Unit 4

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
K Raghavendra Rao, Ph. D.

Department of Science and Humanities
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit IV : Application of Quantum Mechanics to Optical
Waves: LASERS
Class #34
• Matter and Radiation
• Black body radiation spectrum
• Population of states and the Boltzmann equation
• Absorption and Emission processes
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit IV : Review of concepts leading to Quantum
Mechanics: LASERS
Suggested Reading
1. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, Chapter 9.6
2. Optical Electronics, A. Yariv
3. Course material developed by the department
Reference Videos
1. https://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-005-understanding-
lasers-and-fiberoptics-spring-2008/laser-fundamentals-i/1.
2. Unit I Class # 4 Video
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS
LASER
Light
Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation
LASER beams from our Research Lab
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Matter and Radiation
• Atoms emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation

• Electromagnetic energy is quantized in terms of photons
• Quantum of energy of a Photon, E =h
• Equilibrium is achieved
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Black body spectrum
Planck’s expression for energy density
8πhc
E(λ) dλ = hc dλ
e λkT -1
3
8πhν
E(ν) dν = hν dν
e kT -1
• Planck proved the particle nature of light and founded
Quantum Mechanics
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Thermal Equilibrium: Two level system
The Populations of the

states E1 and E2 are
given by the
The Boltzmann equation
-(E 2 -E1 )
N2
=e kT
N1
-hν
N2
=e kT
where E 2 - E1 = hν
N1
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Absorption of Radiation
hν = E 2 - E1
Before Absorption After Absorption of the photon

The Rate of Absorption RAb N1 RAb E(ν)
RAb = B12 N1 E(ν)

B12 is the coefficient of Absorption
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Spontaneous emission
𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬𝟏 = 𝒉
•Life time of excited states generally τ = 10-8 s

• Meta-stable states τ > 10-8 s
The Rate of Sponatneous Emission RSpEm N2
RSpEm = A21 N2
A21 is the coefficient of Spontaneous Emission

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Stimulated Emission
hν = E 2 - E1 hν = E 2 - E1
hν = E 2 - E1
Before Emission After stimulated emission
The Rate of Stimulated Emission RStEm N2 RStEm E(ν)
RStEm = B21 N2 E(ν)

B21 is the coefficient of Stimulated Emission
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Light Absorption and Emission
Check Your Understanding (Yes/No)
1. Light emission from a bulb is because of

spontaneous emission
2. The Boltzmann equation is applicable in

a non equilibrium condition
3. In equilibrium, the lower state is more

populated compared to upper state
4. In stimulated emission the photons are

coherent and unidirectional
THANK YOU
Raghavendra Rao K, Ph.D.

Associate Professor, Department of Science and Humanities
raghavendrarao@pes.edu
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
K Raghavendra Rao, Ph.D.

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Thermal equilibrium and Einstein’s Coefficients
• Class #35
• Rates of absorption and emission and thermal
equilibrium
• Planck’s expression for Energy density
• Einstein A and B Coefficients
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Mechanics: LASERS
Suggested Reading
1. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, Chapter 9.6
Reference Videos
1. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-06-quantum-physics-
iii-spring-2018/video-lectures/time-dependent-perturbation-
theory/l13.3-einsteins-b-and-a-coefficients-determined.-
lifetimes-and-selection-rules/
2. Unit I Class # 4 Video
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Thermal equilibrium and Einstein Coefficients
RAb = B12 N1 E(ν)

RSpEm = A21 N2
RStEm = B21 N2 E(ν)

As the total number of atoms is constant,
under thermal equilibrium
RAb = RSpEm + RStEm
B12 N1E(ν) = A21N2 + B21N2E(ν)

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(B12 N1 - B21N2 ) E(ν) = A21N2
A21N2
E(ν) = - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
(B12 N1 - B21N2 )
Planck’s Expression for Energy Density
3
8πhν 3
E(ν) = c - - - - - - - - - - - -(3)
hν
e kT
-1
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
A21
B21
E(ν) = - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
B12 N1
-1
B21 N2
To obtain the above expression we have divided

the numerator and denominator of Eq(2) by B21N2
We know
N1 hν
= e kT (the Boltzman equation)
N2
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
A21
B21
E(ν) = - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
B12 hν
e kT
- 1
B21
Planck's Energy density expression

8πhν 3
E(ν) = c 3 - - - - - - - - - - - -(3)
hν
e kT
-1
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Comparing (3) and (4) we get
A21 8πhν 3 B12

= 3
and = 1 or B12 = B21 = B
B21 c B21
So there are only two constants A (= A21 ) and B
called Einstein's coefficients
Planck's Energy density expression

A
E(ν) = B - - - - - - - - - - - -(5)
hν
e kT
-1
A 8πhν 3
=
B c3
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Check Your Understanding

(True/False)
1. The rate of spontaneous emission is the

inverse of the life time of the excited state
2. The absorption rate is equal to the sum of

the emission rates
3. In equilibrium, the rate of absorption is

equal to the rate of stimulated emission
4. The coefficient of absorption is equal to the

coefficient of stimulated emission
THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
• Class #36
• Properties of lasers
1. Monochromaticty
2. Coherence
3. Unidirectionality
4. High Intensity
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Mechanics: LASERS
Suggested Reading
1. Lasers: Fudamentals and Applications
K Thyagarajan, A Ghatak
Reference Videos
https://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-005-understanding-lasers-
and-fiberoptics-spring-2008/laser-fundamentals-i/
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Properties of a laser
High Mono-chromaticity
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The line width = FWHM ( Full Width at Half Maximum)
In terms of frequency, the line width
𝒄
= 𝟐
𝒎
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Coherence.
Refers to inter relationship of phases of the electromagnetic
waves of a laser beam
Spatial Coherence
When electromagnetic fields at different spatial regions have a
phase correlation (either zero or a constant phase difference),
the beam is said to be spatially coherent.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Coherence
Spatial Coherence
Beam splitter
• The E-fields at point A and B have a phase difference of 90°

which remains constant over time.
• So we say the beams are spatially coherent.
• If the beams are made to interfere the resulting amplitude or

intensity would remain unchanged in time
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Coherence
Temporal Coherence
• If the electric fields of a laser are sampled at different times

and if the samples exhibit a well defined phase correlation,
then the laser is said to be temporally coherent.
• A perfectly monochromatic emission for example has perfect

temporal coherence.
• The interference of a wave with a time delayed copy of itself will

reveal the nature of temporal coherence.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Coherence time (τc)

• The time duration up to which a laser
emission maintains its temporal coherence.
1
τc =
Δν
Where Δ is the line width of the laser
Coherence length (lc )

• The distance up to which a beam exhibits temporal
coherence.
lc = cτ c
• For example a pure sine wave has a coherence length of
infinity.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
BEAM DIVERGENCE
• For a circular cross

section
𝒅𝟐 − 𝒅𝟏
𝒅
=
𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏
Here d1 and d2 are the diameters of the beam at distances

z1 and z2 respectively.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS, BEAM DIVERGENCE
For a Gaussian beam profile, the beam divergence

is given by
d
Where is the wavelength and is the radius of

the beam at the beam waist
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Properties of Lasers
High Intensity
• A lot of energy is concentrated in a small cross sectional area
• Negligible scattering
• Can be focused to a tight spot
•High power IR lasers are used to cut metals
•Lasers of today cover a large spectrum
•Applications in non linear optics: femto and atto second

lasers, revolutionizing electronics and Ccomputer science
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Properties of lasers
1. A beam defined by a pure sinusoidal wave

is temporally coherent
2. The line width of a laser beam is in mm
3. Laser beam divergence is in the range of

radian
4. Coherence time is inversely related to the

line width
THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #37
Two, Three and Four level systems
1. Condition for laser emission
2. Two level system
3. Three level system
4. Four level system
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Mechanics: LASERS
Suggested Reading
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS: Condition for laser emission
B12 = B21 (say = B)
Rate of Absorption RAb = BN1E(ν)
Rate of Stimulated Emission RStEm = BN2E(ν)
Under thermal equilibrium, N1 >> N2

Which leads to RAb > RStEm
If the rate of stumulated emission
is lesser than the rate of absorption,
then the laser emission is impossible.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS: Condition for laser emission
• Stimulated Emission is crucial for laser emission
• Only Stimulated Emission can ensure same wavelength

and phase (Coherence)
• Stimulated Emission has to dominate over spontaneous

Emission and absorption during emission
•For this to happen, we must have Population Inversion

(N2>N1)
•To achieve population inversion we need an external energy

source called energy pump
•Thermal equilibrium is disrupted

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Two level system
• Initially: N1>N2
• Goal : Achieve N2>N1
• In the presence of E(ν) initially the absorption

will increase as N1 is greater. This will cause
increase in N2. Eventually we will reach N1=N2
• From here increasing E( ) will cause both

absorption rate and stimulated emission rate to
increase.
•So Population inversion N2>N1 is not practically

achievable in a two level system
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Three level system
• Pump and laser frequency

Decoupling
RAb = BN1E(ν13 )
RStEm = BN2E(ν12 )
By increasing E(ν13 ) RAb

can be increased without
affecting RStEm
This causes high population in E 3 .
E 3 is a short lived state.
Quick and Nonradiative decay to E 2 (Meta stable state)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Three level laser system
Population Inversion
between E 2 and E 1
Population Inversion is energy

demanding as we work
against the heavily
populated ground state
Pulsed laser
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Four level laser system
• Frequency Decoupled
Pump E( 14) and Laser E( 32)
• Quick decay E4 to E3
• Lasing states E3 and E2

• E3 is meta-stable
• Ground state is not the lower

Lasing state
• High energy pump not necessary
• Continuous laser
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
2, 3 and 4 level lasers
1. A two level laser is very efficient
2. A three level laser produces a continuous

laser
3. A four level laser produces a pulsed beam
4. A four level laser can produce very high

intensity
THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #38
Laser System Requirements and Gain
1. Active species
2. Energy Pump
3. Resonating Cavity
4. Round trip gain

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS: Requirements
Suggested Reading
2. Course material developed by the Department
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Laser Requirements: Active Species/Medium
• The active medium is the material medium

enclosed between the mirrors (solid or liquid or
gas)
• Acts as the host with suitable energy levels

amongst which transitions take place and
population inversion can be achieved.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Laser Requirements: Active Species/Medium
• The presence of the meta stable states increases the probability

of population inversion which is a prime condition for laser action.
Examples
Ne gas in He-Ne laser
• Cr ions in Al2O3 crystal in Ruby laser
• Nd dopants in YAG crystal in NdYAG laser
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASER Requirements: Energy Pump
•To achieve population inversion in an active medium,
an external energy source is needed.
•The external energy sources could be

Optical (flash lamp) Ruby laser, NdYAG laser
Electrical (electrical discharge) HeNe, CO2 lasers
Chemical, Dye lasers.
Etc, depending on the type of the laser
• In the case of gas lasers, generally an electrical discharge

is a sufficient source for exciting the medium.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Laser Requirements: Resonating Cavity
• Resonating Cavity allows

amplification of the intensity of the
beam and makes it unidirectional
emission
• Consists of two mirrors of various
geometries and coatings creating standing waves
• Because of the energy amplification due to

stimulated emission
• The laser comes out of the partially reflecting mirror
• Photons travelling in directions not perpendicular

to the mirrors are not amplified
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Laser system requirements
1. Energy pump is required because we need

population inversion
2. A resonating cavity amplifies the beam

intensity
3. For a resonating cavity L=n
4. Losses in resonating cavity are insignificant

THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
• Class #39
Gain and loss in laser systems
1. Gain in a cavity
2. Laser Comb
3. Line Broadening
4. Losses in the cavity
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS: Gain and Loss
Suggested Reading
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Resonating Cavity
• Consists of two mirrors of various

geometries and coatings creating
standing waves
• Because of the energy amplification due to

stimulated emission
• The laser comes out of the partially reflecting mirror
• Photons travelling in directions not perpendicular

to the mirrors are not amplified
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Resonating Cavity: Frequency Comb
n1 λ1 = 2L
n2 λ2 = 2L
n3 λ3 = 2L
.
.
.
Gain is a function
of wavelength
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Resonating cavity: Losses
Laser Line width Broadening
1. Frequency comb and gain curve broadening
2. Doppler Broadening
3. Pressure broadening
4. Inhomogeneous broadening
5. Quantum noise
6. Design flaws
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Resonating cavity: Losses
Losses in the cavity
1. Scattering(greater at shorter wavelengths)
2. Absorption in the beam path
3. Diffraction losses
4. Mirror losses
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Round Trip Threshold Gain
I e(g-α)l
where g is the gain coefficient
α is the loss coefficient
and l is the legth of traverse
IA = Iinitial
IB = Iinitial e (g-α) l
IC = R2IB = R2Iinitial e(g-α)l

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Round trip Threshold Gain
So we started with an intensity of Iinitial

and after a traverse of length 2l
and two reflections the final intensity is I final = R1R2 e (g-α) 2l
I final Iinitial R1R2 e (g-α) 2l
Gain = =
IInitial Iinitial
In a round trip, even if we achieve

a marginal gain compared to the loss,
over billions of such trips,
the total gain would be significant
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Gain and Loss in lasers
1. Line width for a good laser is very small
2. Doppler effect causes broadening of the

line
3. Shape of the gain curve may affect the line

width
4. Lasers are generally low loss systems

THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #40
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LASERS: Threshold Gain
Suggested Reading
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Round Trip Gain
• Let R1 and R2 be the reflective coefficients of the mirrors

• L, the distance between the mirrors
•Let IA be the initial intensity of the beam at point A at the first mirror
•As the beam travels its intensity is proportional to

=
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
I e( g - )l
where g is the gain coefficient

is the loss coefficient
and l is the legth of traverse
IA I initial
(g )l
IB I initial e
IC R2 I B R2 I initial e( g )l
ID R2 I initial e( g - )2 l
( g - ) 2l
I final I initial R1R2 e
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Round trip Threshold Gain
So we started with an intensity of I initial

and after a traverse of length 2l
( g - ) 2l
and two reflections the final intensity is I final R1R2 e
I final I initial R1R2 e ( g - ) 2l
Gain
I Initial I initial
In a round trip, even if we achieve

a marginal gain compared to the loss,
over billions of such trips,
the total gain would be significant
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Threshold Gain
We define the threshold gain coefficient g th

such that over a round trip the Gain is 1
( gth - ) 2 l
I initial R1R2 e 1 R1R2 e ( gth - ) 2 l
1
I initial
1 1
( gth - ) 2l ( gth - ) 2l ln
e R1R2
R1R2
1 1
( gth - ) ln
2l R1R2
1 1
gth ln
Threshold Gain Coefficient 2l R1R2
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Threshold Gain
1. Over one round trip, the gain should be

much greater than 1.
2. Threshold gain depends on the quality of

the mirrors.
3. The loss coefficient is generally very small
4. The intensity is exponentially dependent on

length traversed by the beam
THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #41
• Helium-Neon laser
• Gas laser
• Atomic laser
• Construction
• Energy level diagram
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Helium Neon laser
Suggested Reading
Optical Electronics ,A. Yariv
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
He-Ne laser
• First gas laser
• Atomic excitations of electrons in the atoms of Ne
• 632.8 nm laser (visible)
• Continuous Four level laser
• High quality beam
• Power a few mW
=
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
He-Ne laser: Construction
• Evacuated glass/quartz tube (long and narrow)

• Gas mixture of typically 1 mmHg of He and 0.1 mmHg of Ne.
• A DC or RF supply for electron discharge through the
gas mixture
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
He-Ne laser
• Energetic electrons in the discharge excite electrons in

the helium atoms to 23S and 21S states which are meta-stable.
e He e He
where * indicates high energy or excited state
•When these helium atoms collide with the neon atoms they excite
electrons of neon atoms into2S and 3S states
(which nearly coincide with the 23S and 21S of He).
He Ne He Ne
where * indicates high energy or excited state
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
He Ne laser Energy level diagram
3S 2P
Transition gives the Red laser
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
He-Ne laser
1. Helium Neon laser is a molecular laser
2. IR emission in the Neon system is strong
3. 1S of neon levels is a meta stable state
4. Flash lamp is used for achieving population

inversion
THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #42
Carbon dioxide laser
• Gas laser
• Molecular laser
• CO2 molecule: Modes
• Construction
• Energy level diagram
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 laser
Suggested Reading
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 laser
• Molecular laser
•Transitions in molecular energies
• IR laser
• High power laser (kW)

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 laser : Construction
• Evacuated quartz tube (long and narrow)

• Gas mixture of N2 : CO2 : He
•A DC or RF supply for electron discharge through the
gas mixture
• The mirrors and Brewster windows are made of semiconducting
materials such as Ge to avoid IR absorption.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 laser
CO2 molecule has three modes of vibration:
1. Symmetric stretching
2. Asymmetric stretching and
3. Bending mode.
•The quantized energies of the symmetric stretching are denoted as (n00)

•The quantized energies of the asymmetric stretching are denoted as (00n)
•The quantized energies of the bending mode are denoted as (0n0)
where n is a positive integer.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 Molecule: Modes
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 laser Energy level diagram
Collision of the first kind

e* N2 e N2*
Collision of the sec ond kind

N2* CO2 N2 CO2*
• Fast moving electrons from the discharge collide with

N2 molecules and excite them to their first excited state at 0.3 eV.
• These excited N2 molecules then collide with CO2 molecules and
selectively excite them to the asymmetric 001 state.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CO2 laser
1. The energy difference between states of molecular

vibrations correspond to UV wavelength
2. Nitrogen gas is a buffer gas in this system
3. He gas is used to depopulate the (010) state
4. Carbon dioxide laser produces a powerful IR beam

THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #43
Semiconductor lasers
Band structure
Direct Band gap
Indirect Band gap
Light emission
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Suggested Reading
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Band structure in solids
•E – k diagram
•Kronig -Penney Model

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Indirect Band Gap
• Materials such as Si, Ge possess

this kind of band structure
• Light emission generally

prohibited as photons cannot
account for large Δk
= ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Direct Band Gap
Materials such as GaAs, InP etc.
Light emission is possible as Δk

involved is not very large
ΔE=h
Toptica Photonics
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
PN Junction
Electrons
Vacancies
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
PN Junction
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
PN Junction diode
PN junction light emission
Requires large current density

of the order of 10000 A/cm2
Very Low efficiency

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
1. Band gap decides the frequency of the

emitted laser
2. GaAs is direct band gap semiconductor
3. Semiconductor lasers are created using an

indirect band gap material
4. Semiconductor lasers are very efficient

THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Waves: LASERS
Class #44
Semiconductor laser
Heterojunction laser
Charge confinement
Photon confinement
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Suggested Reading
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Semiconductor laser
Homojunction diode Heterojunction ‘diode’

Light emission is very low because Charge confinement
of diffused holes and electrons Light Confinement
Works at low voltage
Chance of recombination very low High efficiency
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Heterojunction laser: Gallium Arsenide
Site Doping
Alx Ga1-x As
Example
Al2Ga98As100
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Heterojunction laser: Charge confinement
GaAs has lower band gap

compared tp AlGaAs
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Photon confinement
GaAs has higher RI than AlGaAs

GaAs has lower band gap
Happy coincidence!
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Photon Confinement
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Heterojunction laser
Cleaved reflecting surface
W
L
Stripe electrode
Oxide insulator
p-GaAs (Contacting layer)
p-AlxGa 1-xAs (Confining layer)
p-GaAs (Active layer)
n-AlxGa 1-xAs (Confining layer) 2 1 3
Current
Substrate
n-GaAs (Substrate)
Substrate
paths
Electrode
Elliptical Cleaved reflecting surface

laser
Active region where J > Jth.
beam
(Emission region)
Schematic illustration of the the structure of a double heterojunction stripe

contact laser diode
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Lasers
Optical P ower Las er
Optical Power
Optical P ower LED

Stimulated
em ission
Optical P ower Las er

Spontaneous
em ission
I
0
Ith
T ypical output optical power vs. diode current

I) charact
( eristics and the corresponding
output spectrum of a laser diode.
© 1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Semiconductor laser
1. Heterojunction lasers are made of Direct

band gap semiconductors
2. Site doping is used to alter band gap
3. Photon confinement allows amplification
4. Population inversion is achieved by optical

pumping
THANK YOU

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit IV: Holography
Class #45
• What is Holography?
• Construction of a hologram
• Creation of Image
• Mathematics of In line Holography
• Off axis Holography
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography
Suggested Reading
1. Optics, E. Hecht
Reference Videos
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
2D Photography
2
The intensity I x, y = E x, y
where E(x, y) is the electric field
2D Photography
• 2D projection of 3D object
• Only intensity I (x,y) is

captured
• Phase information is lost
• No depth information
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography
To retain phase information we create an

Interference pattern on a photographic plate (hologram)
of light scattered from the object and a reference beam
ENGINEERING PHYSIC
Inline Holography
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Mathematics of Inline Holography
Consider an object wave (scattered from the object)
represented by Eo (x, y) and a reference beam (unscattered) represented by ER
which remains constant at all (x, y).
Intensity at the holographic plate
2
I = E o (x, y) + E R
I = E o* (x, y) + E R* E o (x, y) + E R
( 1)
2 2
I = E o (x, y) + E R + E o* (x, y)E R + E o (x, y)E R*
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography
Imagine that the holographic plate's transparency
is proprtional to the light intensity
Transparency T(x, y) = a + b I (x, y)
where a and b are constants
The light passing through the hologram when
illuminated only by the reference beam
E(x, y) = E R T(x, y)
E = E R (a + b I)
E = aE R + b E R I Substitute for I from eq(1)

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography
2 2
E = aER + bER ( Eo (x,y) + E R + E o* (x,y)E R + E o (x,y)E R* )
2 2 2
E(x,y) = aER + bER ER + bER Eo (x,y) + bE o* (x,y) E R + E o (x,y)E R2
2
E = aE R + bE R E R Constant Term: as E R is constant
2
+ bER Eo (x, y) Scattered: Negligible
2
*
+ bE (x, y) E R
o Image of the object
+ bEo (x, y)ER2 Image of the object
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography
Inline Holography
Problem of Twin images
Off- axis Holography

Solves the twin image problem
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography: Construction of Hologram
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography: Image creation
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Holography
1. Holography produces 3D colour images
2. Lasers are generally used for holography
3. Interference pattern is stored on a hologram
4. Holographic data storage can in future be

used as computer memory/storage
THANK YOU


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ENGINEERING PHYSICS

K Raghavendra Rao, Ph. D.

• Atoms emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation

Planck’s expression for energy density

The Populations of the

The Boltzmann equation

Before Absorption After Absorption of the photon

RAb = B12 N1 E(ν)

•Life time of excited states generally τ = 10-8 s

A21 is the coefficient of Spontaneous Emission

Before Emission After stimulated emission

The Rate of Stimulated Emission RStEm N2 RStEm E(ν)

RStEm = B21 N2 E(ν)

Check Your Understanding (Yes/No)

1. Light emission from a bulb is because of

2. The Boltzmann equation is applicable in

3. In equilibrium, the lower state is more

4. In stimulated emission the photons are

Raghavendra Rao K, Ph.D.

K Raghavendra Rao, Ph.D.

RAb = B12 N1 E(ν)

RStEm = B21 N2 E(ν)

RAb = RSpEm + RStEm

B12 N1E(ν) = A21N2 + B21N2E(ν)

(B12 N1 - B21N2 ) E(ν) = A21N2

Planck’s Expression for Energy Density

To obtain the above expression we have divided

Planck's Energy density expression

A21 8πhν 3 B12

Planck's Energy density expression

Check Your Understanding

1. The rate of spontaneous emission is the

2. The absorption rate is equal to the sum of

3. In equilibrium, the rate of absorption is

4. The coefficient of absorption is equal to the

Raghavendra Rao K, Ph.D.

K Raghavendra Rao, Ph.D.

The line width = FWHM ( Full Width at Half Maximum)

In terms of frequency, the line width

• The E-fields at point A and B have a phase difference of 90°

• So we say the beams are spatially coherent.

• If the beams are made to interfere the resulting amplitude or

• If the electric fields of a laser are sampled at different times

• A perfectly monochromatic emission for example has perfect

• The interference of a wave with a time delayed copy of itself will

Coherence time (τc)

Coherence length (lc )

• For a circular cross

Here d1 and d2 are the diameters of the beam at distances

For a Gaussian beam profile, the beam divergence

Where is the wavelength and is the radius of

• A lot of energy is concentrated in a small cross sectional area

• Can be focused to a tight spot

•High power IR lasers are used to cut metals

•Lasers of today cover a large spectrum

•Applications in non linear optics: femto and atto second

Check Your Understanding (Yes/No)

1. A beam defined by a pure sinusoidal wave

2. The line width of a laser beam is in mm

3. Laser beam divergence is in the range of

4. Coherence time is inversely related to the

Raghavendra Rao K, Ph.D.

K Raghavendra Rao, Ph.D.