming the Y
direction is upward and perpendicular to the floors. The building period
used will be based on the RAYLEIGH method as described in Chapter 3.
The user may override this period calculation by inputting the value
directly.
When defining the seismic parameters, the seismic weights also need to be
specified. The seismic weight, W, should be as required from the code and
can vary depending on the load type and the structural usage. The following
weights can be included:
• Self weight
• Joint weight
• Member weight
• Element weight
• Floor weight
• Reference load
These weights should be entered as positive values, as the direction is not
important for the base shear calculation and distribution to the structure.
The lateral direction of the load X or Z is defined later when the load case is
created. It should be noted that the weights are determined and lumped at
the nodes based on their location in the structure. If it is desired to
determine the local effects from a large weight, then a node should be added
to represent the physical location. This is especially important for large
pieces of equipment or other similar loads that are supported by the
structure.

FIGURE 4–1 A 20 kip point load is located at the beam midpoint. Use the seismic
generator to calculate the required seismic loads in the Global X direction.

This model will be created first using the member weight command
assuming a concentrated load at mid-span. A second run will be created
with a node added at mid-span and the joint weight command assigned. The
results of this analysis are compared next.
FIGURE 4–2 Concentrated Member Weight Results

FIGURE 4–3 Joint Weight Results

When the concentrated member weight command is used, the 1.422 kip
horizontal shear is equally distributed to the nodes at the member end. No
loads are applied to the beam, so the horizontal deflection of the beam is
zero. When a node is added and the joint weight command is used, the
1.422 kip load is applied at the midpoint resulting in horizontal deflection,
shear, and moment in the beam supporting the concentrated load. The
member end reactions are the same regardless of which method is chosen.

Reference Loads
Reference loads are a very useful way of accounting for the seismic weights
to be used. Without the use of reference loads, the user would need to input
not only the weights to be used for the seismic generator, but also in the
individual gravity load cases. This topic will be covered in greater detail in
Chapter 5. Reference loads may also be used to account for weights of
elements that may not be included in the model. For example, it would not
be typical to model the walls or cladding in the analytical model, but the
weights of these materials must still be accounted for since they rely on the
building for lateral support. The reference load provides a method for
accounting for these situations without having to include them in the model,
and without falsely affecting the analysis results.
FIGURE 4–4 Section Through Masonry Wall

For the preceding masonry wall, it can be assumed that lateral loads
resulting from the wall height tributary to the roof framing would need to be
resisted by the structure. However, the vertical weight of the wall is resisted
by the wall footing, which is not included in the model. Therefore, a
reference load can be included in the model which will account for the
weight to be used in creating the seismic loads, but will not be included in
the gravity loads applied to the beam. From the Load&Definition tab,
expand the Definitions list located in the right-hand menu and locate the
Reference Load. After selecting Add at the bottom of the right-hand menu a
window allowing you to name the reference load will be displayed.
FIGURE 4–5 Reference Load Definition

FIGURE 4–6 Creating New Reference Load

ADD the newly created reference load and then close this window. In the
Load&Definition Window highlight the Masonry Wall Weight Reference
load and select ADD at the bottom right-hand side of the screen. A new
window will now be opened allowing the values of the reference loads to be
created. This window is very similar to the options available when load
cases are created. Since these are Reference Loads, the appropriate sign
(positive or negative) should be assigned. The program will use the absolute
value of this load to assign the appropriate seismic weight. For this example
a uniform load equivalent to half the wall height or –0.3 kips/ft will be
created. Once this load is created, it should be assigned to the appropriate
members.

FIGURE 4–7 Adding Loads in Reference Load Case

FIGURE 4–8 Assigning Reference Load to Structure

Now that the reference load has been created, it needs to be included in the
seismic definition, so that the appropriate lateral loads are created.
Remember, since this is a reference load, it will not be included in the
gravity loads applied to the member. Select the created seismic definition
and then select ADD at the bottom right hand of the screen. A window will
be displayed allowing seismic weights or reference loads to be added to the
seismic definition. Select the Reference Load tab to display the Available
reference loads. Select the Masonry Wall Weight reference load and add it
to the right side of the window. A factor may be included here if it is
desired to adjust the magnitude of the load. In addition, the direction of the
applied load should be assigned. This varies depending on if Y or Z up is
defined.
FIGURE 4–9 Available Reference Loads to Include in Seismic Definition

FIGURE 4–10 Select Reference Load and Factor to Include in Seismic Definition
FIGURE 4–11 Input File with Reference Loads Included

Torsion and Accidental Torsion

For rigid and semirigid diaphragms, the effects of torsion resulting from
differences in the center of rigidity and center of mass must be considered.
By modeling the masses at the correct location and assigning the
appropriate member properties for the lateral force resisting system,
STAAD.Pro will automatically include the inherent torsional effects. In
addition, many codes require accidental torsion effects to be included,
assuming the center of mass could vary from the theoretical value used in
the analysis. The effects of this accidental torsion can also be included
automatically using STAAD.Pro. Consider the structure shown in figure
4.12. Assuming the brace rigidities are equal, the center of rigidity would be
located at 10ft from either brace line. Since the center of mass is located 5ft
away from the center of rigidity, torsion will be imparted to the structure.
FIGURE 4–12 Structure Geometry

The result of this inherent torsion is an unequal distribution of load to the

brace lines.

FIGURE 4–13 Frame Reactions

FIGURE 4–14 Frame Displacement

Torsion, T = (9.716 kips)(5 ft) = 48.58 ft − kips

RA = 9.716 kips/2 − 48.58 ft − kips/20 ft = 2.43 kips

RB = 9.716 kips/2 + 48.58 ft − kips/20 ft = 7.29 kips
To include the code-prescribed accidental torsion effects in STAAD.Pro two
additional steps must be taken. In the creation of the seismic definition the
option to include the accidental load must be checked. Additionally in the
seismic load case, the toggle for including a multiplying factor for
accidental torsional moment should be checked. With these toggles selected
STAAD.Pro will include the displacement of the center of mass by 5%.
This factor can be modified as required per the building code to account for
torsional and extreme torsional irregularities. Since the code requires the
mass to be displaced in both positive and negative directions relative to the
center of mass, multiple load cases need to be created. One common
approach, to minimize the complexity of the model, would be to create an
independent model after the final member sizes have been selected. The
torsion effects can then be included and the model can be checked to ensure
it meets the design requirements.
FIGURE 4–15 ELFP Seismic Parameters

FIGURE 4–16 Seismic Load Case

FIGURE 4–17 Reactions from Positive Accidental Torsion

FIGURE 4–18 Reactions from Negative Accidental Torsion

For positive X mass displacement:

Torsion, T = (9.716 kips)(5 + 0.05 * 20) = 58.32 ft − kips
RA = 9.716 kips/2 − 58.32 ft − kips/20 ft = 1.94 kips
RB = 9.716 kips/2 + 58.32 ft − kips/20 ft = 7.77 kips
Example
Use STAAD.Pro to calculate the seismic base shear and distribution to the
concrete moment frame shown in the following figure 4.19.

FIGURE 4–19 Concrete Moment Frame

Design Criteria
2006 International Building Code

Location
Latitude = 40.064893
Longitude = -75.688241

Occupancy Category = II
Importance Factor = 1.0
Soil Site Class D

Seismic Weights
First and Second Floors = 5 kips/ft
 Roof = 3 kips/ft

Solution
While the seismic generator will calculate the appropriate seismic forces, it
does not determine the Seismic Design Category, or the limitations on
building geometry, lateral force resisting system, and other code-specified
requirements. These code requirements should be reviewed and understood
prior to performing the actual calculation of the seismic forces, as the result
may affect the forces determined as well as the analysis method chosen.
Using the given latitude and longitude and the USGS Ground Motion
Parameter Calculator, the appropriate values of Ss and S1 can be determined.
It is recommended that the appropriate values of latitude and longitude be
used in lieu of zip codes whenever possible. Since the seismic parameters
based on the zip code lookup procedure are based on the centroid of the
geographic area, values can vary significantly, especially in high seismic
regions.
FIGURE 4–20 Mapped Seismic Values from USGS

Ss = 0.277
S1 = 0.060
SMS = 0.437
SM1 = 0.145
SDS = 0.291
SD1 = 0.097
Based on the value of SDS, the Seismic Design Category would be B.
Based on the value of SD1, the Seismic Design Category would be B.
Therefore, use Seismic Design Category B. For a Seismic Design Category
B, an ordinary reinforced concrete moment frame of unlimited height is
permitted.
Response Modification Factor = 3
From the Load&Definition tab, expand the Definitions list located in the
right-hand menu and locate the Seismic Definitions. After selecting Add at
the bottom of the right-hand menu, the seismic parameters dialogue will be
displayed.

FIGURE 4–21 Seismic Definition

FIGURE 4–22 Seismic Definition from Input File

The seismic generator has the ability to look up the appropriate SS and S1
values based on the zip code or latitude and longitude. It is prudent,
however, to verify the parameters using another method such as the USGS
program. If the values of SS and S1 are known they can be input directly.
The long-period transition period (TL) is selected from the code map based
on the project location and input directly. The response modification factor
(R) is also entered at this time. Notice, that an R value for the Global X and
Z directions may be entered allowing for the use of different lateral force
resisting systems in either direction. The soil site class is then input as
follows:

Code-Specified Soil Site Class Corresponding STAAD Site Class

A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
E 5
F 6
FIGURE 4–23 Seismic Parameters

The values of Fa and Fv are not required to be input and will be calculated
by the program. Also, since we are letting the program calculate the period
based on the Rayleigh method, the values of PX and PZ will be left blank.
The code mandates that the period used shall not exceed the product of the
coefficient for upper limit on calculated period Cu, and the approximate
fundamental period, Ta. Therefore it is required to input the values of Ct and
x, corresponding to the lateral force resisting system being used. The value
of Cu is determined by the program based on the value of SD1.
FIGURE 4–24 Seismic Parameters Continued

Approximate fundamental period,

Ct = 0.016 and x = 0.9  for concrete moment-resisting frames
Ta = (0.016) (45)0.9 = 0.492 seconds
Cu = 1.7, with SD1 = 0.097
TaCu = 0.836 seconds
The calculated period will be used in STAAD as long as it is less than 0.836
seconds; at which point TaCu will be used in determining the value of Cs.
After entering the seismic parameters, select ADD to complete this step.
Now the seismic weights used to determine the base shear need to be
entered. Select the Member Weights tab, to input the uniform weights. After
creating the appropriate member weights, they should be assigned
graphically to the beams. Once all member weights are assigned, the first
step is complete.
FIGURE 4–25 Member Weights Created for Use in Seismic Mass

To apply the loads to the model for analysis, the seismic load case needs to
be created. From the Load&Definition window highlight load case details
and select ADD. Enter a title for the load case and then select ADD.
Highlight the newly created load case in the Load&Definition window and
select ADD to display the Load Items window.
FIGURE 4–26 Naming Seismic Load Case

Select the Seismic Loads tab to display the parameters available for
assigning the seismic load case. For our example, select the Global X
direction and assign a Factor equal to 1. The user also has the option of
including an additional factor to account for structures with torsional
irregularities, which are not applicable to this example. After entering the
parameters select ADD to include in the model.
FIGURE 4–27 Seismic Load Case

After running the analysis, view the output file to review the program-
calculated parameters and base shear. Notice that the upper limit on the
period Ta Cu was used since the calculated period based on the Rayleigh
method exceeded this value.

FIGURE 4–28 Seismic Parameters Displayed in Output File

FIGURE 4–29 Results of Seismic Generation in Output File

FIGURE 4–30 Story and Base Shear Results

The period of the structure can be greatly affected by many things. Many
times only portions of the structure are included in the model to simplify the
analysis. The effects of “non-structural” items such as piping, equipment,
walls, and so on, can all provide additional stiffness to the structure. For this
reason, it is recommended to use caution when allowing the seismic base
shear to be based on the calculated Rayleigh period. This is especially true
in the early stages of the project, when there are many unknowns and the
lateral stiffness is not well defined. For our example, using the Rayleigh
method, the calculated base shear was 14.92 kips. If the approximate period
had been used in the analysis, the resulting base shear would increase to a
value of 25.37 kips (a 70% increase).

Modal Response Spectrum Analysis

A modal response spectrum analysis superimposes the structural response
due to individual natural modes of vibration to determine the distribution of
seismic load throughout the structure and the total base shear. A sufficient
number of modes should be considered to ensure sufficient mass
participation; ASCE 7-05 requires a combined modal mass participation of
90% for each direction under consideration. A response spectrum of
spectral acceleration versus the fundamental building period including
damping effects is created. The building period is determined for each mode
under consideration and the maximum response is determined. The base
shear results of the individual modes are combined using the sum of the
squares method (SRSS) or the complete quadratic combination method
(CQC).
In order for the forces determined in the modal analysis to be used for
design they need to be divided by , or for drift or displacement divided by
. The results of the analysis will be an absolute maximum value occurring
at each node. The six degrees of freedom at each member end will be of
positive sign. Therefore, when combining the response spectrum results
with other loads to perform member design, it will be necessary to create
load combinations in the positive and negative global axis directions. This
will provide an envelope of forces and moments that will be used in the
design of the member. For determining the appropriate reactions for footing
design, it would be possible to extract this data from STAAD and use it in a
spreadsheet application to apply the appropriate sign.
This type of analysis is always permitted by the code, but in some cases is
mandated. The following situations may require the use of a dynamic
analysis:

• Occupancy III or IV structures in Seismic Design Category D, E, or F

• Structures with period T ≥ 3.5TS in Seismic Design Category D, E, or F
• Structures with Horizontal Irregularity 1a or 1b in Seismic Design
Category D, E, or F
• Structures with Vertical Irregularity 1a, 1b, 2 or 3 in Seismic Design
Category D, E, or F

Example
Repeat the previous ELFP example by performing the modal response
spectrum analysis.

Solution
The first step in performing a modal analysis is to create a load case for the
response spectrum. This load case will contain the masses to be used in the
analysis and the data required to generate the response spectra. If the
response spectra values are available from site-specific seismic analysis,
then they may be input directly. If this data is not available, a response
spectrum can be created per Section 11.4.5 of ASCE 7. STAAD.Pro will
automatically create this spectrum based on zip code or latitude and
longitude locations. Create a new load case and select ADD so that it
appears in the Load&Definition window. Highlight the load case and select
ADD again at the bottom of the window. For this example, since we are
interested in lateral loads along the Global X axis, the masses will be input
with no sign and in the Global X direction. Select the Response Spectrum
tab to display the options available. Select the IBC 2006 code to display the
parameters needed to define the IBC/ASCE spectrum. The following steps
describe the input required to properly define the response spectrum.
FIGURE 4–31 Modal Response Load Case

FIGURE 4–32 Uniform loads Applied in Lateral Direction

FIGURE 4–33 Input File for Modal Response Load Case

FIGURE 4–34 Defining Response Spectrum

1. Select the desired code for defining the response spectrum.

2. Select the method for combining the modes. ASCE recognizes the
SRSS and CQC methods. If the modes are closely spaced, then the CQC
method is required.
 3. If desired, the zip code or latitude and longitude may be entered along
with the Soil Site Class (SCL) to have the program automatically
calculate the required spectral accelerations. To input these values
manually, 0 will be input.
4. The values for the long period acceleration, TL and the site coefficients
FA and FV are input.
5. Specify the desired direction to apply the response and an associated
factor. Since for our example R = 3 and I = 1.0, a factor of 0.333 will be
applied. It should be noted that this factor would not be appropriate for
determining displacement and drift quantities, and it is generally
preferred to run a separate analysis for this.
6. Select the type of interpolation to be linear or logarithmic. For
acceleration spectra, linear interpolation is the typical method to be
used.
7. Select the type of damping to be considered and the damping value.
Note if CDAMP or MDAMP are used, then additional input is required.
The default for damping is 5%.
8. A scale factor is input to convert the acceleration from g’s to
length/(sec)^2 units. Note that if the IBC code is selected, this input is
not necessary. The scale factor will be based on the default units.
9. Input for Signed Response and Individual Mode Response will be
discussed later in the building example.
The analysis is now performed and compared to the ELFP to determine if
any further modification is needed per the limitations of ASCE 12.9.4.
FIGURE 4–35 Mode 1

FIGURE 4–36 Mode 2

FIGURE 4–37 Mode 3

FIGURE 4–38 Results from Modal Analysis

FIGURE 4–39 With three modes there is 100% mass participation.

Combined Modal Response, Vt = 13.19 kips

Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure, V = 14.96 kips
= 0.882 > 0.85 ∴ No modification required

Linear Seismic Response History Analysis

A linear response history analysis may be performed in lieu of the modal
response analysis. A seismic time history analysis requires a set of time vs.
acceleration pairs and is usually based on historical events near the project
site or simulated ground motion records may be used. This data is usually
prepared by a geotechnical engineer and provided to the structural engineer
for analysis.

Example
Repeat the previous example by performing a time history analysis. The
time history pairs will be based on the Northridge, CA, earthquake.

Solution
The first step in performing a time history analysis is to define the data for
the ground motion accelerations, arrival times, and damping parameters.
This data can be input directly or located in an external data file that can be
read by the program. For this example, the data will be provided by an
external file. It is important to understand the units provided in the table. In
this example, time is provided in seconds and acceleration is provided in
terms of “g.” A factor will be applied later to convert “g” to the appropriate
units.

FIGURE 4–40 Appropriate Format of Time History Data Provided from an External File
FIGURE 4–41 Defining Time History

1. Multiple time history types may be defined. The Type number identifies
the definition for ease of reference later in the load case creation. Since
we are concerned with ground motion, the acceleration parameter is
selected.
2. The Save option may be selected in order to create a data file containing
the history of nodal displacements for every time step. The graphical
output will indicate only the maximum result.
3. Since we are using data provided from a text file, the From External
File option will be selected. This filename should be no longer than
eight characters and contain the extension (Thist.txt for our example).
This file must be located in the same folder as the .std model.
4. Select Add to complete this step and then Define Param to continue.
5. The Time Step option may be entered to modify the time interval and
thereby the number of equations to be solved for. Care should be
exercised to ensure that the value entered is compatible with the time
history file used. A default value 0.001388 is used if nothing is entered.
6. Select the type of damping to be considered and the damping value.
Note if CDAMP or MDAMP is used, then additional input is required.
The default for damping is 5%.
7. Arrival times may be entered to indicate when a load type begins to act
at a certain joint. Different joints may have different arrival times. For
our example, only one arrival time is needed.
8. Select Add to complete the time history definition.
FIGURE 4–42 Time History Load Case

The second step is to define the dynamic load case. The masses to be used
are entered in similar fashion to the modal response analysis. The loads
entered are used to populate the mass matrix and are without regard to sign.
Since for our example we are only interested in vibration along the X axis,
this direction alone will be specified. If the Z and Y directions are to be
considered in the dynamic analysis, then they must also be entered. The
ground motion data resulting from the time history definition is also
included in this load case. Since the time history data was specified with
regard to “g,” a factor is included here to convert it to the appropriate units
for the model. The appropriate arrival time is selected; again we have only
one arrival time since our model contains only one time history type.

FIGURE 4–43 Ground Motion Creation for Load Case

FIGURE 4–44 Input File for Time History Load Case

Subsequent load cases will be created to factor the results of the dynamic
load case per the requirements of ASCE 7. For our example, since R=3, the
dynamic load will be factored by = 0.333. These results will then be
compared to the minimum CS values from Section 12.8 of ASCE 7 and
factored if appropriate.
FIGURE 4–45 Results from Seismic History Response Analysis

FIGURE 4–46 Results from Seismic History Response Analysis

FIGURE 4–47 Results from Seismic History Response Analysis

With three modes there is 100% mass participation.

Scaled Base Shear, Vi = 59.7 kips

Minimum Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure, Csmin W = 5.0 kips
59.7kips > 5.0 kips ∴ No modification required
In addition, dynamic acceleration, velocity, and displacement curves can be
viewed for each node in the structure.
FIGURE 4–48 Structure with Node Numbers

FIGURE 4–49 Time History Acceleration for Node 7

CHAPTER 5

Loads and Load Combinations

T
he complexity of load types and load combinations in the building
code requires special attention in the development of the analytical
model. Organization of the load types addressed in Chapters 2, 3,
and 4 into load combinations formatted to be easy to understand will help
eliminate errors and save time during the design. It will also enable changes
to be incorporated in the model in a more efficient manner. Proper
definition of load cases and load combinations within STAAD.Pro can also
reduce computational time of the model, saving design hours, allowing for
more complex models to be created, and more options to be considered.
Adding to the issue are various material standards and their associated
design codes that may require different load combinations to be considered.
Organization of Load Cases
Since structures vary in purpose, it is typical that the load cases and
combinations created may be different from job to job. Structures located in
higher seismic regions may require certain elements to be designed for
special seismic load combinations. Where orthogonal lateral bracing
systems intersect, lateral loads may be required to be combined. Proper
creation of the individual load cases and how they are later combined is an
essential step in creating the analytical model.
Dead loads should typically be separated out into a minimum of two load
cases. Usually the materials of construction, such as framing, roofing, and
so on, are well defined, so these can be defined in a minimum dead load
case. Other dead loads such as utilities, equipment contents, and other
miscellaneous collateral loads may not be as well defined and should be
defined in a second dead load case. Vessel and piping contents can also vary
over time and so separating these out will allow more control on properly
combining them. For combination with lateral loads such as wind and
seismic, we would want to include only the minimum dead load to capture
the maximum uplift affect. However, the full dead load would need to be
included with the lateral loads to capture the maximum downward effect.
Base snow loads and drift loads should also be considered separately since
the drift would not need to be included with certain combinations. In
addition, in areas with significant snow loads, while the base snow may
need to be included in seismic base shear calculation, the drift component
could be excluded.

Example
Develop the appropriate load cases and ASD load combinations per ASCE
7-05 for the following design criteria; consider lateral loads in north to
south direction only:

Dead Load Floor Live Load = 100 psf

Framing = Self-Weight Roof Live Load = 20 psf
Roof System = 4 psf Snow Base Load = 15 psf
 Grating = 12 psf
Process Piping = 30 psf
Misc = 5 psf (Lights and
Sprinklers)
Equipment and tanks will be located
throughout the structure.
Snow Drift Load = As Calculated
Wind = As Calculated
Earthquake = As calculated (0.2SDS =
0.05)

Solution
Determine the appropriate load case types and then create a load
combination map that can be used by the project team to ensure model
consistency across the group.

Load Cases
Dmin = Self-weight of structure, building materials, empty weight of piping
and equipment
Drem = Process piping and equipment contents and miscellaneous
L = Floor live load
Lr = Roof live load
S = Base snow load
Sd = Snow drift load
Wns = Wind load from north to south
Ens = Seismic load from north to south

Load Combination
Dmin + Drem
Dmin + Drem + L
Dmin + Drem + Lr
Dmin + Drem + 0.75L + 0.75Lr
Dmin + Drem + S + Sd
Dmin + Drem + 0.75L + 0.75S
Dmin + Drem + Wns
1.05(Dmin + Drem) + 0.7Ens
Dmin + Drem + 0.75L + 0.75Lr + 0.75Wns
Dmin + Drem + 0.75L + 0.75S + 0.75Wns
1.03(Dmin + Drem) + 0.75L + 0.75Lr + 0.525Ens
1.03(Dmin + Drem) + 0.75L + 0.75S + 0.525Ens
*0.6 Dmin + Wns
*0.6 0.95(Dmin + Drem) + 0.7Ens

TABLE 5–1 Load Case Map

 NOTE
The use of 0.6D has caused much confusion in its use and application. The intent of
the 0.6 is to ensure that the dead loads are not overestimated, thereby falsely
reducing the uplift and/or overturning forces and moments in design. Since the
codes no longer require a 1.5 safety factor on overturning and uplift on foundations,
it is implied that the 0.6 factor was meant for the design of these elements. In
addition, applying a 0.6 factor on dead load in conjunction with seismic loads seems
unnecessary since if the dead loads are overestimated, so therefore are the resulting
seismic loads. Since the 0.6 factor is also applied to the weight of the concrete
foundation, where the dead load is well defined, the effect is to falsely push
eccentricities outside the kern. The result is a larger foundation to ensure the bearing
pressure is within allowable limits. Other elements such as anchor bolts and
columns in tension are also falsely punished by using the 0.6 factor as no safety
factor (other than from the material standard) is required. Using a Dmin load case or
other methods to ensure the dead load is not overestimated may be an appropriate
method of accounting for the 0.6 factor. In fact, Dmin is oftentimes less than the 0.6
factor when looking at the superstructure, so it seems unnecessary to punish the
design even further by applying the 0.6 factor. If the user opts to use the Dmin option,
then care must be exercised in applying the appropriate safety factor for stability.

Load Combinations and Repeat Loads

Load combinations provide a method for combining the results of
individual load cases and summing them together to obtain the final result.
For most linear static analysis this is sufficient. However, there are analysis
types that are not suited to this type of summation. For these cases, the use
of the REPEAT LOAD command may be required. The REPEAT LOAD
merges the selected load cases into a single load case that is then included
in the analysis, thus preventing the need for summation of the individual
load case results. The disadvantage in using the REPEAT LOAD command
is longer computation time. However, the use of STAAD.Pro’s Advanced
Analysis Engine and faster computers more than compensate for the impact
of the REPEAT LOAD. It should be noted that the REPEAT LOAD
command should not be used for modal analysis such as response spectrum,
time history, or steady-state analysis. The following types of analysis will
require the use of the REPEAT LOAD command:

• Tension-only bracing
• Compression-only bracing
• Tension-only spring supports
• Compression-only spring supports
• P-Delta analysis
• Direct analysis
• Nonlinear analysis

Load combination and repeat loads should be created after all primary load
cases are defined. While repeat loads may be used in future load cases, load
combinations may not. Create a load combination graphically by
highlighting load case details in the Load & Definition window and then
selecting ADD. Select Define Combinations and then enter the data for the
load case. Select the Add button to complete this step. The use of load
combinations and repeat loads will be demonstrated in later chapters.

FIGURE 5–1 Load Combination Creation

Repeat loads are created similarly to load cases. Again highlight Load Case
Details and select ADD. Name the load case without defining the load type.
Note that the load type is required only if the load combination generator is
used in the analysis. After the load case is created, highlight the load case
and select ADD. Then locate the Repeat Load option and select the
applicable load cases and appropriate factors to be included. Select the Add
button to complete this step.

FIGURE 5–2 New Repeat Load Case

FIGURE 5–3 Select Load Cases to Be Included

FIGURE 5–4 Apply Appropriate Factors

Reference Loads
Reference loads were covered in Chapter 4 for the use in defining masses to
be used in the base shear calculation. Additionally, reference loads may be
used to define all primary gravity load cases. This is useful for not only
seismic mass definition, but also to reduce computation time by eliminating
the analysis of individual load cases. For example, in a compression-only
support analysis, (e.g., a mat foundation), it may not be necessary to run the
analysis for dead load alone. Rather the combination of dead load and wind
load may be the desired result. By using the reference load, control is given
to the user to determine what is analyzed and what isn’t.
For typical structures if load combinations or repeat loads are being used,
the primary load cases should be first defined by selecting the appropriate
reference load. Once these primary cases are defined, the load combination
or repeat load cases are created as shown in the previous section of this
chapter. (See Chapter 4 for reference load creation.) To create the primary
load case, highlight Load Case Details and select ADD. Name the primary
load case as appropriate and select ADD. Highlight the load case and select
ADD to open the load items window. From here select the Repeat Load
icon and then the Reference Load. Select the appropriate reference load to
be included in the primary load case. It is common to use a factor of 1.0
here, knowing the appropriate load combination factor will be applied at a
later time.

FIGURE 5–5 Using Reference Loads with Load Combination or Repeat Load
FIGURE 5–6 Primary Load Case Creation Using Repeat Loads

Seismic Load Combinations and the Overstrength Factor

If the seismic load generator is used to develop the seismic loads, then
special attention is needed when load cases are created. A total of eight
seismic load cases may be created; however, they must be specified prior to
any other load cases. In addition, if the seismic load case will later be used
in a REPEAT LOAD combination, tension/compression analysis or in a
reanalysis, each seismic load case must be followed by a PERFORM
ANALYSIS, which in turn is followed by the CHANGE command. If the
change command is required, the SET NL command must be used
indicating the maximum number of primary load cases. The quickest
method for adding these commands properly is by adding the needed load
cases graphically and then adding the other commands using the STAAD
editor.
FIGURE 5–7 Create Seismic Load Cases Prior to Others

FIGURE 5–8 Open Input File

FIGURE 5–9 STAAD Editor—Input File

FIGURE 5–10 Add Change Command after Perform Analysis

Depending on the seismic design category and the geometry of the

structure, the code may require the seismic load cases to include the
overstrength factor. Since these load cases are not required for all members
in the model, the use of load list and multiple code checks must be used. All
of the members in the model are first checked for the basic load
combinations. The load list command is used to instruct the program to
limit the code check to only the load combinations contained in the list.
After the design parameters are input, a second load list and code check are
used. The load list contains both the basic load combinations and the special
seismic load combinations. The second code check is performed only on the
selected collector elements. This procedure is required, since only the
results from the latest code check performed on a specific member is
retained in the results.
FIGURE 5–11 All Members Selected for ASD Code Check

FIGURE 5–12 Collector Elements Selected for Check with Special Seismic Load
Combinations
FIGURE 5–13 Load Combinations 19 through 68 will be used for the ASD code check.

FIGURE 5–14 Load Combinations 72 through 92, which include the overstrength factor, will
be used to check collector elements per the seismic code requirements.
FIGURE 5–15 Multiple Load List and Check Code Commands

Load Combination Generator

The load combination generator provides a great tool for the creation of
load combinations and repeat loads. Many standard load combinations are
provided from building codes such as the International Building Code. The
user may also create a set of customized load combinations to be used on
his or her specific project, which can be saved and shared with other users
to ensure consistent design. Custom load combinations can be created by
navigating to the “Edit Auto Load Rules” found under the Commands drop-
down list.
FIGURE 5–16 Location of Automatic Load Combination Rules

FIGURE 5–17 Automatic Load Combination Generator

FIGURE 5–18 Steps Required for Load Combination Generator

1. The appropriate code can be selected from the drop-down list. This list
will contain built-in codes as well as those created by the user.
2. Individual categories created within a specific code can be selected
from the drop-down list. For example, ASD or LRFD category types are
selected here.
3. Select New Code to create and name a user-defined code.
4. Select New Category to create and name user-defined categories such as
ASD and LRFD. The number of load combination rules is also entered.
5. Select Add Row to add additional load combination rules as needed.
6. After inputting load factors in the table, select Update Table to save.
7. The option to include notional loads for the purpose of direct analysis in
steel design can be selected.
8. Rules for combining the individual load cases can be defined.
 9. Load factors are assigned as appropriate for that particular load rule
(load combination).

Example
Use the load case map created earlier in this chapter to develop the
appropriate load combinations with the load combination generator.

Solution
Prior to using the load combination generator all primary load cases along
with the loading type must be defined. Since the loading types in the load
combination generator don’t always correlate with our naming convention,
we need to map our load cases with the loading types available.

Load Case STAAD.Pro Loading Type

Wns Wind

Ens Seismic

Dmin Dead

Drem Fluids

L Live

Lr Roof Live

S Snow

Sd Rain Water/Ice
FIGURE 5–19 Primary Load Case Creation Including Loading Type

The following steps are then performed from the Edit Auto Load Rules
window:

1. Select the Add New Code tab and enter the desired name
“ProjectXYZ.”

FIGURE 5–20 Creating a New Code

2. Select the Add New Category tab and enter the desired category name
along with the anticipated number of load combination rules.
FIGURE 5–21 Creating Categories and Load Rules in New Code

3. Since notional loads are not required for this analysis, the Include
Notional Load? toggle box will be unchecked for all loading types.

FIGURE 5–22 Toggle to Include Notional Loads

4. Select the appropriate combination rule. For all gravity loads, “Combine
All Cases Together” will be selected. This will instruct the program to
combine all load cases of that type to be included in the load
combination. For lateral loads, however, the “Separate Combinations
For Each Case” combination rule will be selected. This will allow
multiple load combinations to be created since multiple wind and
seismic cases are usually created to account for loads applied in
different directions.

FIGURE 5–23 Load Combination Options

5. Enter the appropriate factors to be applied to individual loading types

when combined in specific rules. After entering the factors, select
Update Table to save the changes.
FIGURE 5–24 Completed Load Rule Table

6. Select Close to complete this step.

The load combinations can now be added. From the Load&Definitions
window highlight Load Case Details and select Add to display the Add
New Load Cases window. Select Auto Load Combination to display the
available options.
FIGURE 5–25 Adding Auto Load Combinations to Model

1. Select the desired load combination code “ProjectXYZ.”

2. Select the desired load combination category “ASD.”
3. If repeat loads or notional loads are needed, they may be toggled.
4. Select generate loads to create all the possible combinations.
5. If certain combinations are not needed, they may be selected and
discarded.
6. Select Add and then Close to complete this step.
The load combinations generated will now be created and added to the
input file. The names of the load combinations will be generic listing the
code and category. The user may choose to open the input file and rename
the load combinations so that they can be easily referenced later as needed.
FIGURE 5–26 Load Combinations Created with Generic Naming

FIGURE 5–27 Load Combinations Renamed per User Requirements

CHAPTER 6

Stability Analysis and Design

C
hapter C of the AISC manual of steel construction provides the
analysis requirements to properly capture the required design loads
that must be used to design steel structures. In addition it provides
methods to ensure that sufficient stability is provided for the overall
structure and the individual elements therein. These requirements, while in
previous manual editions, are given new emphasis in the latest edition of
the manual.
The specification requires as a minimum that the following be considered in
the analysis of the structure or element: second-order effects, flexural, shear
and axial deformations, geometric imperfections and member stiffness
reductions due to residual stresses. When all of these have been addressed
in the design, then the individual members may be selected using the
appropriate “Specification” chapter. It should also be noted, while the
specification provides three methods of accounting for these effects, that
any method considering the effects from all of these items may be used to
determine the required design strengths of the member. Caution should be
exercised if it is decided to use another method than is presented in the
specification to ensure that it meets all of the requirements.
The second-order effects to be considered are those resulting from P-Delta
(Big P-Delta) and p-delta (small p-delta) effects. P-Delta effects account for
the overall frame stability when subjected to combined vertical and lateral
loading (see Figure 6.1). When lateral load is applied to the structure and
displacement of the frame occurs, an additional moment which is a function
of the vertical load and lateral displacement of the frame is imparted on the
structure. p-delta effects account for the local stability of individual
members. A member subjected to an axial load and lateral movement will
undergo local deformations (see Figure 6.2). This will result in the member
being subjected to additional moment that must be considered. The use of a
standard first-order elastic analysis would not have accounted for these
effects and could result in unconservative member forces and displacements
(see Figure 6.3).
FIGURE 6–1 P-Delta Affects Frame

FIGURE 6–2 p-delta Affects Member Stability

FIGURE 6–3 Comparison of First and Second Order Analysis

Flexural, shear, and axial deformations are also required to be taken into
consideration during the analysis. These deformations under applied loads
are critical in properly determining the second-order effects, structure
stability, and displacements necessary to properly design the structure.
STAAD.Pro incorporates all of these effects into the analysis and as such
will meet this code requirement.
In construction practice, it is not likely that a structure will be built
perfectly straight, plumb, and level. There are many factors such as rolling
of steel shapes, fabrication of members, member connections, and
construction practices that will lead to geometric imperfections. The
primary concerns addressed by the code are “out-of-straightness” and “out-
of-plumbness” of the individual members. “Out-of-straightness” is defined
by the deviation along the length of the member perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis. ASTM A6 provides a limit of L/1000 that should not be
exceeded. The “Code of Standard Practice” provides a limit on “out-of-
plumbness” L/500 (see Figure 6.4). To account for these imperfections in
the analysis, two options may be considered. The engineer may include the
geometric imperfections in the analysis or use notional loads to simulate the
imperfections. In most conditions, it would not be practical to consider
modeling the imperfections; therefore, the use of notional loads in the
analysis is recommended.

FIGURE 6–4a Out of Straightness

FIGURE 6–4b Out of Plumbness

Figure 6.5 shows an approximation of the residual stresses in a wide flange

beam during the rolling process. During cooling the outer edges of the
flanges and the middle of the web cool first, while the interior core of the
beam remains hot. These differential temperatures produce residual stresses
in the member, which can be as high as 0.3Fy. The code accounts for these
residual stresses by reducing the flexural and axial stiffness of the members
in the analysis. Depending on the analysis method chosen, notional loads
may also be used to account for this phenomenon.
FIGURE 6–5 Residual Stresses due to Rolling Process

As mentioned previously, the use of notional loads will be required to

properly account for geometric imperfections or residual stresses. This is
true regardless of the method chosen, although the use and magnitude of the
notional will vary. Notional loads are lateral loads applied simultaneously
with the corresponding gravity load on that particular level of the structure
(see Figure 6.6). These notional loads should be distributed or applied to the
frame lines in agreement with the mass distribution on that level. It is not
the intent of notional loads to produce weak axis bending in the local
elements of the structure. However, this additional weak axis load may
occur as result of how the analysis model is created and the loads are
applied. The notional loads are to be applied independently in two
orthogonal directions in all load combinations. If the ratio of second-order
drift to first-order drift is less than or equal to 1.5, then this load can be
considered as minimum and need not be included in load combinations
exceeding the notional load. This eliminates the need to consider notional
loads in conjunction with wind and seismic load combinations.
FIGURE 6–6 Notional Loads

Ni = notional lateral load applied at level i, kips

Yi = gravity load from the LRFD combination or 1.6 times the ASD load
combination applied at level i, kips

Ni = 0.002Yi

Example—Calculation of Notional Loads

FIGURE 6–7 Framing Plan

Dead Load (DL) ASD Combinations

Framing = 15 1.0DL + 1.0LL
psf
1 ½" Metal Deck = 3 1.0(35 psf) + 1.0(20 psf) = 55 psf
psf
Built-up Roof =7 Yi = 1.6 × 55 psf × 10,500 ft 2 = 924,000#
psf (924 kips)
Misc = 10 Ni = 0.002 × 924 kips = 1.85 kips
psf
Total Dead Load = 35
psf
Live Load (LL) = 20 psf
Area Roof = 10,500 ft 2
LRFD Combinations
1.2DL + 1.6LL
1.2(35 psf) + 1.6(20 psf) = 74 psf
Yi = 74 psf × 10,500 ft 2 = 777,000# (777
kips)
Ni = 0.002 × 777 kips = 1.55 kips

NOTE
Due to the 1.6 multiplier for ASD, the notional load will generally be greater than that
produced from LRFD combinations.

Example—Repeat the Previous Example Using STAAD.Pro

FIGURE 6–8 Building Geometry in STAAD.Pro

Basic geometry along with dead and live load cases have been created per
the previous example; now add the notional load component to the load
combinations. Since notional loads are applied in two orthogonal directions,
we will create two load combinations for each applicable gravity load
combination. Also note that since the direct analysis method is an iterative
procedure in STAAD.Pro, the REPEAT LOAD command should be used in
lieu of LOAD COMBINATION. After creating the load combination and
selecting the ADD (load items) button, select the REPEAT LOAD and then
the NOTIONAL LOAD tab. Notice that the previously created D and L
load cases are available for use in this command. Select these load cases
and add them to the notional load definition window. Once the applicable
load cases are added, then the appropriate factor can be applied. In our
example, this factor is 0.002x(Load Combination Factor). For the LRFD
load case, 1.2D + 1.6L, the 0.002 factor is modified as appropriate. Also,
note that for analysis performed using ASD, the 1.6 multiplier on the
applied loads is not done at this step in the model creation. This factor is
applied under the PERFORM DIRECT ANALYSIS section.

FIGURE 6–9 Load Cases Available for Notional Loads

FIGURE 6–10 Notional Loads in Input File

FIGURE 6–11 Application of Notional Loads

FIGURE 6–12 Notional Load Results

From STAAD analysis:

ASD: 1.6 × 1.155 = 1.848
LRFD: = 1.554
This is in agreement with the previous example.
Another option for creating notional loads in STAAD.Pro is to use the
Automatic Repeat Load Generation commands. From
Commands/Loading/Edit Auto Load Rules we will define the load
combinations as well as tell STAAD.Pro we want to include the notional
loads in the analysis. After defining the load combinations we wish to
include and checking the box to include notional loads, we select Update
Table, and then close this dialogue box.
FIGURE 6–13 Include Notional Loads in Auto Load Combination Rules

With the cursor selected on the Load Case Details text under the Load and
Definition window, select ADD and then Auto Load Combination. This
dialogue box will allow the generation of the REPEAT LOAD cases based
on the rules created earlier. First select the Load Combination Code of
interest and if applicable the appropriate category. In order to create repeat
loads in lieu of load combinations we should toggle the Create Repeat Load
Cases checkbox. We then select the Generate Loads button. Since we have
instructed STAAD to create notional loads as well, the program generates
four repeat load cases for each rule created earlier. This is to satisfy the
code requirement of applying the notional load in two orthogonal directions
and of appropriate sign to generate the controlling load. Notice that we have
the option in STAAD.pro to place unwanted cases in the Discarded Load
Combinations window. For this example, we will keep only the (+X) load
case for the ASD and LRFD combination. To incorporate the selected
repeat load cases into the model we need to select the Add button.
FIGURE 6–14 Auto Repeat Load Generation with Notional Loads

The notional loads in STAAD are applied to the structure at the nodes of
member ends (see Figure 6.15). This method of distribution will allow for
the proper distribution of forces through the diaphragm or horizontal
bracing system to the vertical brace line, and eliminates the need to
determine this by hand. This also takes into account the “leaning” column
effect. In methods requiring the calculation of the column effective length
factor K, an adjustment should be made to account for the number of
columns relying on (“leaning” on) the lateral resisting system for stability.
FIGURE 6–15 Notional Load Distribution in Model

First-Order Analysis Method

The first-order analysis method provides the simplest approach to
addressing the stability requirements in AISC Chapter C. Due to this fact, it
is also limited in its use and may produce a less economical design
compared to the other two methods. In order to use this method, the ratio of
the second-order to first-order drift must be equal to or less than 1.5. Since
a second-order analysis is not performed in this method, the minimum
notional load that must be applied is 0.0042Yi. This notional load may
increase above this value depending on the stiffness of the structure. This
method also has the constraint that the required column strength of any
member whose flexural stiffness contributes to the lateral stability of the
structure (increased by 1.6 for ASD) must be less than ½ the member yield
strength. While this method allows for the use of K = 1.0, it does require
that beam-column moments be increased by the B1 amplifier.

Example – First-Order Analysis Method

For this example we will analyze one of the moment frames from the
previous notional loads example using STAAD.Pro. This example will
utilize the LRFD design requirements, where ASD requirements differ,
these will be highlighted. The maximum drift limit is H/100, with a story
height of 20 ft.

FIGURE 6–16 Frame Geometry

Step 1: Determine if the first-order analysis procedure is permitted. See the

Direct Analysis example next for the calculation of B2 to determine if the
ratio of second-order to first-order drift is equal to or less than 1.5. For this
structure B2 = 1.16.
Step 2: Determine the notional loads to be applied. Since no design has
been performed, and the interstory drift is used to determine the magnitude
of the notional loads, the maximum drift load will be utilized. As long as
the actual calculated drift doesn’t exceed the drift limit, the design will meet
the requirements and the notional loads will not need to be revised. Note
that this drift limit is calculated under LRFD load combinations or 1.6 times
the ASD loads.

∆= = 2.4 inches
Ni = 2.1(∆ /L)Yi = 2.1(2.4/240)Yi = .0210Yi > 0.0042Yi
∴ Use 0.0210Yi
For the first-order analysis method, the notional loads are required for all
load combinations. See the notional load example for additional
information regarding the creation of notional loads in the model.
FIGURE 6–17 Load Cases Including Notional Loads

FIGURE 6–18 Drift Due to Design Loads

Step 3: Run the analysis and investigate the members whose flexural
stiffness contributes to the lateral stability of the structure. The required
axial compressive strength of these members must be less than one half of
the member yield strength. The columns will be checked; by inspection the
W24 × 104 beam in the moment frame is adequate.

For Columns 9 and 17: W18 × 76 (A = 22.3 in2), 50 ksi yield strength
0.5Py = 0.5(22.3 in2)(50 ksi) = 558 kips
Pr = 43.2 kips
43.2 kips 558 kips ∴colunm size is acceptable
Step 4: The non-sway amplification of beam-column moments is
considered by applying the B1 amplifier to the total member moments. The
B1 factor must be calculated for members, subjected to bending and axial
loads, that are part of the lateral force resisting system. For our example we
will check collector beam 5 and column 9.

For beam 5: W14 × 34 (A = 10.0 in2, I = 340 in4)

Pe1 = π2EI/(K1 L)2 = π2 (29000)(340)/(1.0 * 420)2 = 552 kips
B1 = Cm /[1 – αPr /Pe1] = 1/[1–(1.0)(10)/552] = 1.02
The total beam moments should be factored by 1.02, prior to designing.

For column 9: W18 × 76 (A = 22.3 in2, I = 1330 in4)

Pe1 = π2EI/(K1L)2 = π2(29000)(1330)/(1.0 * 240)2 = 6609 kips
B1 = Cm /[1 – αPr /Pe1] = 1 / [1–(1.0)(43.2)/6609] = 1.01
The total column moments should be factored by 1.01, prior to designing.

NOTE
STAAD.Pro does not explicitly incorporate the B1 factor in design. However, a factor
equivalent to B1 could be applied to the load case to account for the increased
moment. This would also increase the axial loads as well, but would produce a
slightly conservative design.

Equivalent Length Method

The Equivalent Length (B1-B2) Method provides another method of meeting
the Chapter C stability requirements. This method approximates a second-
order analysis with the use of amplifiers applied to the axial loads and
moments of members that are part of the lateral force resisting system.
Similar to the first-order analysis method it can be used only if the ratio of
second-order drift to first-order drift is equal to or less than 1.5. For the
Equivalent Length method, the notional load is required to be applied only
to gravity-only load combinations and is set at 0.002Yi. In addition it does
not have the additional constraints on members whose flexural stiffness
contributes to the lateral stability of the structure. This method is
calculation-intensive requiring a B1 and B2 amplifier to be calculated for all
members that are part of the lateral force resisting system. The effective
length factor, K, will also have to be calculated if this method is utilized. In
addition, the axial loads and moments must be broken out based on if they
are a result of no translation (gravity) or lateral translation. The calculations
become more complicated for structures with multiple levels, roof steps,
sloped elements, and so on.
Mr = B1Mnt + B2Mlt

Pr = Pnt + B2Plt
With,

B1 = Cm/ [1–αPr /Pe1]

B2 = 1/1 – a∑Pnt/∑ Pe2

In lieu of using the effective length method, it is recommended to use either
the first-order or direct analysis method. For normal height braced frame
structures, the first-order analysis method is usually adequate since B2
should always be less than 1.5. In addition, since flexural stiffness is not an
issue with braced frames the conservatism of using this method is reduced.
All structure types may be analyzed with the direct analysis method so it
may always be selected regardless of the structure complication.

Direct Analysis Method

The direct analysis method is presented in Appendix 7 of the AISC
specification. It is a new method to perform stability analysis and design of
structural steel systems. This method can be used for the design of braced
frames, moment frames, and combined systems including shear walls. One
of the major advantages is eliminating the need to calculate the effective
length factor, K, for columns and beam-columns. Chapter C requires the use
of this method whenever the ratio of the second-order to first-order drift
exceeds 1.5. It should also be noted that the direct analysis method is
expected to become the primary method for stability analysis in future
editions of the AISC specification. The following are the primary
advantages of the direct analysis method:
• Applicable to all steel structure types
• Eliminates the calculation of the effective length factor, K
• Most accurate determination of internal forces associated with second-
order effects, geometric imperfections, and residual stresses
The disadvantage of the direct analysis method is that, in most cases, it will
require the use of computer software. This would not for example be an
ideal method for doing something quickly in the field or a small project,
such as a pipe support, or equipment platform. For these types of structures
the first-order analysis method should be considered if the constraints are
satisfied.
In addition to the notional load requirements, the direct analysis method
requires that the stiffness of members contributing to the lateral stability of
the structure be reduced. For members whose axial stiffness contributes, the
reduced axial stiffness, EA* = 0.8EA. For members whose flexural stiffness
contributes, the reduced flexural stiffness, EI* = 0.8 τb EI. The factor τb
equals 1 when the ratio of required compressive strength to member yield
strength is less than or equal to 0.5, aPr /Py ≤ 0.5. For members with
relatively large compressive loads, aPr /Py > 0.5, the resulting value of τb
will be < 1.0. It should be noted that the notional load and stiffness
reduction requirements only apply to the analysis for strength limit states.
For serviceability limit states such as deflection, these requirements are not
applicable.
STAAD.Pro is one of the first programs to incorporate the AISC 13th
edition along with the direct analysis method. Since the stiffness of the
members is dependent on the member forces, the analysis is an iterative
procedure. This iteration will continue until the value of τb. and the
displacement has converged based on user-provided tolerances, or the
maximum number of iterations set by the user has been reached. Once the
required forces have been determined, the code check of individual
members is based on 100% of the axial and flexural stiffness.
Example – Direct Analysis Method
For this example we will further develop the model from the First-Order
example to implement the Direct Analysis requirements of Appendix 7
from the AISC specification using STAAD.Pro. This example will utilize
the LRFD design requirements, where ASD requirements differ, these will
be highlighted.

FIGURE 6–19 Frame Geometry

Step 1: Determine if notional loads may be considered a minimum or

additive. If ∆2nd/∆1st < 1.5 then notional loads may be considered a minimum
and will likely not need to be included in lateral load combinations. The
AISC specification allows the ratio of second-order drift to first-order drift
to be represented by the B2 amplifier. Alternatively it can be determined by
comparing the results of a second- and first-order analysis. For the north-
south moment frames:

B2 = /1 - a ∑Pnt/∑Pe2
1

α = 1.0 (This term would equal 1.6 for analysis with ASD)
∑Pnt = 651 kips (total vertical load supported by the story)
∑Pe2 = RM ∑HL/∆H (RM = 1.0 for braced frames, 0.85 for moment frames)

∑H = 56 kips (1.2D + 1.0L + 1.6W) [Total lateral shear at this level]

∆H = 2.38 inches [First-order drift due to lateral forces]
Floor Height = 20 feet
 NOTE
For the east-west braced frames, B2 = 1.0

Step 2: Create the Direct Analysis Definition. In this step we will specify
the members whose flexural or axial stiffness contributes to the lateral
stability of the structure. Parameters will also be specified to aid in the
calculation of τb.
For the north-south moment frame: Members 9, 13, and 17 comprise
moment frame.

FIGURE 6–20 From the Load & Definition tab, select Direct Analysis Definition and then
ADD. This will bring up the Direct Analysis Definition dialogue box.
FIGURE 6–21 Direct Analysis Parameters

The FLEX parameter will be assigned to members 9, 13, and 17 since the
flexural stiffness of these members contribute to the lateral stiffness of the
structure. The default value for the FLEX parameter is 1.0. The value input
will be the initial value of τb used to start the iteration. In addition, the
AXIAL parameter will be assigned to members 5, 13, and 21 since they act
as collector elements along the interface with the roof diaphragm and will
be assigned to column members 9 and 17 since the axial stiffness of these
members contributes to the lateral stiffness of the structure. The FYLD
parameter should be applied to all members assigned with the FLEX
parameter, and is used in the calculation of τb. The default value of FYLD is
the material yield strength in the current units. The notional load factor is
then applied. A value specified of 0.002 will instruct the program to
calculate τb when aPr /Py > 0.5, for values of a Pr / Py ≤ 0.5 τb is set to 1.0.
The user has the option to enter a value of 0.003, which will instruct the
program to set a value of τb = 1.0 as specified in AISC Appendix 7. Note
that if the user enters 0.003 for the notional load factor, the notional loads
applied in the Load Cases should also be based on this value. The notional
load factor assigned here does not instruct the program to calculate the
notional loads, but is used only to establish the criteria for τb.

FIGURE 6–22 Direct Analysis Definition after Assignment of Parameters.

Step 3: Assign the notional loads to the appropriate load combinations.

Since B2 < 1.5, the notional loads are required to be applied only to gravity-
only load combinations. See Step 1 for this procedure.
FIGURE 6–23 Load Cases for Direct Analysis

Step 4: Specify the Perform Direct Analysis command. From the analysis
tab select Perform Direct Analysis to open the dialogue.
FIGURE 6–24 Perform Direct Analysis Command

The user has the option here of selecting either the LRFD or ASD method.
Selecting ASD here will prompt the program to multiply the loads by 1.6 to
perform the analysis, and then divide the results by 1.6 to perform the
required steel design. The 1.6 factor ensures that the analysis is carried out
at a strength limit state in order to capture the nonlinear second-order
effects. The convergence tolerances for the analysis can also be set at this
point. The Tau tolerance will set the convergence criteria for the calculation
of τb. Typical values of τb range from 0.001 to 1.0, with a default value of
0.01. The Displacement tolerance will set the convergence criteria for the
structural displacement. This value is set in the current length units
assigned. The default value is 0.01 inches or 0.01 radians. The maximum
number of iterations can also be set here. The default value is 1. The
program will run the analysis until convergence or the maximum number of
iterations has been reached.

Providing Member Stability

Design requirements for members that are part of the lateral load resisting
system are covered within Chapter C. Where these rely on members that are
not part of the lateral load resisting system to define their unbraced length,
sufficient strength and stiffness should be provided to control member
movement at these brace points. The requirements for these braces are
provided in Appendix 6 and are referenced from Chapter C. If these
requirements are not met, then the member should be designed as unbraced
along its length. Member and geometric properties as well as the connection
details should be considered in the analysis of the brace stiffness. In lieu of
meeting the requirements of Appendix 6, a second-order analysis that
considers an initial out-of-straightness for the member is permitted. For
models of significant size, it would not be feasible to include this in the
analysis; therefore, it is not recommended.
The two types of bracing systems considered are relative and nodal.
Relative bracing consists of multiple brace points along the length of the
member which move with respect to each other. This method of bracing
would be typical in X-braced frames and shear wall systems for columns, or
horizontal truss and diaphragms for beams.
FIGURE 6–25 Relative Brace Example for Columns
FIGURE 6–26 Relative Brace Example for Beams
FIGURE 6–27 Nodal Brace Example for Columns
FIGURE 6–28 Nodal Brace Example for Beams

For the bracing to be effective, the connection details must agree with the
design assumptions being made. For example, while a simple strut framing
into a deep column section may be adequate to reduce the effective length
of the member in regard to slenderness, it will not provide the appropriate
restraint to use the same reduced length in determining the flexural capacity
of the section. For restraint against buckling of the compression flange
stiffener plates may be added. In addition the intersecting member or
members are required to be designed for the appropriate buckling load and
minimum stiffness requirements.
FIGURE 6–29 Deep Column

FIGURE 6–30 Deep Beam

FIGURE 6–31 Beam to column web connection provides lateral restraint but little
resistance to flange buckling.
FIGURE 6–32 Additional flange plate(s) provide resistance to column twisting (i.e., flange
buckling resistance).

FIGURE 6–33 Shallow beam to girder connection provides flange buckling resistance but
little lateral restraint.

FIGURE 6–34 Extending the connection below the beam centerline will provide additional
lateral restraint.

Example
A new opening for a tank was added adjacent to the structural column,
allowing only a shallow horizontal truss framing system to brace the
column. Determine if the system provides the necessary load resistance and
stiffness to brace the column and utilize a K = 1.0 in the design. The
required axial compressive load for the column is 250 kips. (ASD) The
column unbraced length is 30 ft.
FIGURE 6–35 Column Braced at Floor

FIGURE 6–36 Horizontal Truss Providing Column Bracing

Solution
Since the horizontal truss braces the column at a single point and is not
related to other brace points along the length of the column, the system will
be analyzed assuming the nodal bracing requirements.

Pbr = 0.01Pr = (0.01)(250 kips) = 2.5 kips

Determine Lq by analysis. For a 250 kip axial compressive load, the

maximum unbraced length would be equal to 39 ft.

Lb > Lq ∴ Lb is permitted to be taken as Lq

βbr = Ω8Pr /Lb = (2.00)(8)(250)/468 = 8.55 kips/in

Even though STAAD will not directly check the requirements of Appendix
6, a simple model may be created and analyzed to determine the adequacy
of the system.

FIGURE 6–37 Horizontal Truss Model

Analysis Results
Chord Force = 2.5 kips
Diagonal Force = 2.8 kips
Deflection = 0.011 inches

The L3×3×1/4 brace and its connections should be designed for the 2.8 kips
axial load, which could be either tension or compression. Also the
connections of the W18x40 members to the column would need to be
designed for a minimum axial transfer force of 2.5 kips.
CHAPTER 7

Steel Member Design

S
TAAD.Pro provides a powerful design tool for designing steel
structures per the requirements of the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction and associated specifications. This chapter will cover
the design of steel members as well as the proper assignment of the
parameters found in STAAD.Pro. In addition to meeting the AISC
requirements for member design, it is also essential that sufficient stability
be provided to the structural members such that the assumptions made
during the design stage are carried out through the construction. Increasing
material strengths has resulted in structures that are lighter and in general
more flexible than in the past. This along with more complex code
requirements has made it essential for the engineer to ensure that proper
stability is provided for the overall structure as well as individual elements.
Only once the required design loads have been determined based on the
requirements of AISC Chapter C, should the individual members be
designed per these requirements.

Tension Members
The requirements for the design of tension members are covered in Chapter
D of the AISC specification. This specification applies to members with
static forces applied through the centroidal axis. The application of the load
and the end connection details should be investigated to determine if this
requirement is met. For members not meeting this requirement Chapter H
should be used. The design tensile strength of the member should be based
on the smaller value of the governing limit state. The limit state of tensile
yielding of the gross section is intended to prevent excessive elongation of
the member, while the limit state of tensile rupture of the net section is
intended to prevent premature failure due to reduction in area and other
mechanical properties of the steel.
It should be noted that although there is no limit on Kl/r for design of
members in tension, consideration should be given to members that exceed
a practical limit of Kl/r > 300. Members exceeding this limit may be more
likely to be damaged during delivery and construction, as well as
experience undesirable movement and vibration during service.
The design of tension members in STAAD.Pro incorporates all
requirements from Chapter D. The required use of the following parameters
should be determined:
• FYLD – Steel Yield Strength (Default is 36 ksi)
• FU – Steel Ultimate Tensile Strength (Default is based on FYLD)
• NSF – Net Section Factor – This factor should be used to correctly
calculate the net area. This is the ratio of the net area to gross area; as
 such the value should be verified once member sizes and connection
details are finalized.
• SLF – Shear Lag Factor – This factor is dependent on the member cross-
section as well as the connection type. It is very important for this
parameter to be verified once the member size and connection detail are
finalized.
• MAIN – A value of 0.0 will instruct the program to perform a slenderness
check. If this value is set equal to 1.0, the slenderness check will not be
performed.
• TMAIN – Allowable Kl/r for tension members. A value greater than 1.0
will instruct the program to perform a slenderness check based on the
value input. The default value is 300.

Example
Verify the strength of a single angle A36, L4 × 4 × 1/4 brace in a vertical
frame using LRFD. The factored lateral load applied to the frame is 40 kips.
The vertical brace is connected on the ends with a single row of 3-3/4"
diameter bolts.
FIGURE 7–1 Tension Example Geometry

Material and geometric properties

Ag = 1.94 in2

rz = 0.783 in
Fy = 36 ksi
Fu = 58 ksi

FIGURE 7–2 L4 Connection Detail

Calculate available tensile yield strength

Pn = Fy Ag = (36ksi)(1.94 in2) = 69.8 kips
ϕt = 0.90
ϕtPn = 0.90(69.8 kips) = 62.8 kips
Calculate available tensile rupture strength
Calculate Shear Lag Factor, U (AISC Table D3.1) larger value of Case 2
and Case 8
Case 2:

Case 8:
U = 0.60
Use U = 0.82
Calculate An

An = Ag - (dh + 1/16)t = 1.94 in2 − (13/16 in + 1/16 in)(1/4 in) = 1.72 in2
Calculate Ae
Ae = An U = 1.72 in2 (0.82) = 1.41 in2
Pn = Fu Ae = (58 ksi)(1.41 in2) = 81.8 kips
ϕt = 0.75
ϕt Pn = 0.75 (81.8 kips) = 61.4 kips
The L4 is governed by the tensile rupture limit state.
Calculate the required tensile strength
Pu = 40 kips (21.2 ft/15 ft) = 56.5 kips
ϕt Pn = 61.4 kips
61.4 kips > 56.5 kips ∴ ok
S.R. = 0.920

Verify Results Using STAAD.Pro

Specify the Parameters: From the Design/Steel Tab select the AISC 360 -05
for the current code, then choose the Define Parameters button to enter the
correct value of the parameters required. After entering the correct values in
the Design Parameters Window choose the Add button to include them in
the design.

• METHOD = LRFD
• FYLD = 36
• FU = 58
2
• NSF = An/A = 1.72 in /1.94 in2 = 0.887
g
• SLF = 0.82
• MAIN = 1.0

FIGURE 7–3 Tension Design Parameters

FIGURE 7–4 Selecting Design Parameters

FIGURE 7–5 Tension Design Results

Compression Members
The requirements for the design of compression members are covered in
Chapter E of the AISC specification. As for tension members, this
specification applies to members with static forces applied through the
centroidal axis. The application of the load and the end connection details
should be investigated to determine if this requirement is met. For members
not meeting this requirement Chapter H should be used in addition to the
requirements of Chapter E. The limit states of flexural buckling, torsional
buckling, and flexural-torsional buckling should be considered in the design
of compression members. STAAD.Pro incorporates the design requirements
from Sections E3, E4, E5, and slender elements E7 to account for the
appropriate limit states. The classification of a member as compact,
noncompact, or slender is calculated internally. For webs of doubly
symmetric shapes, such as wide flanges, the calculation is conservative
since the program uses the overall depth of the members less the flanges.
The AISC specification allows the depth to also be reduced by the fillet at
each flange as well. Section E6, which addresses built-up members, is not
included. These additional requirements for built-up members apply to
proper detailing and connection of the individual elements forming the
composite shape, in particular the slenderness requirements. The user
should verify that the slenderness and dimensional requirements are met
prior to designing the member using STAAD.Pro.
It should be noted that although there is no limit on Kl/r for design of
members in compression, consideration should be given to members that
exceed a practical limit of Kl/r > 200. Members exceeding this limit may be
more likely to be damaged during delivery and construction, as well as
experience undesirable movement and vibration during service. The
examples provided herein assume determination of loads by the direct
analysis method, which allows a value of 1.0 for the effective length factor,
K. Where this is not the case, the value of K may be determined using
Section C2 of the specification.

Example
Verify the strength of the W14 × 82 column shown next using LRFD. The
factored axial load applied to the column is 200 kips. The column is pinned
supported and has no intermediate brace points.

FIGURE 7–6 Compression Example Geometry

Material and geometric properties

Ag = 24.0 in2
ry = 2.48 in
Fy = 50 ksi
Fu = 65 ksi
bf ⁄ tf = 5.92
h ⁄tw = 22.4
Classification of section for local buckling
For the flange,
∴ Flange is noncompact
For the web,
∴ Web is noncompact
Since the section is noncompact and there are no intermediate bracing
points, it can be concluded that the limit state of flexural buckling is
applicable so that Section E3 is required for design of the member.
Determine member compressive strength:
Since, there are no intermediate brace points, the weak axis direction will
control for slenderness.
KL / r = (1.0)(30 ∙ 12)/2.48 = 145
Fe = π2E / (Kl / r)2 = (π2) (29000)/(360/2.48)2 = 13.58 ksi

Since 4.71 = (4.71) = 113.4 < 145, equation (E3-3)

controls.
Fcr = 0.877Fe = (0.877)(13.58) = 11.91 ksi
The flexural buckling stress is Pn = Fcr Ag = (11.91)(24.0) = 285 kips with
ϕc = 0.90, ϕcPn = (0.9)(285) = 257 kips
257 kips > 200 kips ∴ ok
S.R. = 0.778

Verify Results Using STAAD.Pro

Since there are no intermediate nodes along the length of the column and
the effective length factor is equal to one, no additional parameters are
required. Since the default steel strength is 36 ksi, the FYLD parameter will
be needed to indicate that 50 ksi is being used for the column.

FIGURE 7–7 Compression Design Parameters

FIGURE 7–8 Compression Design Results

Example
Verify the strength of the W30 × 211 column shown next using LRFD. The
factored axial load applied to the column is 1200 kips. The column
unbraced lengths are as follows:
Strong Axis = 100 ft
Weak Axis = 25 ft
Torsional Buckling = 100 ft
FIGURE 7–9 Compression Example Considering Torsional Buckling

FIGURE 7–10 Strut Connection to Column

Material and geometric properties

Ag = 62.2 in2 Fy = 50 ksi
rz = 12.9 in Fu = 65 ksi
ry = 3.49 in bf /2tf = 5.74
Iz = 10,300 in4 h /tw = 34.5
Iy = 757 in4 d = 30.9 in
J = 28.4 in4 tw = 0.775 in
Cw = 166000 in6 tf = 1.32 in
Since the torsional buckling length is much greater than the weak axis
unbraced length, the torsional buckling limit state needs to be considered in
addition to the flexural buckling limit state.
Flexural buckling stress
Calculate the flexural buckling stress similar to the previous example.
Flange is noncompact, Web is noncompact
KL /rz = (1.0)(100 ∙ 12)/12.9 = 93 controls
KL /ry = (1.0)(25 ∙ 12)/3.49 = 86
ϕcPn = (0.9)(1652) = 1487 kips
Torsional buckling stress:
For doubly symmetric members, equation E4-4 should be used.
Fe = [π2ECw / ((Kz l)2 + GJ)] 1/(Iz + ly) = [(π2)(29,000)(166,000)/(12002) +
(11,200)(28.4)] 1/(10,300 + 757) = 31.8 ksi
Since 4.71 = (4.71) = 113.4 > 93, equation (E3-2)
controls.
Fcr = [0.658 Fy /Fe]Fy = (0.65850 /31.8)(50) = 25.9 ksi

The torsional buckling stress is Pn = Fcr Ag = (25.9)(62.2) = 1611 kips with

ϕc = 0.90, ϕcPn = (0.9)(1611) = 1450 kips, controls over flexural buckling
1450 kips > 1200 kips  ∴ ok
S.R. = 0.830

Verify Results Using STAAD.Pro

The following parameters need to be specified for this example:
• METHOD = LRFD
• FYLD = 50 ksi
• LZ = 100 ft (1200 in) – length for slenderness calculations in the local z-
axis
• LY = 25 ft (300 in) – length for slenderness calculations in the local y-axis
• LX = 100 ft (1200 in) – length for torsional and flexural torsional
calculations

FIGURE 7–11 Compression Design Parameters Considering Buckling

FIGURE 7–12 Compression Design Results

Notice the result from STAAD.Pro is less than what was calculated by hand
methods. The reason for this difference is the depth used in the calculation
of the member as compact, noncompact, or slender in STAAD.Pro.
Per STAAD.Pro:
h/tw = (30.9 − 2 ∙ 1.32)/0.775 = 36.5 < 35.9  ∴ web is slender
Since the web is slender, the requirements of Section E7 must be met.

FIGURE 7–13 AISC Definition of h

FIGURE 7–14 STAAD.Pro Definition of h

Flexural Members
The requirements for the design of flexural members are covered in Chapter
F of the AISC specification. Chapter F assumes that bending is about one
principal axis and that the loading is applied parallel to a principal axis that
passes through the shear center. It is also assumed that support points for
beams and girders are restrained against rotation about their longitudinal
axis. For members not meeting this requirement Chapter H should be used
in addition to the requirements of Chapter F.
The following limit states should be considered in design:
• Yielding
• Lateral-torsional buckling
• Flange local buckling
• Web local buckling
• Tension flange yielding
• Leg local buckling
• Local buckling

STAAD.Pro incorporates the design requirements from Sections F2 through

F12 to account for the appropriate limit states. In addition, the program
calculates the lateral-torsional buckling modification factor, Cb. If this
factor is omitted in the parameter specification, a conservative value of 1.0
will be used for design. Since STAAD.Pro assumes the brace length of the
member to be between nodes, care should be exercised if the Cb parameter
is specified.

FIGURE 7–15 Results of CB Calculation

CB Steel parameter values
CB = 1.0 is default
CB = 0.0 instructs program to calculate
CB = any other value will be used directly
Beams 1 and 2 are subjected to the same load conditions and have identical
unbraced length parameters. However, the stress ratio for Beam 1 is less
than the Beam 2 stress ratio. Since an additional node has been included for
Beam 1, the value of Cb will be calculated differently. For this example: Cb=
1.154 for Beam 1, Cb= 1.087 for Beam 2. A Cb value of 1.087 would be
correct for this example. The user may choose to input this value directly
instead of it being automatically calculated.

Example
Verify the strength of the W21 × 44 beam shown next using LRFD. The
factored load applied to the beam is 1 kip/ft. The beam is pinned supported
and the top flange is braced at the third points.

FIGURE 7–16 Flexure Example

Fy = 50 ksi
Sx = 81.6 in2
J = 0.770 in4
Lb = 13.3 ft
Lr = 13.0 ft
M = 200 ft-kips
CW = 2110 in6
ho = 20.2 in
Iy = 20.7 in3
rts = 1.6 in
c=1
Zx = 95.4 in3

Since the value of Lb is greater than Lr, the limit states of yielding and
lateral torsional buckling should be investigated.
Yielding
Mn = Mp = Fy Zx = (50)(95.4) = 4770 K − in
Lateral torsional buckling
Since Lb > Lr,
Mn = FcrSx ≤ Mp
Fcr = Cbπ2 E/(Lb/rts)2
Fcr = (1)π2(29000)/(13.3 ∙ 12/1.60)2

Fcr = 33.6 ksi

Mn = (33.6)(81.6) = 2739 k − in < 4770 k − in  ∴ lateral torsional buckling
controls

Design flexural strength:

ϕb Mn = (0.9)(2739)(1/12) = 205k − ft
S.R. = 200/205 = 0.976

Verify Results Using STAAD.Pro

The following parameters need to be specified for this example:
• METHOD = LRFD
• FYLD = 50 ksi
• UNT = 13.3 ft = unbraced length for compression flange
• MAIN = 1.0
FIGURE 7–17 Flexure Design Parameters

FIGURE 7–18 Flexure Design Results

Shear Members
The requirements for the design of members for shear are covered in
Chapter G of the AISC specification. The limit states of shear yielding and
shear buckling should be investigated when determining the capacity of the
member to resist shear. STAAD.Pro incorporates the design requirements
from Sections G2 and G4 through G7 to account for the appropriate limit
states. Section G3, which accounts for the post buckling strength of the
member (tension field action), is not incorporated. This would typically be
used in the design of plate girders and other built-up members. In addition,
Section G8, which accounts for web openings in beams and girders, is not
incorporated.
Example
Verify the strength of the W18x40 beam shown next using LRFD. A 200
kip load is applied near the beam support along with a uniform load of 0.1
kips/ft. The beam is pinned supported and the top flange is braced
continuously.

FIGURE 7–19 Shear Example

Determine shear-buckling reduction factor, Cv

h /tw = 17.9/0.315 = 56.8
2.24 = 2.24 = 53.9
Since, h/tw = 56.8 > 53.9 Section G2 (b) should be used to calculate Cv

kv = 5 for unstiffened webs with h/tw < 260

1.10 = 2.24 = 59.2
Since, h/tw = 56.8 ≤ 53.9, Cv = 1.0

Shear strength
Aw = h · tw = (17.9)(0.315) = 5.64 in2
Vn = 0.6Fy Aw Cv = (0.6)(50)(5.64)(1.0) = 169 kips
ϕv Vn = (1.0)(169) = 169 kips
S.R. = 186/169 = 1.10  ∴ member size is not adequate for required shear
Verify Results Using STAAD.Pro
The following parameters need to be specified for this example.
• METHOD = LRFD
• FYLD = 50 ksi
• UNT = 1 ft
• MAIN = 1.0

NOTE
There are no specific parameters required for shear design. Analysis with the 13th
edition has not yet incorporated the STIFF parameter allowing the user to specify the
stiffener plate spacing that may be utilized for plate girder design. However, the user
may use the previous versions of ASD or LRFD design codes included in STAAD.Pro
to design these members.

FIGURE 7–20 Shear Design Parameters

FIGURE 7–21 Shear Design Results

Members Designed for Combined Forces and Torsion

Members subjected to combined loading due to axial loads and bending are
designed per Chapter H of the AISC specification. STAAD.Pro incorporates
the requirements of Sections H1 and H3. Section H1 applies to doubly and
singly symmetric members subject to flexure and axial tension or
compression. Section H3 applies to members subjected to torsion or torsion
combined with flexure, shear, and axial tension or compression.
Per Section H1.2, the value of Cb may be increased when determining the
flexural capacity of members combined with axial tension. It should be
noted that the program incorporates this increase automatically, without any
input from the user. Therefore, care should be taken to ensure that all load
cases are accounted for, as the inclusion of tension may yield
unconservative results when compared to flexure acting alone.
For LRFD, Cb is increased by the multiplier
For ASD, Cb is increased by the multiplier

Example
Verify the strength of the W12 × 30 collector beam shown next using
LRFD. The brace line is subjected to a 50 kip axial load in addition to the
vertical loads shown.

FIGURE 7–22 Combined Tension and Flexure Example

Calculate Cb multiplier,
Pey = π2 EIy /L2b = π2(29,000)(20.3)/(20 ∙ 12)2 = 101 kips

For this example, the default value of Cb = 1.0 is used; for load
combinations where tension is present the value of Cb may be increased to
(1.0)(1.223) = 1.223.
Looking at the results of the combined loading in STAAD.Pro, Cb = 1.223
FIGURE 7–23 Tension and Flexure Results

Looking at the results of flexure alone in STAAD.Pro, Cb = 1.0

FIGURE 7–24 Results of Flexure Alone

From the previous results, it can be seen that the moment capacity of the
member with flexure alone is substantially less than when it is combined
with tension. For this reason, it is essential that all relevant load
combinations be considered in the design. For this example, a minimum of
two load combinations should be included.

Steel Connections
STAAD.Pro has incorporated RAM Connection in order to design many of
the typical connection types encountered in steel design. These connections
can be designed directly within STAAD.Pro, based on the loads in the
analysis. The user may also choose to utilize the stand-alone version of
RAM Connection if more options are needed, or if the user would prefer to
control the loads used in the design of the connection. STAAD.Pro
currently implements the design of connections using the AISC 360-05
design specification for ASD and LRFD loading. In addition, the design of
connections using the additional requirements of the AISC 341-05 Seismic
Provisions is included. If it is determined that a member size is required to
change due to connection geometry, the user must update the member size
in the design model as well.
The following connection types are some of those supported within
STAAD.Pro. Note these connections can be selected as required based on
the connecting members: beam-to-column web, beam-to-column flange,
beam-to-girder, and so on.

Basic Connections
• Double clip angle
• Single angle
• Single end plate
• Extended end plate
• Stiffened seated connection
• Single plate
• Through plate
• Bent plate

Smart Connections (In Addition to the Basic Connections)

• Directly welded
• Four-angle beam splice
• Base plate

Gusset Connections
• Beam column brace
• Chevron brace
• Base plate brace
• Brace intersection

FIGURE 7–25 Connection Design Navigation

The RAM Connection design module can be accessed after running the
analysis, by selecting the RAM Connection tab along the top ribbon. Once
this tab is selected, additional menus, toolbars, and connection input
windows will be available.
The Connection Input window on the right-hand side of the screen provides
a useful interface for selecting loads, connection types, and displaying
information on all of the connections created.
FIGURE 7–26 RAM Connection Interface

Example
Utilize the RAM Connection module to design an extended end plate
moment connection for the ordinary moment frame shown.
FIGURE 7–27 Moment Connection Design Example

After running the analysis and selecting the RAM Connection module, the
load combinations to be used in the design need to be selected. This
information can be accessed through the Connections menu or the window
displayed on the right-hand side of the screen.

FIGURE 7–28 Select Loads for Connection Design

Select the default settings tab to set the design code to be used and if the
AISC 341-05 Seismic Provisions should be considered. There is also a
selection to design connections individually. If not selected, then multiple
connections may be designed simultaneously.

FIGURE 7–29 RAM Connection Settings

Select the node for which to assign the connection, and then choose the
Smart Connection tab. By selecting smart connections, the program will
determine the plate size, bolt size, weld size, and so on based on the loads.
If the user chooses a basic connection, then he or she will need to specify
all of these items or choose a preset template. With either choice, the user
will have the ability to modify connection parameters as needed throughout
the design process. For this example, select the Extended End Plate BCF to
display the list of available extended end plate connections. From this list
choose EEP BCF.
FIGURE 7–30 Select Connection Type

After selecting OK, the connection will be assigned and if there are any
errors or warnings, these will be displayed.

FIGURE 7–31 Creation of Connection

By double-clicking on the connection in the Connection Input Window, the
connection parameters may be edited and the design report may be viewed.

FIGURE 7–32 RAM Connection Input Allowing Modification of Parameters

By viewing the connection results, it can be seen that AISC requires a

minimum end plate thickness of 0.47 to meet the specification
requirements.

FIGURE 7–33 Excerpt of Connection Results

The plate thickness can be increased in the Connection Parameters window

and the results will be updated automatically. After the analysis is complete,
a report can be printed along with a connection detail drawing.
FIGURE 7–34 Connection Details Available

Example
Check the beam-to-column connection, for the combined shear and 50 kip
axial load that must be transferred. Additionally, check the base plate at the
intersection of the L6 brace.
FIGURE 7–35 Beam-Column and Base Plate Connection Example

For this connection a Basic clip angle connection with L3 × 3 × 3/8 with
three rows of A325-N bolts will be selected. RAM Connection not only has
the ability to check the connection for shear but also for the transfer axial
forces that must be delivered to the lateral force resisting system.

FIGURE 7–36 Beam-Column Connection

FIGURE 7–37 Excerpt of Beam-Column Results

The connection angles are failing due to prying action. In addition, the
beam web is failing in bearing and tear out due to the axial load. Making
the connection angles thicker could fix the prying action problem; however,
this will not alleviate the problems with the beam web. Therefore, the W12
× 30 beams will be increased to W18 × 46. This will allow for a longer clip
angle and two additional rows of bolts. While this beam size change and
bolt row change can be made in the RAM Connection module, the user will
need to update the size in the design model as well.
Select the node for which to assign the base plate connection, and then
choose the Gusset Connection tab. (For base plates without an intersecting
brace, select the Smart Connection tab.) For this example, assume the base
plate is supported on a 3'0"× 3'-0" square pier with a concrete compressive
strength of 4000 psi. Two inches of grout is used under the base plate. After
assigning the connection type and selecting OK, any warnings will be
displayed. These can be ignored at this point since we haven’t input the
specific design parameters at this point.
FIGURE 7–38 Selection of Base Plate Connection

FIGURE 7–39 Select Base Plate Connection from Available List

After reviewing the results looking at bolts alone, it is apparent that the
shear loads will require an excessively large pier to prevent breakout. If a
shear lug centered under the column was used, the shear breakout out area
available may be adequate to prevent this failure.

FIGURE 7–40 Portion of Parameters Available for Connection Configuration

FIGURE 7–41 Base Plate Connection Geometry
FIGURE 7–42 Drawings Available for DXF Export to a CAD Application
CHAPTER 8

Steel Structures

I
nformation from the previous chapters will be utilized to develop a
working example for a typical steel structure. Modeling techniques as
well as design methodology will be presented.
The structure for this example is a single-story steel building stabilized with
concentrically braced frames at column lines 1 and 6 and moment frames
along column lines A and D. The interior frames along column lines B and
C are cantilevered girders with shear splices. Wind post are provided along
column line 1 and 6 to reduce the span of the girts supporting the metal
siding panels. The roof system will be a built-up membrane roof on 22 gage
wide rib metal deck. The roof will slope at a nominal 1/4" per foot to
gutters and downspouts. The design criteria is presented next.

FIGURE 8–1 Steel Structure

FIGURE 8–2 Roof Framing Plan

Design Criteria
Applicable Codes and Standards
2006 International Building Code
ASCE 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
AISC 360-05 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (LRFD)—
Direct Analysis

Deflection/Drift
Typical Roof Framing ∆ LL less than L/360 (Live Load
Deflection)
 ∆ TL less than L/240 (Total Load
Deflection)
Story Drift ∆ H less than H/100

Dead Loads
Framing Self-weight
Metal Deck and Built-Up Roof 6 psf
Collateral Load 10 psf

Live Load
Roof Live 20 psf

Snow Load
Ground Snow Load (pg) 20 psf
Occupancy Category II
Importance Factor (Is) 1.0
Terrain Category C
Exposure Partially Exposed
Exposure Factor (Ce) 1.0
Thermal Factor (Ct) 1.0
Roof Slope Factor (Cs) 1.0
Flat Roof Snow Load (pf) 20 psf (Based on Minimum by Code)
Rain-on-Snow Surcharge 5 psf

Wind Load
Basic Wind Speed 90 mph
Occupancy Category II
Importance Factor (Iw) 1.0
Exposure Category C
Wind Directionality Factor (Kd) 0.85
Topographic Factor (Kzt) 1.0
 Gust Effect Factor (G) 0.85
Enclosure Classification Enclosed
Internal Pressure Coefficient +/– 0.18
(GCpi)
Velocity Pressure Exposure Varies
Coefficient (Kz)

Seismic Load
Occupancy Category II
Importance Factor, (IE) 1.0
Mapped Spectral Response SS = 0.235g, S1 = 0.085g
Accelerations:
Design Spectral Response SDS = 0.251g, SD1 = 0.136g
Accelerations:
Site Class D
Seismic Design Category C
Response Modification 3
Coefficient, R
System Overstrength Factor, Ωo 3
Deflection Amplification Factor, 3
Cd
Analysis Procedure Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
The model will be created using several features in STAAD.Pro that will
allow fast creation of the structural geometry. First, create the southernmost
frame (along Column Line D) including all of the nodes required based on
the beam spacing. Draw the first column, and then use the translational
repeat command to draw the remaining columns and girders. The
Translational Repeat command is found under the Geometry upper menu
ribbon.
FIGURE 8–3 Set the number of repeat steps and the step spacing. Choosing the Link
Steps and Open Base option will create girders between the columns leaving the base
open.

FIGURE 8–4 Framing Along Column Line D

Create nodes along the girders at the appropriate beam spacing in

preparation for using the Translational Repeat command to generate the rest
of the model. Since the beam spacing is uniform, the nodes for all the
girders may be created at one time.
FIGURE 8–5 Highlight the girders, holding down the control key allows multiple beams to
be selected at one time. Select the Insert Node/Nodes command.
FIGURE 8–6 Select Add ‘n’ points, and enter 4 for the number of nodes to be added. For
differing beam spacing, this command may still be used, however, only one girder may be
selected at a time.

Highlight all of the newly created geometry and then perform the
Translational Repeat command once again. This time we will generate the
geometry in the Global Z direction at the appropriate bay spacing.

FIGURE 8–7 Translational Repeat Command for Remainder of Building

FIGURE 8–8 3D Model After Using Translational Repeat

The wind post along column lines 1 and 6 can be created by using the
copy/paste command. Select column A1 and A6 and then the copy button.
Then select paste and enter the appropriate dimension. This can be repeated
for all the wind post.

FIGURE 8–9 Copy and Paste Icons

FIGURE 8–10 Paste with Move Options

FIGURE 8–11 3D Model with Wind-Post

The X-bracing can now be created using the add beams button. For this
example, the bracing will intersect at the bottom node of the column. This
will require careful attention when detailing the slab column wraps to
ensure there are no interferences. Create the bracing by selecting the bottom
node of column and then the node of the adjacent beam column
intersection. In general, it is not necessary to insert a node at the
intersection of the X-bracing. Many times, this can create instability
warnings, and since the unbraced length parameters KZ and KY can be
used to adjust the effective length of the brace, it is not necessary. However,
since the braces will physically stop at either side of the wind post, a node
will be inserted here using the Intersect Selected Members command.

FIGURE 8–12 After selecting the intersecting geometry, use the Intersect command to
create a node at the member intersections. The user also has the option of selecting the
Highlight command, which will highlight all intersecting geometry. When using this
command care must be taken to ensure that only the appropriate members are selected. To
unselect a member, hold down the control key prior to selecting the member.
FIGURE 8–13 Highlight of Intersecting Members

With the geometry complete, preliminary member sizes may now be

specified. Since STAAD.Pro will be used to select and design the steel
members, it is not critical to specify the exact size that will be needed.
However, it can help shorten the design process by selecting members close
to what may be used. For the roof beams, a general rule of thumb is to
select a preliminary member that has a depth of ½” per foot of span. W16 ×
26 beams will be selected. W18 × 40 members will be selected for the
girders. It is good practice to pick a girder with a greater depth than the
beams, which will eliminate having to cope the top and bottom flange
during fabrication. W10 × 49 members will be used for the columns. While
a W8 member may be sufficient, it is good practice to use a minimum W10
for building columns to facilitate the connections of the girder and beam.
W10 × 33 members will be used for the wind post, and 2-L4 × 4 × 3/8 will
be used for the X-bracing. The Select member commands in STAAD.Pro
provide a quick way to select members, in lieu of selecting each member
individually. For example, if we assign all of the member sizes except the
roof beams, we can use the Select by Missing Property command to
highlight all of the roof beams which have not been assigned.
FIGURE 8–14 Selection By Missing Attributes

FIGURE 8–15 Missing Property Members Highlighted

It is important to review the orientation of the members after the member
sizes have been assigned. Turning on the member orientation may be
accomplished by opening the Labels window and checking the appropriate
box. Right-click the mouse and select labels to display the window. Notice
the letters in parenthesis. These are the keyboard hotkeys. By holding down
the Shift key and the appropriate letter, the corresponding label will be
displayed.

FIGURE 8–16 Right-click Menu Options

FIGURE 8–17 Graphical Label Options

For this example, the columns along lines A and D should be orientated so
that the applied wind load will be resisted by strong axis bending of the
member. Columns A3, A4, D3, and D4, however, should be oriented so that
the bending of the moment frame is in the strong axis of the column.
Columns along lines 1 and 6 should also be oriented such that the applied
wind load will be resisted by strong axis bending of the member. The corner
columns are oriented strong axis parallel to the north–south direction, since
the tributary wind area to the column is greater in this direction. To modify
the rotation of the member in STAAD.Pro the Beta angle command can be
specified.
FIGURE 8–18 Changing Local Member Orientation
FIGURE 8–19 Beta Angle Options

FIGURE 8–20 Members Highlighted with Beta = 90 Degrees

The member releases and other specification can now be assigned. All
framing except the moment frames will be designed as simple span beams.
In addition the weak axis shear will be released, so that the lateral load will
be resisted solely by the metal deck diaphragm. Special attention is needed
at the cantilever girders and the wind post. The X-bracing will be assigned
the member truss specification so that all but the FX degree of freedom is
released. Another quick method of selecting members is to use the Select
By Specification/Property Name command. This method will be used to
select the W16 roof beams.
FIGURE 8–21 Selection By Specification
FIGURE 8–22 Multiple selections can be made if desired, by holding down the control key.
Since the W16 beams at the wind post need to be assigned separately, unselect them prior
to assigning the release specification.

FIGURE 8–23 Cantilevered Girder Roof Framing

FIGURE 8–24 Portion of Girder with Node Inserted at Splice

FIGURE 8–25 Inserting Node in Existing Girder

FIGURE 8–26 Wind-post Detail
FIGURE 8–27 By turning on the beam orientation, the local axis of the member is
displayed. For the wind post, the FX, MY and MZ releases should be applied.

The column supports can now be assigned. Since all of the columns will
have pinned bases, the three rotational degrees of freedom MY, MX, and
MZ can be released. STAAD.Pro includes many of the typical support types
so that they can be quickly assigned.
FIGURE 8–28 Support Window
FIGURE 8–29 Support Options

A useful method for selecting nodes for support assignment is to use the
Select By Range command. With this command, a range may be selected in
either of the X, Y, or Z directions. Once the supports are assigned, the select
by all supports specification may be used to quickly select and modify
previously created supports.
FIGURE 8–30 Selection By Range

FIGURE 8–31 Nodes Selected By Range Highlighted

FIGURE 8–32 Select a range that bounds the XZ plane of interest.

The direct analysis definition will be created similar to the instruction

provided in Chapter 6. See Chapter 6 for additional description of terms.
Since this example contains a combination of moment frames, braced
frames, and collector elements, both the FLEX and AXIAL specification
will be needed. A notional load factor of 0.002 will be defined to instruct
the program to iterate for the value of τb. Since it is unnecessary to perform
the direct analysis on the base load cases, a PERFORM ANALYSIS
followed by the CHANGE command will be added to the input file directly
following the last primary load case. This will have additional benefit when
investigating serviceability and drift issues once the analysis is completed,
since the reduced stiffness is not required to be utilized when looking at
serviceability requirements.

FIGURE 8–33 Members with FLEX Parameter

FIGURE 8–34 Members with AXIAL Parameter

The appropriate load cases and combinations can now be created. The
seismic loads will be created and applied using the seismic generator.
Therefore, reference loads will be used to define all gravity loads to be
included in the seismic mass definition. Load combinations will be created
based on ASD and LRFD requirements, so that both serviceability and
strength considerations can be investigated. In addition, special seismic load
combinations, including the system overstrength factor, will be created.
These special load combinations will be used to design the collector
elements along the brace and moment lines. At this point it will be assumed
that the notional loads will need to be included only in the gravity-only load
cases. This assumption will require the ratio of the first- and second-order
drifts to be reviewed during the analysis. Notional loads will be included in
the gravity-only load combinations using the Load Combination Generator.
The creation of gravity, wind, and seismic loads will not be presented here.
Refer to previous chapters for this information.

Load Cases
Dmin = Self-weight of structure and building materials
Drem = Collateral
L = Floor live load (No intermediate floors, platforms, etc.)
Lr = Roof live load (Snow plus rain-on-snow surcharge controls)
S = Base snow load
Sd = Snow drift load (No parapets or roof mounted equipment)
Wns = Wind load from north to south (+/– GCpi)
Wsn = Wind load from south to north (+/– GCpi)
Wwe = Wind load from west to east (+/– GCpi)
Wew = Wind load from east to west (+/– GCpi)
Ens = Seismic load from north to south
Esn = Seismic load from south to north
Ewe = Seismic load from west to east
Eew = Seismic load from east to west

The seismic load E is a combination of the effect of vertical and horizontal

seismic forces:

For basic seismic:

E = Eh ± Ev
Eh = ρQE - Since our structure is a Seismic Design Category C, ρ = 1.0
Ev = 0.2SDS D = (0.2)(0.251)D = 0.05D

For seismic with overstrength:

Em = Emh ± Ev
Emh = ΩoQE = 3QE
Ev = 0.2SDS D = (0.2)(0.251)D = 0.05D

Load Combination
Allowable Stress Design
Dmin + Drem
Dmin + Drem + S
Dmin + Drem + W
Dmin + Drem + 0.7E → 1.04(Dmin + Drem) + 0.7QE
Dmin + Drem + 0.75S + 0.75W
Dmin + Drem + 0.75S + 0.525E → 1.03(Dmin + Drem) + 0.75S + 0.525QE
Dmin + W
Dmin + Drem + 0.7E → 0.95(Dmin + Drem) + 0.7QE
 Strength Design
1.4(Dmin + Drem)
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 0.5S
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 1.6S + 0.8W
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 0.5S + 1.6W
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 0.2S + 1.0E → 1.25(Dmin + Drem) + 0.2S + QE
0.9Dmin + 1.6W
0.9(Dmin + Drem) + 1.0E → 0.85(Dmin + Drem) + QE

Strength Design (w/Overstrength)

1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 0.2S + 1.0E → 1.25(Dmin + Drem) + 0.2S + 3QE
0.9(Dmin + Drem) + 1.0E → 0.85(Dmin + Drem) + 3QE
It is recommended to wait until after the loads have been applied to model
the metal roof deck. Modeling of the plate elements will create many nodes,
making the initial load assignment more cumbersome. With the beam
spacing at 5 ft, and approximate 5 foot square plate element should be
sufficient to model the diaphragm. Since at this time the plate element
thickness can’t be determined, an estimate based on SDI will be used. This
plate thickness may need to be adjusted once the connection requirements
are determined.
FIGURE 8–35 Roof Diaphragm Modeled with Plate Elements

The steel design parameters can now be added to the model. These
parameters should not only be consistent with the design assumptions made
but also with the construction drawings. AISC 360-05 Chapter C indicates
that a column K factor equal to 1.0 may be used since the direct analysis
procedure is being used. This is allowed under the constraint that proper
stability bracing will be provided for the columns according to Appendix 6.
At the interface of the wind post, beam, and metal deck, for example, the
wind post must rely on an undefined path of torsion, weak axis bending,
and potentially buckling of the metal deck under wind load conditions. It is
common, when the wind load is perpendicular to the beam span, to provide
a horizontal truss system to provide the appropriate resistance to these
loads. This detail can be modified easily to accommodate varying
magnitudes of load.
FIGURE 8–36 Truss Added to Brace Wind-post

FIGURE 8–37 Wind Reaction at Top of Post

Additionally, the details at the cantilever roof girders need to be
investigated to ensure that proper stability is provided to the top of the
column. Since at this location, the girder frames over the top of the column,
the load path up to the roof diaphragm is not ideal. For this situation, it is
common to provide knee braces from the column up to the beam framing
above. This is only required perpendicular to the girder framing. It may also
be preferred for this bracing to be installed in the field after the framing is
erected.

FIGURE 8–38 Roof Framing Plan Showing Knee Braces

FIGURE 8–39 Section View at Knee Braces

AISC 360-05 Parameters

For this example, all of the members will be designed based on the LRFD
load combinations. In addition, the collector elements will be designed for
the special seismic load combinations. This can be accomplished by using
the LOAD LIST command and multiple SELECT commands. See Chapter
5 for additional information on performing multiple CODE
CHECK\SELECT commands. For this example the input file would look
like the following:
METHOD = LRFD included to instruct the program that the LRFD
specification will be used.

The following steel parameters will be provided initially:

Since we are going to utilize STAAD.Pro’s ability to select and design the
steel members, we will use two additional parameters.
DMIN: will be assigned to beams, girders, and collector elements so that
members will meet the minimum depth criteria as determined by
 the user.
RATIO: will be set to 0.95, so that members will be selected to not exceed a
ratio of required strength to available strength of 0.95.

FIGURE 8–40 Steel Parameters

The commands SELECT and GROUP will also be utilized to instruct the
program to SELECT the steel members based on the code and parameters
selected. The GROUP command instructs the program to use the largest
member size selected for all members within the assigned group. This
prevents having so many different size members, and having different size
beams within the same member if there are nodes along the member length.
FIGURE 8–41 Columns grouped together based on cross-sectional area will be assigned
the largest column size required from the analysis.

After running the initial analysis and opening the post processor, it can be
seen that the direct analysis does not reach convergence. After
investigation, two issues can be discovered. Since the FX has been released
at the top of the wind post, the analysis for second-order effects will not
converge. Since the wind post only act to distribute load to the structure
under wind load, they will be removed from the model. A wind load at the
intersection of the top of the wind post and beam will be included to
account for the lateral load. In addition, the drift of the moment frames will
likely exceed the allowable drift since the trial size of the columns and
beams comprising the moment frames were not given appropriate attention.
The columns and beams for the moment frames will be increased to a W14
× 90 and a W24 × 55, respectively, and the analysis will be performed
again. After running the analysis with the revised member sizes, it can be
seen that the direct analysis has converged and additionally the drift of the
structure is within the limits set by the design criteria.
To review the member sizes selected, open the post processor and select the
Beam and Unity Check tab. This will display the results of the analysis
including the design ratio and member size selected. The user can also
choose to graphically display ranges of design ratio by using different
colors. It may also be helpful to turn off the ratio values to remove some
clutter from the view.

FIGURE 8–42 Options for Displaying Design Results

FIGURE 8–43 Stress Ratio Ranges Displayed by Color

It should be noted that the stiffness of the structure as well as the calculated
drifts is based on the initial member size selected. If the user is satisfied
with the member sizes selected by the program, these properties can be
updated to the selected size. The program can update the sizes
automatically or the user can choose to update sizes manually.
FIGURE 8–44 Update Member Property Based on Selection Results
FIGURE 8–45 Verification to Update Member Properties

Once this has been done, the SELECT command may be replaced by the
CHECK CODE command. Additionally, the DMIN and RATIO steel
parameter may be deleted along with the GROUP command. The analysis
should then be run again and the member size and drift limits confirmed.
The collector elements require special attention in any analysis. In modeling
both flexible and rigid diaphragms, the diaphragm will act to share a portion
of the shear and deliver to the X-brace or rigid frame. Modeling the
diaphragm can make calculating the distribution of load to the vertical
resisting elements a simpler task, especially for complicated loading or
structure geometry. However, the distribution of this load to the lateral force
resisting elements needs to be confirmed. The simplest method for this is to
create a 2D frame and input the total shear delivered to that line, along with
the appropriate vertical loads. Save a copy of the model and rename it as
Frame Line 1. Delete the unnecessary geometry and loading information.
The seismic generation data can also be deleted since we will insert the
shear directly in the load case. Since we are concerned only with the special
seismic load combinations, all other combinations can be deleted. The
gravity load cases will need to be updated as well.
FIGURE 8–46 Reactions from Frame 1

Once the analysis is finished, there are still other tasks that remain to
complete the design of the structure. As demonstrated in Chapter 7, the
RAM Connection module could be utilized to design simple shear
connections, moment connections, and base plates. Information such as
support reactions and beam forces can be easily copied into spreadsheets or
other applications for design of specific components. Care should be used
to ensure that all components have been properly checked to meet code
requirements. For example, the roof beams need to be checked for uplift,
due to components and cladding loads. These component checks should
generally be excluded from the primary model to avoid confusion and
creation of additional load combinations to be investigated.
CHAPTER 9

Foundation Design

S
TAAD.Pro may also be used to design various types of foundations
and underground structures. Mat foundations, combined footings,
concrete pits, and deep foundation systems are some of the more
common structures that may be designed or analyzed. In addition,
STAAD.foundation may be utilized for design of spread and combined
footings, pile caps, and mat foundations. The reaction results and support
locations may be imported directly from STAAD.pro to
STAAD.foundation, or a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet can be imported.
STAAD.foundation also offers modules to design foundations for vertical
and horizontal equipment.

Isolated Spread Footings

Since isolated spread footings are commonly designed assuming a “rigid”
foundation, STAAD.Pro is usually not utilized. However, the reactions may
be imported directly into STAAD.foundation, which will design the
footings using common design approaches. Footings will be checked for
both serviceability and ultimate strength load combinations. The following
checks are performed:

Serviceability Strength
• Allowable bearing capacity • Beam shear
• Uplift and overturning • Punching shear
• Sliding • Bending moment

The program allows the user to account for footing and pier self-weight,
overburden pressures, and buoyancy effects. It also calculates the required
development length of the reinforcing and notifies the user if there are
issues based on the footing geometry. Concrete piers can also be specified
and designed. Footings and piers can be subjected to axial load, uni-axial,
and bi-axial bending.

Example
Design the spread footings of the structure shown and for the following
parameters. All columns will be supported on 2-ft high—24 inch square
piers.
FIGURE 9–1 Model for Footing Design Example

FIGURE 9–2 Footing and Pier Detail

Allowable Bearing, σALL 3,000 psf

Sub-grade Modulus, k 100 pci
Concrete Strength, f ′c 4,000 psi
Slab Surcharge 250 psf
Import the reactions from STAAD.Pro into STAAD.foundation.
There are two methods for linking the STAAD.Pro model with
STAAD.foundation. Within STAAD.Pro, the Foundation Design tab may be
selected at the top of the postprocessing screen. From here the supports
along with the necessary load cases are selected. The Launch
STAAD.foundation may then be selected. At this point, STAAD.foundation
will open and the basic model will be created. The user must then go
through the load cases and decide if they should be used for service or
strength checks.

FIGURE 9–3 STAAD.fdn Interface within STAAD.Pro

Another method is to close STAAD.Pro after completing the analysis, and

then open STAAD.foundation. Select the Import STAAD.Pro File button
and navigate to the stored location of the .std file. The primary load cases
D, L, and W are not included since only the load combination results are
needed for design. The user could opt to select only the primary cases and
create the load combinations within STAAD.foundation. The service load
cases and ultimate load cases are identified by the drop-down list noted as
Load Case Type.
FIGURE 9–4 Import Options

FIGURE 9–5 Imported Support Locations with Loads Shown

From the Main Navigator Pane, select Column Dimension to input
information concerning the column size or pier size. By default, the
program brings in the column dimension based on the size in the
STAAD.Pro model. In order to include a pier, toggle the Consider Pedestal
to Yes. The height, length, and width can then be entered for each support.
This information is necessary to calculate the critical design force locations
for shear and moment.

FIGURE 9–6 Location for Input of Pier Data

FIGURE 9–7 Column and Pier Options

Since the load combinations have been imported from STAAD.Pro, they do
not need to be created again. STAAD.foundation recognizes the load
combinations, including the same numbering and labeling. However, the
weights of the footing and piers need to be accounted for with the
appropriate factor for the load combination. This is achieved by selecting
the Apply Self Weight and Modify Dead Load Factor. Note, the program
automatically includes the self-weight for service load cases; however,
these dead load factors need to be modified based on the factor applied in
the load combination. These factors can be applied by selecting the Loads
and Factors tab from the Main Navigation pane. Additional safety factors
may also be applied for both serviceability and ultimate strength
combinations. For example, for service load combinations including wind
or seismic, it may be appropriate to use a minimum safety factor of 1.5.
Since the 0.6 factor on dead loads is used for this example, the safety factor
will be left at 1.0.

FIGURE 9–8 Options for Including Footing Selfweight

The Job Setup tab can now be selected from the Main Navigation pane.
Multiple jobs may be created within the same file. This may be helpful if
different soil conditions exist over different footings, or if some of the
footings will be designed as combined.
FIGURE 9–9 Select the load combinations to be included. Jobs can be created using
different sets of load combinations, if needed. Uplift load cases selected only for this job.

Three jobs will be created for this project:

• Gravity Only Check—Check performed on the footings supporting
gravity load only. These footings will be checked with full surcharge
loading.
• Lateral Footings (Excluding Uplift)—Check performed on footings
supporting gravity and lateral load. These footings will be checked for
full surcharge loading.
• Lateral Footings (Uplift Only)—Check performed on footings supporting
gravity and lateral load for uplift loading only. These footings will be
checked with no surcharge applied and the soil weight factored by 0.6.
Once the jobs are created, the design parameters can be set. These
parameters are unique to the current job. If the parameters will be the same
for multiple jobs, then the Set as Default option may be set to Yes.
 NOTE
For footings subjected to lateral loads, it is preferred that the user set the footing
dimension and run the design. This is due to the way the stability checks are
performed. Additionally, if a surcharge is applied along with lateral loads, it will be
used to resist the loads causing sliding, uplift, and overturning. Adjustments could
be made in the safety factors to account for this, or multiple jobs could be created to
capture these different conditions

FIGURE 9–10 Job Selection

FIGURE 9–11 Footing Design Parameters

FIGURE 9–12 Options for Concrete and Rebar

Footing and pier design results are displayed in tabular format. The
calculation sheets may also be displayed and printed for each footing. In
addition, plan drawings and sections and details may be printed.

FIGURE 9–13 Graphical Display of Footing Design Results

FIGURE 9–14 Footing Plan with Schedule

Combined Footings
In many cases, for footings subjected to lateral loads, it may be
advantageous to create a combined footing. This allows for a larger moment
arm for overturning resistance and additional dead load for sliding
resistance. Combined footings may be designed in STAAD.Pro in a similar
manner as mat foundations. See the sections on mat foundations later in this
chapter. Additionally, STAAD.foundation may be used to create a combined
footing design assuming a “rigid” footing analysis. Multiple jobs should be
created to account for the maximum downward load conditions including
surcharge and the maximum uplift load conditions neglecting the surcharge.

FIGURE 9–15 Combined Footing Result Report

FIGURE 9–16 Combined Footing Moment and Shear Diagrams

Pile Caps
Pile caps may be analyzed in STAAD.Pro. For pile caps, the thickness of
the pile cap is usually greater than 1/10th of the distance between piles. The
result is a slight difference between the model and theoretical results when
plate elements are used. If plate elements are used, the result is usually an
overestimation of the maximum pile reaction and an underestimation of the
moments and shears. The engineer should allow for these differences in the
design. Solid elements may be used to correctly account for the pile cap
stiffness and distribution to the supporting piles. Where solid elements are
used, the output is in terms of stress, making it difficult to design the
concrete for the shear and moment requirements in the code-prescribed
equations. The following figures show the differences in pile reactions
based on using plate and solid elements of varying thickness.
FIGURE 9–17 Plate Analysis
FIGURE 9–18 Solid Analysis

STAAD.foundation provides a way to perform pile cap analysis based on a

“rigid” cap assumption. The reactions can be imported from STAAD.Pro as
shown in the spread footing example, or they can be input in the program
directly. The input for the support locations and loading is similar to the
spread footing example. Once this basic information is entered, create a
new pile cap job, to enter specific design parameters.
FIGURE 9–19a Pile Cap Options

FIGURE 9–19b Pile Cap Parameters

The pile layout may be entered manually, or the program can generate cap
arrangements based on pile capacity and spacing considerations.
Alternatively, the parametric pile layout option may be used.
FIGURE 9–20 Multiple arrangements can be viewed quickly and then selected for design
using the auto arrangement features.

The preceding pile cap analysis for the plate and solid elements indicated
that there were some differences in the load distribution in the cap, and
hence moments and shears. As a comparison an identical model will be
created in STAAD.foundation assuming the 6-ft pile cap thickness. The
following are the results of the analysis.
FIGURE 9–21 STAAD.fdn Pile Cap Input and Reactions

The total moment from the STAAD.Pro analysis along the critical section of
a 2-ft × 2-ft pier is approximately 1,300 ft-k. Per the STAAD.foundation
analysis the critical moment is 1,482 ft-k. This can be attributed to the
difference in a “flexible” and “rigid” analysis and the distribution of the
loads to the piles.

Mat Foundation
Mat foundations are generally large in plan dimension compared to the
thickness.
 NOTE
Since STAAD.Pro utilizes the “thin” plate element formulation, it is well suited for
analysis of these types of structures. In general, if the least plan dimension is greater
than ten times of the mat thickness, the plate element can be assumed to yield
results that will converge with theoretical calculations. If these requirements are not
met, a rigid body analysis may provide better results

Proper modeling of plate elements is essential to ensure that the analysis

will produce the correct results. Several things should be considered when
modeling plates:
• Elements may be 3-noded (triangular) or 4-noded(quadrilateral).
• A node is automatically created at the element center.
• Plates need to be defined by nodes in either clockwise or counter
clockwise direction.
• Element ratio should be on the order of 1:1 and always less than 4:1.
• Elements should not be distorted. Angle between adjacent sides should
not be > 180°.

FIGURE 9–22 Good Elements

FIGURE 9–23 Bad Elements

How the plate is modeled will define the local axis (x, y, and z) of the
element. It is important to be consistent in modeling so that the results will
be correctly presented. To create plates in STAAD.Pro select the Add Plate
button. Click and hold this button to toggle between the 4-noded and 3-
noded plate tool.

FIGURE 9–24 4-Noded Plate Tool

FIGURE 9–25 3-Noded Plate Tool

FIGURE 9–26 Starting the Plate Element

FIGURE 9–27 Completed Plate Element with Local Orientation

The first line segment drawn and its direction will determine the positive
local x axis of the plate. Drawing the plate counter clockwise will result in
the local z axis oriented up, which coincides with the global Y axis and is
the preferred orientation for the mat foundation elements. The creation of
multiple plate elements to make the mat should all be done in the same
orientation. It is typical to use the Translational Repeat or Copy/Paste
commands, which will ensure whether the orientation of the plate is
consistent. The local axis notation can be quickly displayed by pressing
Shift+T.

FIGURE 9–28 Incorrect Modeling of Plate Elements, Local Axis Not Consistent
Understanding the sign convention of the forces, moments, and stresses
output from the analysis is important for design of the reinforcing as well as
identifying problems. The orientation of the plate will dictate which
direction corresponds to a given value. For foundation design we are
generally concerned with the moment and shears at a given location on the
mat. The following diagram indicates the sign convention and nomenclature
for these items.

FIGURE 9–29 Plate Sign Convention

• MX is bending moment about the local x face, which is perpendicular to

the local x axis.
• MY is bending moment about the local y face, which is perpendicular to
the local y axis.
• Top surface is in tension for positive MX and MY.
• SQX is out-of-plane shear stress perpendicular to the local x axis.
• SQY is out-of-plane shear stress perpendicular to the local y axis.
• Shear stress is in units of Force/unit length/thickness.
The supporting soil conditions should be identified prior to running the
analysis. This is typically done by a geotechnical engineer who will
perform field borings, laboratory testing, and possibly computer modeling.
The two values primarily needed for analysis are the bearing capacity of the
soil and the subgrade modulus. While the bearing capacity provided is
meant to prevent rupture of the soil and excessive settlement under long-
term loading, the subgrade modulus is a measure of the soil stiffness under
short-term loading. The geotechnical engineer should be made aware if mat
foundations will be used. It is typical that the allowable bearing for mat
foundations is less than that of spread footings due to their larger plan
dimensions. This is often described using the Boussinesq theorem. The
value of the subgrade modulus can be highly variable and is also dependent
on the type and magnitude of the loading. For this reason the analysis
should be performed with a lower and upper bound. A good starting point
would be ±25% when a proper geotechnical study is performed to as much
as ±50% when only the general soil conditions are available. The following
graphs demonstrate the effects of varying the subgrade modulus.
Mat foundations may also be pile supported. If pile supported, the pile can
be modeled and supports assigned to account for the pile stiffness. It is
usually necessary to have the pile stiffness and capacity be determined by
the geotechnical engineer, and then input these values into the program. It
should be noted that the thickness of the mat should be less than 1/10th of
the distance between piles to ensure convergence with theoretical solutions
and the plate element results. If this condition can’t be met, care should be
exercised in using the results including the pile reactions being reported,
and it may be preferred to use or validate the results using a “rigid” mat
analysis.
FIGURE 9–30 Increasing subgrade modulus results in an increase in bearing pressure.

FIGURE 9–31 Increasing subgrade modulus results in a decrease in bending moment.

STAAD.Pro offers several options when assigning the foundation/soil

supports. For mat foundations, the elastic mat or plate mat support may be
assigned. The elastic mat is an older support type and may cause stability
issues or errors, especially if the geometry is complex, such as reentrant
corners. In most cases, the Plate Mat command should be specified. The
user may also input the subgrade modulus and the appropriate direction that
the soil spring will act. Since the soil has no ability to resist tension, unless
perhaps if piles were used, the compression-only specification should also
be applied.

FIGURE 9–32 Foundation Support Parameters

For the direction of the spring, the user has the option of choosing “Y” or
“Y Only.” If there are no lateral loads to be resisted, then the “Y Only”
option should be selected. This will apply the spring in the Global Y
direction, while releasing the FX, FZ, and MY components. If lateral loads
are present, and the “Y” option is selected, then the FY direction receives a
spring support with the FX, FZ, and MY directions receiving a fixed
support. Note that if compression-only springs are selected, and if that
support receives a negative reaction, its stiffness will be set to zero and the
analysis performed again. This will continue until convergence is reached.
The default number of iterations is 10. The user may use the SET ITERLIM
command to adjust the number of iterations. The minimum number of
iterations is three. The user should always verify that the analysis has
converged prior to using the results. Since the use of compression-only
springs is an iterative procedure, the REPEAT LOAD command should be
used in lieu of LOAD COMBINATION.
If construction and/or control joints are utilized, their effect on the design of
the foundation should be evaluated. For example, doweled construction
joints are typically used to transfer shear across the joint. Since the
reinforcing is discontinuous across the joint, no moments are transferred.
For this type of joint, the moments should be released.

FIGURE 9–33 Typical Slab or Mat Construction Joint Joint

Plate releases are assigned from the General > Specifications tab by
selecting the Plate button. Once selected, the assign plate specifications
window will be displayed. The designation of Nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
based on how the plate was created. As mentioned before, creating the
plates consistently with the same orientation will aid in knowing which
node to select.

FIGURE 9–34 Plate Element Releases

FIGURE 9–35 Plate Specification Indicating MX, MY and MZ Released at Joints 1 and 4
FIGURE 9–36 Plates Along Construction Joint Released

Example
Design the mat foundation shown in the following figure. The tank legs are
supported by four 2-ft square × 4-ft high piers.

FIGURE 9–37 Mat Foundation Plan

FIGURE 9–38 Model of Mat Foundation and Tanks on Piers

Allowable Bearing, σALL 1,500 psf

Subgrade Modulus, k 100 pci
Concrete Compressive Strength, f ′c 4,000 psi
Empty Tank Weight 10,000 lbs
Tank Contents 90,000 lbs
Slab Live Load 125 psf
Wind Base Shear, V 20 kips
Wind Overturning Moment, M 300 ft-k

Seismic does not control; note if seismic were considered, multiple load
cases may be required since the tanks could move out of phase from each
other.
Model the foundation geometry:
For this example, since the plan dimensions are relatively small, 1-ft square
plate elements will be created. Six-inch square plate elements will be used
around the piers extending 2 ft beyond the pier edge. Solid elements will be
utilized to account for the pier stiffness and the load application.
FIGURE 9–39 Model created with finer mesh at piers. Triangular plates should be used at
transition of mesh sizes.

FIGURE 9–40 Finer Mesh Created at Piers

FIGURE 9–41 Highlight the plate and right-click. Then select Generate Plate Mesh.
FIGURE 9–42 Input the desired number of divisions for each side of the plate.

After creating the geometry, assign the mat thickness to the plate elements
and the concrete material property to the plate and solid elements. The
default concrete material properties are based on a concrete compressive
strength of 3,000 psi. Since the mat and pier concrete will have a
compressive strength of 4,000 psi, a new material property should be
created. From the General > Material tab, select Create. This will display
the Isotropic Material window. Select Concrete from the Material drop-
down, and then rename the material to CONCRETE4000. The elastic and
shear modulus values can now be adjusted as appropriate.
FIGURE 9–43 Define plate thickness and assign material.
FIGURE 9–44 Material Specification for f′c = 4,000 psi

Load cases are created using the reference load option. Since running
individual load cases such as wind would result in an unstable analysis due
to the compression-only springs, the use of reference loads would be
appropriate. An added benefit to using reference loads is a quicker analysis
time, since the individual loads are not included in the analysis. It should be
noted that the contents of the tank are not included in the minimum dead
load combination. This ensures that the uplift condition that will occur
when the tank is empty is accounted for.
FIGURE 9–45 Reference Loads Created

FIGURE 9–46 Service and Ultimate Load Combinations are included.

Analysis Results: (from postprocessor, select Plate tab)

With Subgrade Modulus at 75 pci With Subgrade Modulus at 125 pci
MXtop = 7.6 MXtop = 6.7
MXbott = –10.9 MXbott = –10.3
MYtop = 6.2 MYtop = 6.1
MYbott = –11.5 MYbott = –10.7
SQX = 56.4 psi SQX = 55.6 psi
SQY = 70.2 psi SQY = 69.4 psi
Max Bearing = 703 psf Max Bearing = 756 psf

FIGURE 9–47 Mat Deflection Subjected to Wind Load

FIGURE 9–48 Maximum Base Pressure. Review the maximum base pressure to ensure
the design is within allowable limits and in addition to determine if the slab has lost contact
with the soil. This would report as a base pressure value of zero.
FIGURE 9–49 Maximum Global—MY

FIGURE 9–50 Graph of moment may be obtained by using a cutting plane through the
desired coordinates. Three points of the plane must be defined.
FIGURE 9–51 Moment by line may be used to determine moments at the face of the
concrete pier, or at any other point desired. Hold down the control key to display the
moment along the curve.

FIGURE 9–52 Tabular Results of Moment Along the Line

In most cases, once the design values are determined from analysis, the
flexural reinforcing and shear checks can be made using simple spreadsheet
applications. Alternatively, the analysis results can be exported into RAM
Concept for design. STAAD.Pro includes a slab design option, which will
calculate the required flexural steel required based on the design moments
or the minimum reinforcing requirements specified in ACI. To determine
the reinforcing in STAAD.Pro select the Design > Concrete tab and select
the ACI code. The following parameters are needed for the slab design.
After running the analysis, view the output file to determine the reinforcing
requirements.
FIGURE 9–53 STAAD.Pro Slab Design Parameters

FIGURE 9–54 Reinforcing Requirements from Output File

Shear Checks
One-way beam shear is defined as:
ØVn = 0.75 ∙ 2 = 0.75 ∙ 2 ∙ = 94.9 psi
From analysis, Vu = 70.2 psi < 94.9 psi ∴ ok
 NOTE
Shear could have been determined by line at d/2 from face of pier, but since max
shear less than allowable, OK.

Punching shear is not specifically checked, in STAAD.Pro; however, since

the maximum shear stress is less than that is allowed for one-way shear,
punching shear should not control.
Maximum Pier Reaction, V = 45 kips
ØVn = 0.75 ∙ 4 bod = 0.75 ∙ 4 · ∙ 132 · 9 ∙ (1/1000) = 225 kips >
45 kips ∴ ok
STAAD.foundation offers another alternative for the design and analysis of
mat foundations. The ability to create multiple jobs within the same model
gives the added benefit of not having to go back and forth between multiple
programs. For example, since we would like to run an analysis on the mat
with the subgrade modulus set at 75 and 125 pci, two jobs could be created
within the same file having these different soil properties assigned.
Additionally, several slab design options that can facilitate the design of the
reinforcing are available.
FIGURE 9–55 Mat may be cut along any line and the reinforcing steel design. Moment
envelope or required reinforcement diagram may be displayed.
FIGURE 9–56 STAAD.fdn Mat Foundation Design Parameters

FIGURE 9–57 Punching shear is checked per ACI requirements.

FIGURE 9–58 Moment Diagram Graph and Line

FIGURE 9–59 Shear Diagram

CHAPTER 10

Concrete Member Design

S
TAAD.Pro provides a powerful design tool for designing concrete
structures per the Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete, ACI 318. Currently STAAD.Pro supports the 1999, 2002,
and 2005 editions. This chapter will cover the strength design of concrete
beams, columns, shear walls, and slabs, as well as the proper assignment of
the parameters found in STAAD.Pro. Concrete design may be performed
using the main graphical user interface, or the concrete design module
available after analysis provides another design option. The concrete design
module offers additional features, such as beam moment and shear
reinforcing graphs, the ability to modify the reinforcing spacing and bar
size for columns, and the ability to design slabs including torsional effects.
Examples of these features will be provided in Chapter 11.
 NOTE
The seismic requirements of Chapter 21 of ACI have not been incorporated.
Therefore, in areas of medium or high seismic risk, these additional requirements
need to be reviewed and accounted for in the design.

The design of concrete structures should consider all factors affecting its
stability. Second-order effects, including deflection of the overall frame as
well as individual member deflections subjected to lateral and vertical
loading, need to be accounted for. Section properties used in the analysis
should consider axial load effects as well as cracked regions that may form
along the length of the member. The effect of foundation rotation can
increase the lateral deflection of the structure and should be accounted for
in the analysis. Also, the effects of creep should be considered especially
for frames subjected to sustained lateral loads. Once these effects are
considered in the analysis, the resulting moments and shears can be used in
the design of concrete members. This chapter assumes these issues have
been addressed and will focus on the design of individual elements.

NOTE
The stability effects will be considered in the building examples presented in Chapter
11.

Design of Concrete Members for Bending

The design of reinforced concrete members for flexure is covered under
Chapter 10 of the ACI specification. The design requirements specified in
sections 10.2 through 10.6 are incorporated for determining the amount of
reinforcing steel required; however, requirements for deep beams are not
included. The minimum and maximum limits for reinforcing steel are also
checked. Based on the user input parameters the program will select a trial
effective depth (distance to centroid of tension reinforcing from extreme
compression fiber) for analysis. If an appropriate area of reinforcing can’t
be selected based on the geometric section used, a message indicating that
the member has failed will be reported. The program will design for up to
two layers of reinforcing in the top and bottom faces for positive and
negative moments. Compression reinforcing is not used in the calculation of
required steel areas. Beam design is based on bending about the local z-axis
only. Bending about the local y-axis is not considered. The shear and
torsion reinforcing requirements specified in ACI Chapter 11 sections 11.1
through 11.6 are also incorporated. Rectangular, square, tee-shaped, and
trapezoidal members may be designed.
Anchorage requirements per the requirements of Chapter 12 are also
included. However, it is recommended to review the anchorage
requirements to ensure that program assumptions are correct. In most cases
the program will indicate whether anchorage is required. It would then be
up to the user to decide if straight or hooked bars are used and that the
requirements associated with this anchorage are met.
Serviceability and deflection issues are not covered by the program and
should be given appropriate attention. The starting point for member size
depths should be based on the requirements of ACI Chapter 9. Once this
minimum depth is established, a good rule of thumb is that the ratio of
depth/width is between 1.5 and 2.0. In addition cracked section properties
should be considered when investigating deflections. The cracked moment
of inertia is provided in the STAAD.Pro design output for use in deflection
calculations.

FIGURE 10–1 Concrete Beam Cross Section Design Parameters

CLB = Clear cover for outermost bottom reinforcement

CLT = Clear cover for outermost top reinforcement
CLS = Clear cover for outermost side reinforcement

FIGURE 10–2 Concrete Beam Critical Section Design Parameters

SFACE = distance from start node to face of support

EFACE = distance from end node to face of support
The critical distance for calculating shear is at a distance d from the face of
the support. If the user does not enter a value for SFACE and EFACE, the
shear will be determined at a distance d from the start and end node. If it is
desired to use the shear at the start and end node, a value of –d should be
entered for the SFACE and EFACE values. The type of support, loading
type, and location of load should all be investigated prior to selecting the
critical section location for determining the shear. See ACI Chapter 11 for
additional information.

Example
Design the simply supported concrete beam for the loads indicated. Beam is
not supporting attachments that could be damaged by large deflections. This
beam is not exposed to the earth or weather, so a clear cover of ¾" will be
used.

FIGURE 10–3 Concrete Beam

FIGURE 10–4 Concrete Beam Support Condition

Concrete Parameters: Loading:

f ′c = 4000 psi DL = 0.250 k/ft
fy = 60,000 psi LL = 0.750 k/ft
Min. Concrete Cover = 3/4 in

Load Cases:
Serviceability—D + L = 0.250 + 0.750 = 1.00 k/ft
Strength—1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(0.250) + 1.6(0.750) = 1.5 k/ft
Since the default material properties in STAAD.Pro are based on 3,000 psi
concrete, a new property needs to be created for 4,000 psi concrete. The
property values most affected by the concrete compressive strength are the
modulus of elasticity (E) and the shear modulus (G). Note, if lightweight
concrete were utilized, the density should also be adjusted. The density
property is used to determine the member weight applied when the
SELFWEIGHT command is specified.

Ec = 33wc1.5 = (33)(1451.5) = 3,644,147psi - rounded to

3,640,000 psi (524,160 ksf)
G = E/2(1 + v) = 3,640,000/2(1 + 0.17) = 273,500 psi (39,384 ksf)
FIGURE 10–5 Material Properties for 4000 psi Concrete

FIGURE 10–6 4,000 psi Concrete Material Properties Assigned to Beam

The initial section properties are assigned based on ACI Table 9.5(a) for a
simply supported beam. The minimum thickness should be greater than l
/16. For the 18-ft span, the minimum thickness of the beam is 13.5 inches.
FIGURE 10–7 The beam dimensions will be initially set at a depth of 16 inches and a width
of 10 inches. The newly created 4,000 psi concrete material can also be assigned here. The
value of YD is parallel to the local y-axis, and the value of ZD is parallel to the local z-axis.

FIGURE 10–8 Beam Local Axis

The concrete design parameters are assigned by selecting the Design >
Concrete tab. The ACI code may then be selected in the Concrete Design
window on the right side of the screen. Note that only the ACI 2005 code is
available to be selected in the graphical user interface. If the 1999 or 2002
codes are needed, these must be specified directly in the input file.
The following design parameters may be specified for beam design:

CLB = 0.0625 clear cover to bottom bars

CLS = 0.0625 clear cover to side bars
CLT = 0.0625 clear cover to top bars

DEPTH = used to adjust the depth YD for design, default is YD assigned in

member properties
WIDTH = used to adjust the width ZD for design, default is ZD assigned in
member properties

SFACE = 0.5 to calculate the critical shear at a distance d from face of start
support.
EFACE = 0.5 to calculate the critical shear at a distance d from face of start
support.

FC = 576 ksf (4,000 psi) concrete compressive strength

FYMAIN = 8,640 ksf (60,000 psi) yield stress for main reinforcing steel
FYSEC = 8,640 ksf (60,000 psi) yield strength for secondary steel

MAXMAIN = 8—maximum main reinforcing will be limited to a #8 bar

MINMAIN = 4—minimum main reinforcing bar will be limited to a #4 bar
MINSEC = 3—minimum secondary steel (stirrup bars) will be limited to a
#3 bar

NSECTION = 20—number of equally spaced segments to determine

critical moment
TRACK = 2 to provide reinforcing area at critical section in output

FIGURE 10–9 To instruct the program to design for concrete beam requirements select the
Commands … button and then the Design Beam command.
The output for the analysis is shown next

FIGURE 10–10 Results from Output File

The program has selected 5-#4 bars for the flexural reinforcing with the
spacing between bars at 1.81 inches. While this is within the code limits, it
may be better to decrease the number of bars to 4, to allow additional
spacing between bars. 4-#5 bars will be utilized with As = 1.24 in2. The
value of ρ should be checked to ensure it is still less than ρmax. The revised
value of ρ is 0.00852. Since 5-#4 bars were exactly what were required, the
increase in steel to 4-#5 bars will also provide some additional capacity.
The revised development length is 18.4 inches.
FIGURE 10–11 Shear Design Results

The postprocessing mode provides a great way of viewing the shear and
moment at any point along a member. This can be done by double-clicking
on a member and selecting the Shear Bending tab in the pop-up window.
FIGURE 10–12 Shear and Moment Results

FIGURE 10–13 Graphical Presentation of Results

FIGURE 10–14 Final Beam Design Details

Design of Concrete Members for Compression

The design of reinforced concrete members subjected to axial load along
with uni-axial and bi-axial bending are covered under Chapter 10 of the
ACI specification and incorporated into STAAD.Pro.

NOTE
The detailing requirements of Chapters 7, 8, and 9 of the ACI are also included.

Rectangular, square, or circular columns may be designed with the

reinforcing assumed to be equally distributed among all faces.
Reinforcement is designed for all active load cases, with the load case
requiring the maximum percentage of reinforcement being reported as the
critical load case. Based on the initial dimensions provided, minimum
reinforcement based on 1% of the gross area is assumed by default. The
capacity is then checked against the appropriate load combinations. If
additional reinforcing is needed, the percentage of steel is increased until
the conditions are satisfied. If the percentage of steel exceeds 8%, the
design is terminated and a warning is displayed, and the dimensions of the
column would need to be increased.
FIGURE 10–15 Concrete Column Reinforcing Design Parameters

NOTE
“Top” and “bottom” of column are based on local y-axis orientation.

CLB = Clear cover for outermost bottom reinforcement

CLT = Clear cover for outermost top reinforcement
CLS = Clear cover for outermost side reinforcement
The following additional design parameters are specific to columns:
MMAG = column moment magnification factor. This factor is calculated
per ACI 10.11 and input by the user, and is used to account for nonlinear
effects on the structure.
REINF = toggles between spiral or tied lateral column reinforcement, which
affects the maximum design axial strength per ACI 10.3.6.2.
RHOMIN = sets the minimum percentage of steel reinforcing for the
design. This value may range between zero and 1% entered in decimal
equivalent (0 to 0.01). The reduction in minimum reinforcement is not
permitted in regions of high seismic risk.
 NOTE
For values less than 1%, the user should enter the appropriate reduced gross area
for calculation of design capacities. Alternatively, the concrete strength for the
column may be reduced by the ratio of the actual reinforcement percentage used to
1%. This allows the stiffness effects of the larger actual area to still be accounted for
in the program.

Example
Design the rectangular concrete column for the loads indicated. Column is
fixed at the base and laterally supported at the top. Column is exposed to
earth or weather, so a clear cover of 2" will be used. Slenderness effects are
not considered.

FIGURE 10–16 Concrete Column

Concrete Parameters:
f ′c = 4,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
Min. Concrete Cover = 2 in
Tied Reinforcement

Factored Loading:
Wx = 3 kips/ft
Wz = 3 kips/ft
Py = 500 kips

The minimum size of the column to be selected for design may be dictated
by several factors. It should accommodate the required beam size and
reinforcing required for anchorage as well as be within the allowable drift
limits depending on the cladding supported or potentially the use of the
structure. For this example an 18-inch square column will be selected.
Another method of selecting the preliminary size would be to use generic
interaction curves and design guides that are available from various sources.
FIGURE 10–17 Column Local Axis

The following design parameters may be specified for column design:

CLB = 0.167 clear cover to bottom bars
CLS = 0.167 clear cover to side bars
CLT = 0.167 clear cover to top bars
FC = 576 ksf (4,000 psi) concrete compressive strength
FYMAIN = 8,640 ksf (60,000 psi) yield stress for main reinforcing steel
FYSEC = 8,640 ksf (60,000 psi) yield strength for secondary steel
MAXMAIN = 8—maximum main reinforcing will be limited to a #8 bar
MINMAIN = 4—minimum main reinforcing bar will be limited to a #4 bar
MINSEC = 3—minimum secondary steel (tied or spiral) will be limited to a
#3 bar
REINF = 0 for tied column
RHOMIN = 0.01 for 1% minimum reinforcing
TRACK = 2 toprovide interaction diagram in output

FIGURE 10–18 To instruct the program to design for concrete column requirements select
the Commands … button and then the Design Column command.

The output results are shown next:

FIGURE 10–19 Results from Output File

FIGURE 10–20 Column Interaction Results

FIGURE 10–21 Column Interaction Diagram

The results can also be quickly viewed in the graphical user interface by
double-clicking the beam and selecting the Concrete Design tab. This
applies to both beams and columns. The controlling section along the
column is displayed as well as the basic design information. The tie
requirements are not displayed in the GUI.
FIGURE 10–22 Graphical Results for Column Design

FIGURE 10–23 Final Column Design Details

Designing Concrete Slabs

Slab design in STAAD.Pro is performed for plate elements. The slab will be
designed for moments MY and MZ, but will not be designed for shear or
torsion stresses. The design moment is taken at the center of the element
and cannot be specified at any other point on the plate element. It should be
noted that the slab may also be exported to RAM Concept for further design
if desired.

FIGURE 10–24 Slab Design Parameters

FIGURE 10–25 Plate Local Axis

CLB = Clear cover to bottom bars (–z surface)

CLT = Clear cover to top bars (+z surface)
Care should be taken when setting the value of the clear cover for the top
and bottom surfaces. If it’s possible that the flexural resisting steel is in the
interior layer, then the outside bar diameter should be added to the clear
distance. This will ensure that the distance to the tension reinforcing, d, will
be correctly determined.
FIGURE 10–26 Output File Nomenclature

Example
Design the concrete slab for the loads indicated. The slab is spanning in one
direction to beams that are spaced at 6'-8".

FIGURE 10–27 Concrete Slab Example

Concrete Parameters:
f ′c = 4,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
Min. Concrete Cover = 3/4 in

Loading:
DL = 25 psf plus self-weight
LL = 75 psf
The slab is modeled ensuring that the nodes for the plate elements intersect
along supporting beams. A new concrete material for 4,000 psi concrete is
created and the slab thickness is assigned to the plate elements. For one-
way slabs, ACI 9.5(a) should be used to determine the minimum slab
thickness permitted. For this example, the minimum thickness should be
greater than l /16 or 4 inches.

FIGURE 10–28 Assigning Slab Thickness

The plate releases are very important to ensure the analytical model agrees
with the design assumptions. For this one-beam analysis, plate releases will
be created, such that the slab behaves as a one-way slab with multiple spans
across the beams. This will correctly model the positive moment, as well as
the negative moment across the beam. In some cases, if openings may be
cut at a later time, it may also be necessary to create another model to
simulate a simple span slab condition.
FIGURE 10–29 For a slab, designed as simple spans between the beam framing, the
moments should be released along the supporting beams in the MX direction. At the plate
intersection with the girders, the moments should be released in the MY direction.

FIGURE 10–30 The global Z moment contour indicates similar bending moment in all
spans. This is expected for a simple span slab.
FIGURE 10–31 For a slab, designed for continuous spans, the moments should be
released along the supporting edge beams in the MX direction. At the plate intersection with
the girders, the moments should be released in the MY direction. Care should be taken
especially with concrete beams supporting the slab with torsional effects of the slab and the
beam. It may not be prudent to release the moment for the edge beams in this case.

FIGURE 10–32 The global Z moment contour indicates reduced bending moment in the
center span, as compared to the end span. This is expected for a continuous span slab.

FIGURE 10–33 To instruct the program to design for concrete slab requirements select the
Commands … button and then the Design ELEMENT command.
The output results are shown next:

FIGURE 10–34 Results from Output File

Since only minimum steel is required, ACI 10.5.4 controls. The maximum
spacing of this reinforcing is 3h = 12 inches. There, provide #3 bars in the
bottom of the slab spaced at 12 inches. At the supports, provide #3 bars in
the top face with the appropriate development length. Although shear
usually does not control, it should be checked. This check is not done
directly in STAAD.Pro; however, the value of SQX and SQY may be
reviewed to ensure they are below the values provided in ACI 11.3.
ØVn = 0.75 ∙ 2 = 0.75 ∙ 2 ∙ = 94.9 psi (3.29 kips/ft)
From analysis, Vu = 8.1 psi < 94.9 psi ∴ ok
From equation, Vu = 1.15wu Ln/2 = 0.575 kips/ft > 3.29 kips /ft ∴ ok ACI
8.3

Design of Concrete Shear Walls

The design of concrete shear walls is available within STAAD.Pro. The
analysis of shear walls can be performed using plate elements per ACI
1999, ACI 2002, and ACI 2005. Since the main program doesn’t specifically
design the walls per the ACI requirements, the stresses, shears, and
moments must be extracted from the model and designed by other methods.
STAAD.Pro has implemented the design of shear walls using surface
elements per the requirements of chapters 10, 11, and 14 of ACI 2002.
The surface element allows for simpler modeling of surface type structures
(slabs, walls, pits) and viewing of the results. Openings may also be
included in the surface. Loads may be applied out of plane or in the plane of
the wall.

FIGURE 10–35 Shear Wall Elevation

FIGURE 10–36 Shear Wall Design Parameters

Example
Design the concrete shear wall for the loads indicated. The initial thickness
of the wall will be selected as 12 inches, and the clear cover is 1½".
FIGURE 10–37 Concrete Shear Wall

Concrete Parameters:
f ′c = 4,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
Min. Concrete Cover = 1.5 in

Factored Loading:
V = 40 kips (2 kips/ft) Level 1
V = 60 kips (3 kips/ft) Level 2
In order to properly create the surface element, such that the load is
delivered at each level, columns and beams need to be created. The
horizontal load is applied distributed along the beam to simulate how it
would likely be applied to the wall. Of course, this is dependent on the
method of connecting the wall to the floor framing. Once the framing is
created, draw the surface by selecting the Add Surface button. Then select
the four corners in counter clockwise direction. Note, if one surface is
created, it should be subdivided into the appropriate divisions such that the
plate edges will intersect with the beams. If this can’t be accomplished, then
separate surfaces should be created. This also offers the added benefit of
being to modify settings such as wall thickness for each surface formed.

FIGURE 10–38 Framing Geometry Created

FIGURE 10–39 Add Surface Tool

FIGURE 10–40 Surfaces Created

Once the surfaces are created, the division settings may be adjusted. This
will instruct the program to divide the surface into multiple plates based on
the provided criteria. By default, the surface is divided into ten plate
elements in each direction. The divisions can also be previewed.
FIGURE 10–41 Preview of the plate elements that will be created during the analysis.
Ensure that elements will intersect all necessary beams and columns, and that the plate
size is consistent across multiple surfaces.

Supports along the boundary of the surface and the wall foundation need to
be created to ensure proper behavior of the shear wall. The generation of
these supports is done by adding an additional command to the input file
under the SUPPORT section.
FIGURE 10–42 Supports Created at Base of Wall

The design parameters may now be assigned to the shear wall by Selecting
the Design > Shearwall tab. First, panels must be created to define the shear
wall. Defining the panel as a wall instructs the program to use the
appropriate design specifications for the element.

FIGURE 10–43 After selecting Create Panel, outline the panel by selecting the four
perimeter nodes. After selecting the last node, the Select Panel Type window is displayed.
Select the WALL panel type.
The following design parameters will be assigned to the newly created
shear wall panels:
CLEAR = 0.125
FC = 576 (4,000 psi concrete strength)
FYMAIN = 8,640 (60,000 psi steel reinforcing strength)
EMAX = 8 maximum bar size in edge zones
EMIN = 4 minimum bar size in edge zones
HMAX = 5 maximum horizontal bar size
HMIN = 4 minimum horizontal bar size
VMAX = 8 maximum vertical bar size away from edge zones
VMIN = 4 minimum vertical bar size away from edge zones
TWO = 1 to indicate dual layers of reinforcing in the wall
TRACK = 1 to display detailed results in the output file

FIGURE 10–44 To instruct the program to design for concrete shear wall requirements
select the Commands … button and then the Design Shearwall command.
FIGURE 10–45 Deflection

FIGURE 10–46 Shear Stress

FIGURE 10–47 Partial Output for Shear Wall Design

Checking Composite Slabs for Floor Vibration

Composite design can provide an economical alternative for elevated floor
systems in buildings. Since it often results in lighter steel members, but
more importantly members with less depth, the potential for vibration issues
is increased. This is especially true for office and commercial-type
buildings where many people occupy the facility. STAAD.Pro has the
ability to check steel-framed structures designed compositely with the floor
slab for vibrations due to human activity. This is per the procedures
described in Chapters 3 and 4 of AISC Design Guide 11. The user should
read the design guide to ensure the analysis model agrees with the criteria.
There are many variables that can affect the results of the analysis, so
caution is needed. The STAAD.Pro facility should be used for
office/commercial floors only, as the program values are currently setup for
this. It provides a good tool for running quick conceptual analysis on
various framing layouts. Once the final construction details, building use,
loads, and so on, are known, the results should be reviewed again, and
adjustments in the analysis made if needed.

Example
Determine if the bay of framing for an office building will meet the
vibration criteria set forth in AISC Design Guide 11.

FIGURE 10–48 Framing Plan

FIGURE 10–49 Section of Composite Slab

Concrete Parameters:
f ′c = 4,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
1.5 VLI Metal Deck by Vulcraft
¾" dia. Studs 3.5 inches long
3½" concrete above deck
First, the composite deck system needs to be defined by selecting the
Geometry > Composite Deck tab. This will allow the properties of the deck
system to be entered. Many metal deck types from various vendors are
included in the program. This information will be used to calculate the
required vibration parameters. The deck may be created by clicking on
nodes or highlighting the beams that enclose the system. A closed loop
must be formed.

FIGURE 10–50 Enter desired name of composite deck and select OK.

FIGURE 10–51 Deck hatching and span direction are displayed. The deck hatching can be
toggled on and off through the Labels … Structure window. Also, the span direction can be
changed if needed

After creating the composite deck, select the newly created FloorDeck
name in the window. This will allow the properties of the deck system to be
entered.
FIGURE 10–52 Composite Deck Properties

The appropriate design loads need to be entered into a load case. For
offices, it is recommended to use 11 psf for live load plus the actual dead
load. Once the loads are entered, the analysis can be performed.

NOTE
Due to issues with units, it is not recommended to use the SELFWEIGHT command in
the load case. The user should input the load as a uniform load on the beam.

Framing = 4 psf
Deck and Slab = 51 psf
Hanging = 2 psf
Live Load = 11 psf
w = 4 + 51 + 2 + 11 = 68 psf should be input in floor vibration load case
The results can be viewed from the postprocessor by selecting the Report >
Floor Vibration Report tab. Select the desired composite deck created and
the appropriate load case.

FIGURE 10–53 Floor Vibration Report Location in Post Processor

FIGURE 10–54 Floor Vibration Report

From the analysis results it can be seen that the floor exceeds the acceptable
acceleration criteria of 0.0050. After reviewing several options, it can be
seen that increasing the girder stiffness has the greatest effect on the
frequency of the floor system. The girders will be updated to W16 × 26 and
the beams to W12 × 14, and the analysis performed again.

FIGURE 10–55 Floor Vibration Results within Acceptable Limits

CHAPTER 11

Concrete Structures

C
hapter 10 provided information on the design of individual concrete
elements within STAAD.Pro. In most structures, however, structure
geometry and construction conditions can greatly affect the analysis
results. Since most concrete structures along with their connections are
rigid, torsional effects and alternating live load patterns need to be
considered. In addition, second-order effects need to be considered. This
chapter will provide structure examples and techniques to address these
situations. The concrete design module will be utilized for individual
member design.
In order to satisfy the provisions in ACI 10.10, which applies to slenderness
effects in compression members, several items need to be considered in the
analysis. First a second-order analysis using factored loads, taking into
account the P-Delta and p-delta effects, should be used rather than a first-
order elastic analysis. This will ensure that the additional moments due to
frame drift and local member displacement are included. When performing
the analysis, the member properties need to be adjusted to account for
cracking along the member and duration of loads. ACI 10.11.1 provides
adjusted properties that are based on the results of testing and analysis and
can be used. If the structure is subjected to sustained lateral loads, these
values need to be adjusted further by dividing them by (1 + βD). Since this
does not apply to most structures, it will not be considered here.
Additionally, the effects of geometric imperfections and construction
tolerances should be considered in the analysis. The effect of axially loaded
columns that are not part of the lateral load resisting system but depend on
these elements for stability also need to be included. The ACI code does not
specifically address how to incorporate these issues for the general second-
order analysis procedure. It is the author’s opinion that the use of notional
loads applied to the columns will account for these issues. See Chapter 6 for
additional information regarding notional loads. Based on the ACI
construction tolerances, it seems reasonable to use a notional load ranging
between 0.002 and 0.003. It should be verified that the ratio of the second-
order analysis drifts to the first-order analysis drifts do not exceed 2.5. If
this limit is exceeded, member sizes should be adjusted to increase the
lateral stiffness of the structure.
The effect of the structures’ interaction with the foundation should also be
considered. This is generally due to the rotation of the foundation resulting
from the applied loads. For frames analyzed as simply supported, the
calculated theoretical drift will likely be less than the actual drift. In reality,
the pinned concrete column condition rarely exists. Some amount of fixity
will usually be available at the interface with the foundation. For fixed
bases, however, rotation of the foundation will act to relieve a portion of the
moment at the base of structure, increasing the overall drift of the frame and
the moments that occur at the beam-column interface. For the frame
analysis, it is generally conservative to assume pinned bases. It may be
prudent, however, to include a portion of the fixed moment in the design of
the foundation.

FIGURE 11–1 Pinned Supports

FIGURE 11–2 Fixed Supports

FIGURE 11–3 Modeled Foundation Rotation

Example
Design the following two-story moment frame structure for the design loads
indicated using a second-order analysis per ACI 318-05 requirements.

FIGURE 11–4 Concrete Structure

FIGURE 11–5 Section Through Walls

Columns spaced at 24 ft, typical

f ′c = 3,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi

Design Criteria:
Applicable Codes and Standards
2006 International Building Code
ASCE 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures
ACI 318-05 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
Deflection/Drift
Typical Roof Framing ∆LL less than L/360 (Live Load
Deflection)
∆TL less than L/240 (Total Load
Deflection)
Story Drift ∆H less than H/100

Dead Loads
Framing Self-weight
6" Concrete Slab 75 psf
Collateral Load 30 psf
Masonry Walls 700 #/ft along perimeter beams

Live Load
Roof Live 20 psf
Floor Live 250 psf

Snow Load (Not required, less than roof live load)

Wind Load
Basic Wind Speed 110 mph
Occupancy Category II
Importance Factor (Iw) 1.0
Exposure Category D
Wind Directionality Factor (Kd) 0.85
Topographic Factor (Kzt) 1.0
Gust Effect Factor (G) 0.85
Enclosure Classification Enclosed
Internal Pressure Coefficient +/– 0.18
(GCpi)
Velocity Pressure Exposure Varies
Coefficient (Kz)
Seismic Load (Not required, wind load controls)

FIGURE 11–6 Model Geometry Created

For this example, the slab is assumed to be integral with the beams. This
will result in a portion of the bending moment being resisted by the slab.
The slab-to-beam interface should be detailed accordingly. In addition, the
frame deflection will be slightly higher than if the rigid diaphragm option
were used. The rigid diaphragm option would, however, result in higher
moments in the beams and columns. Additionally, since the slab contributes
to the lateral stiffness of the structure by resisting lateral loads as well as
bending moment, its stiffness should also be reduced according to ACI
10.11.1.
Load Cases
Dmin = Self-weight of structure and building materials
Drem = Collateral
L = Floor live load
Lr = Roof live load
Wns = Wind load from north to south (+/– GCpi)
Wsn = Wind load from south to north (+/– GCpi)
Wwe = Wind load from west to east (+/– GCpi)
Wew = Wind load from east to west (+/– GCpi)

Load Combinations

NOTE
These will be created using REPEAT LOAD due to the second-order analysis
required.

Strength Design
1.4(Dmin + Drem)
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 1.6L + 0.5Lr
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 1.6Lr + L
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + 1.6Lr + 0.8W
1.2(Dmin + Drem) + L + 0.5Lr + 1.6W
0.9Dmin + 1.6W
Include a notional load factor of 0.003 to be applied to gravity loads and
included in all load combinations. This will account for construction
tolerances. In order to use STAAD.Pro’s Automatic Load Combination
Generator to create the REPEAT LOAD cases including the notional load,
the notional load factor of 0.003 needs to be indicated in the direct analysis
definition. This will set the base notional load factor to be used. This factor
will be multiplied by the appropriate load factor created in the Auto Load
Rules. In order to prevent the program from performing the PDELTA
analysis on the primary load cases, a PERFORM ANALYSIS and
CHANGE command should be provided after the last primary load case and
before the first repeat load case. In addition, the SET NL command must be
used to specify the number of primary load cases since multiple analysis are
being performed. It is typical to set this number higher than the number of
primary cases to prevent having to modify this command later if additional
primary cases are added. SET commands can be specified in the input file
or from the Miscellaneous tab under the Commands window. The use of
these commands has the added benefit of decreasing the analysis time
required.

FIGURE 11–7 Location of the SET commands using the graphical user interface. Note that
not all SET commands are available through the GUI. In these cases the SET commands
can be entered directly in the STAAD Editor.
FIGURE 11–8 Specifying SET Commands in Input File

FIGURE 11–9 PERFORM ANALYSIS and CHANGE Commands after Primary Load Cases

FIGURE 11–10 Assignment of Notional Load Factor

FIGURE 11–11 Auto Load Combinations

The inclusion of notional loads will create many REPEAT LOAD cases.
These cases can be reduced since it is not necessary to apply the notional
loads in all directions when combined with a wind load case applied in only
one direction. The notional load cases created which are not in the same
direction as the applied wind load can be eliminated.

FIGURE 11–12 Load Case Created Including Notional Load

Since the stiffness of the members needs to be reduced to account for the
effect of axial loads, cracking along the member and the effects of load
duration, the properties indicated in ACI 10.11.1 should be used. From the
commentary it is noted that the use of these properties will generally result
in an overestimation of the second-order deflections. Alternate values may
be used if they are justified by a rational analysis. In order to decrease the
moment of inertia for the member without affecting the other geometric
properties, the general prismatic property generation will be used. The
beams will utilize a moment of inertia equal to 0.35Ig and the columns will
use 0.7Ig.

Since the properties of the slab are input as thickness, the moment of inertia
cannot be altered as for the beams and columns. The slab thickness could be
reduced, such that the moment of inertia is reduced to 0.25Ig. For our 6-
inch slab, this would result in an equivalent slab thickness of 3.78 inches.
Another option is to create a new concrete material with a reduced modulus
of elasticity. For this example, this yields larger deflections than if the
thickness were reduced.
FIGURE 11–13 Reduced Column Properties per ACI 10.11.1
FIGURE 11–14 Adjusting Slab Material Properties to Account for Stiffness Reduction

The second-order analysis can now be specified by using the PDELTA

command. There are several options available for this analysis type. In
order for the PDELTA analysis to be applied properly, the lateral load and
gravity loads must be applied concurrently in the same load case. It is for
this reason that the REPEAT LOAD command was used earlier in this
example to create the appropriate load combinations. During the analysis,
second-order load effects are calculated and then added to the first-order
loads. For this reason several iterations should be provided. It is typical to
specify between 3 and 30 iterations. The user can also specify convergence
criteria, in which the analysis will continue until the change in deflection
between iterations is less than the criteria provided in the SET
PDELTATOL command. The tolerance is input in the current units and with
a default value of 0.01 inches. If the model is not able to converge, the user
may set the number of iterations between 1 and 3 in order to determine
where the excessive deflections are occurring and alter the design.
STAAD.Pro allows the user to set the maximum number of iterations even
if convergence has not been achieved; however, this option is not
recommended.

PDELTA Analysis Formats

PDELTA 5 ANALYSIS SMALLDELTA This command will instruct the
program to perform five iterations and include the small p-delta effects in
the analysis. The five iterations were determined by increasing the iterations
and reviewing the maximum displacements in the global X and Z
directions. Only the displacements of the REPEAT LOAD cases should be
included as second-order effects are not calculated properly for the primary
cases.

PDELTA ANALYSIS CONVERGE SMALLDELTA This command will

instruct the program to perform iterations until the convergence criteria
using the SET NL 0.001 are met at which point the analysis is completed.
The number of iterations performed can be reviewed through the output
file. Note for this example, convergence occurred after five iterations.
After running the analysis, select the appropriate load cases to review in the
post-processor using the results setup window. Note, the loads selected can
be adjusted at any time from the RESULTS menu.
FIGURE 11–15 Select the desired load cases when entering the Post Processor

FIGURE 11–16 PDELTA Analysis Global Displacements

The ratio of the second-order analysis drift to the first-order analysis drift
should not exceed 2.5. This ratio has been set to ensure there is sufficient
stiffness in the structure to prevent instabilities. Structures with ratios above
2.5 may also be very susceptible to variations in member properties EI and
foundation rotations per the ACI commentary. For this example:
Now that the analysis has been performed the concrete members can be
designed. This can be done within STAAD.Pro as shown in Chapter 10, or
by using the concrete design module RC Designer. RC Designer can design
columns, beams, and slabs per the appropriate provisions of the ACI code.
The geometry, section and material properties, loads and analysis results
from the STAAD.Pro analysis are utilized. To begin using RC Designer,
select the Concrete Design tab at the top of the screen after running the
analysis.

FIGURE 11–17 Opening RC Designer

Prior to designing the members, several items must be defined as follows:

DEFINE LOAD ENVELOPE Multiple load envelopes may be defined as

needed for design.

FIGURE 11–18 Define Envelope Name

FIGURE 11–19 Select the appropriate load cases. Since repeat loads are used, the show
combinations only box should be unchecked.

FORM MEMBERS AND SLABS Member and slabs desired to be

designed need to be defined. Physical members are formed by selecting all
the individual members that form the physical member. Once the member is
formed, it can now be selected with a single click, using the member cursor,
rather than needing to highlight multiple beam elements.

NOTE
In addition deflections, moments, and shears can be viewed for the member as a
whole.
FIGURE 11–20 Select beam elements to compose the member. Right click and then select
Form Member.

Slabs are formed in a similar manner, by selecting the plate elements and
then selecting Form Slab. The slab may then be selected as a whole using
the Select Slab cursor.

FIGURE 11–21 Select plate elements to compose the slab. Right click and then select
Form Slab.
The design briefs can now be created. Design briefs allow the user to define
the code along with indicating whether the element is a beam, column, or
slab. In addition, parameters such as concrete strength, clear cover, and
reinforcement parameters can be assigned. The critical section to use for
moment and shear reinforcement design can also be defined.

Beam Design Brief

FIGURE 11–22 Beam Design Brief Creation

FIGURE 11–23 General Beam Design Brief Options
FIGURE 11–24 Beam Main Reinforcement Design Brief Options
FIGURE 11–25 Beam Shear Reinforcement Design Brief Options

Column Design Brief

FIGURE 11–26 Column Design Brief Creation

FIGURE 11–27 Column Materials Design Brief Options
FIGURE 11–28 Column Parameter Design Brief Options
FIGURE 11–29 Select appropriate load cases for column design. Columns are not
designed per the envelope created previously.

Slab Design Brief

FIGURE 11–30 Slab Design Brief Creation

FIGURE 11–31 General Slab Design Brief Options
FIGURE 11–32 Slab Main Reinforcement Design Brief Options

FIGURE 11–33 Slab Main Reinforcement Outer Bar Definition

Once the briefs have been completed, the design groups can be assigned.
Design groups specify which members to include in the design using the
specific briefs that were created. For slabs a group must be created for each
separate slab to be designed. The slab can be divided into regions later in
the design.
FIGURE 11–34 Creation of Beam Design Groups

Members can be added to groups by entering them directly into the group
table, or by selecting the members graphically followed by right-clicking
the mouse. The Add Member to Design Group tab is then displayed and can
be selected. Members must be added to the beam and column design
groups; however, this does not need to be done for slabs since the slab
selection was made at the creation of the slab group.

FIGURE 11–35 Adding Members to Beam Design Group

FIGURE 11–36 Options for Adding Members to a Group

The columns and beams can now be designed by selecting the Concrete
Member mode tab from the Page Layout menus on the left-hand side. For
the beam design select the beam design group from the Page/Mode toolbar
at the top of the screen. From the Design Options page, select the members
to include in the design and then the Design button. After running the
design select the Main Layout page.

FIGURE 11–37 Selection of Created Beam Group for Design

FIGURE 11–38 Display Options for Results

FIGURE 11–39 Active Graphical Display of Moment Diagrams and Beam Cross Section

The shear stirrup reinforcing can be viewed in a similar manner by selecting

the Shear Layout page.
For the column design select the column design group from the Page/Mode
toolbar at the top of the screen. From the Design Options page, select the
members to include in the design and then the Design button. After running
the design select the Main Layout page.
FIGURE 11–40 Selection of Created Column Group for Design

FIGURE 11–41 Option to Design Selected Members

FIGURE 11–42 Active Graphical Display of Moment Diagram and Column Cross Section

The vertical reinforcing arrangement and bar size can be edited by right-
clicking over the column section view and selecting edit bar cage. Bars can
be added by selecting the first empty row and hitting the enter key. After
updating the bar layout, select Apply and then perform the design again to
check the results.
FIGURE 11–43 Option to Edit Column Reinforcing

FIGURE 11–44 Input Reinforcing Changes ans Select Apply

The design results for all the columns in Column Group 1 can be viewed by
selecting the Results page tab. These tables will provide the controlling load
cases, design moment and shears at critical sections, the unity check results,
and the reinforcing required for the member.
FIGURE 11–45 Flexural Reinforcement Results

FIGURE 11–46 Shear Reinforcement Results

For the slab design, select the slab design group from the Page/Mode
toolbar at the top of the screen.

FIGURE 11–47 Selection of Created Floor Slab Group for Design

If desired, the slab can be divided into multiple regions, with individual slab
designs for each. This would allow the rebar size and/or spacing to be
altered for each region. For this example, and since the building is relatively
small, it would be more economical to use the same bar size and spacing
throughout; therefore, regions will not be used. Select the Design page tab
and then the Design button to initiate the slab design. Depending on the size
of the slab and model complexity this could take several minutes.
FIGURE 11–48 Selection of Slab Region for Design

FIGURE 11–49 Slab Region Design Results

Analysis results may be viewed by graphic contours.

FIGURE 11–50 Negative Moment Envelope for MX

FIGURE 11–51 Positive Moment Envelope for MX

Additionally results can be viewed along a line.

FIGURE 11–52 Shear Envelope

FIGURE 11–53 Shear Results Along Line