PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Sciences

Bio 121/L
ENVIRONMENTAL
BIOLOGY

BASIC CONCEPTS
IN BIOLOGY

MODULE 2 CELL: THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Table of Contents

Content Page

Title Page ……………………………………………………………. 1

Table of Contents.………………………………………………….. 2
Learning Objectives………….……………………..……………… 3
Overview .……………………………………………..……………… 4
Initial Activity….……………………………….…….……………… 5
Discussion…………………………………………………………… 6
The Cell Theory..…….……………………….…………..… 6
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells…………..…..…………. 7
Learning Check 2.1.……….……..….………………......... 10
Plant and Animal Cells…………………….………….……. 11
Learning Check 2.2……….………….……………............ 24
Evaluation……………………………………………………………. 25
Reflection……………………………………………….................... 26
References……………………………………………………………. 27

Page 2
 Learning Objectives

After going through in this module, you should be able to:

 LO1: Identify the tenets of the cell theory.

 LO2: Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

 LO3: Describe the structure and function of a plant and an animal cell.

 LO4: Construct models of plant and animal cells.

Page 3
 Overview

Good day, dear student! I hope everything is fine with you. The
Module 1 outputs you submitted were outstanding. You did an excellent job!
Keep up the excellent work. You are now ready to begin our second module,
in which we will examine our cells in further detail.

You will learn how to identify the tenets of cell theory, compare and
contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and describe the form and function of
plant and animal cells in this module. Finally, you will develop plant and animal
cell models.

This module is good for a week. Read the lessons attentively and
complete all of the activities. I also urge you to submit your tasks on time. Let's
take a closer look at the cell together.

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 Initial Activity
IDENTIFY SOME PARTS OF A PLANT CELL

Directions: Identify the numbered parts of a plant cell. Write your answers on the
blanks provided below.

1. _____________________ 8. _____________________
2. _____________________ 9. _____________________
3. _____________________ 10. _____________________ 5
4. _____________________ 11. _____________________
5. _____________________ 12. _____________________
6. _____________________ 13. _____________________
7. _____________________

Page 5
 Discussion

CELL THEORY

Scientists once thought that life spontaneously arose from nonliving things.
Thanks to experimentation and the invention of the microscope, it is now known that
life comes from preexisting life and that cells come from preexisting cells.

In 1665, Robert Hooke published Micrographia, a book filled with drawings

and descriptions of the organisms he viewed under the recently invented microscope.
The invention of the microscope led to the discovery of the cell by Hooke. While
looking at cork, Hooke observed box-shaped structures, which he called “cells” as
they reminded him of the cells, or rooms, in monasteries. This discovery led to the
development of the classical cell theory.

The classical cell theory was proposed by Theodor Schwann in 1839. There
are three parts to this theory. The first part states that all organisms are made of
cells. The second part states that cells are the basic units of life. These parts were
based on a conclusion made by Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1838, after
comparing their observations of plant and animal cells. The third part, which asserts
that cells come from preexisting cells that have multiplied, was described by Rudolf
Virchow in 1858, when he stated omnis cellula e cellula (all cells come from cells).

Since the formation of classical cell theory, technology has improved,

allowing for more detailed observations that have led to new discoveries about cells.
These findings led to the formation of the modern cell theory, which has three main
additions: first, that DNA is passed between cells during cell division; second, that the
cells of all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same, both structurally
and chemically; and finally, that energy flow occurs within cells.

To further understand the tenets of the cell theory, please watch the some
YouTube videos using the link provided below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XjKmR2heH8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uczHXIlChws

Page 6
 Discussion

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Figure 2.1. Bacteria and Human Cells

Source:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Intr
oductory_Biology_(CK-12)/02%3A_Cell_Biology/2.03%3A_Prokaryotic_
and_Eukaryotic_Cells

There are many different types of cells. For example, in you

there are blood cells and skin cells and bone cells and even bacteria.
Here we have drawings of bacteria and human cells. Can you tell which
depicts various types of bacteria? However, all cells - whether from
7
bacteria, human, or any other organism - will be one of two general
types. In fact, all cells other than bacteria will be one type, and bacterial
cells will be the other. And it all depends on how the cell stores its DNA.

Page 7
 Discussion

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

There is another basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living
cells: the nucleus. The nucleus of a cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is
surrounded by a membrane (the nuclear membrane) and contains, and protects,
most of the cell's DNA. Based on whether they have a nucleus, there are two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is
in the cytoplasm rather than enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells
are found in single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, like the one shown
in Figure below. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. They were
the first type of organisms to evolve and are still the most common organisms today.

Figure 2.2.
Prokaryotic Cell. This
diagram shows the
structure of a typical
prokaryotic cell, a
bacterium. Like other
prokaryotic cells, this
bacterial cell lacks a
nucleus but has other
cell parts, including a
plasma membrane, 8
cytoplasm, ribosomes,
and DNA.

Bacteria are described in the following YouTube video: https://youtu.be/TDoGrbpJJ14

Page 8
 Discussion

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. A typical eukaryotic cell
is shown in Figure below. Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells,
and they are found mainly in multicellular organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic
cells are called eukaryotes, and they range from fungi to people.

Eukaryotic cells also contain other organelles besides the nucleus.

An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the
cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide energy to the cell, and
organelles called vacuoles store substances in the cell. Organelles allow
eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can. This allows
eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic cells. Ribosomes,
the organelle where proteins are made, are the only organelles in prokaryotic cells.

Figure 2.3.
Eukaryotic Cell
Source: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/02%3A_Cell_Biology/2.03%3A_Prokaryotic_
and_Eukaryotic_Cells

You can explore the structures of an interactive animal cell at this link:
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_model.htm.

Page 9
 Learning Check 2.1

Directions: Using the Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the prokaryotic cell
and the eukaryotic cell.

PROKARYOTES BOTH EUKARYOTES

10

Page 10
 Discussion

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a more complex
structure than do prokaryotic cells. Organelles allow for various functions to occur
in the cell at the same time. But what are Cell Organelles?

The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell

organelles include both membrane and non-membrane bound organelles, present
within the cells and are distinct in their structures and functions. They coordinate
and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell. A few of them function
by providing shape and support, whereas some are involved in the locomotion and
reproduction of a cell. There are various organelles present within the cell and
are classified into three categories based on the presence or absence of
membrane.

1. Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and

Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound cell organelles. They are
present both in prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.

2. Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi

Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum are single membrane-bound
organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

3. Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and

chloroplast are double membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.
11

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 Discussion
Let us learn more in detail about the different cell organelles in brief.

Figure 2.4. A
Eukaryotic Cell

Source:
https://byjus.c
om/biology/cel
l-organelles/

There are three main parts if cell namely: cell/plasma membrane, cytoplasm and
nucleus.

Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or
Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a selectively permeable membrane of the cell, which 12
is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins.

The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cell, which functions
as the selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in
and out of the cell according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane
functions by providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell. Based on
the structure of the plasma membrane, it is regarded as the fluid mosaic model.
According to the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membranes are subcellular structures,
made of a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded.

Page 12
 Discussion
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like
substances, found between the cell membrane and nucleus. They are mainly
composed of water, organic and inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of
the essential components of the cell, where all the cell organelles are embedded.
These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for controlling all
metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the
chemical reactions within a cell.

13

Figure 2.5. The Cytoplasm

Source: https://app.wizer.me/preview/7VFCJO

Page 13
 Discussion
Nucleus

Figure 2.6.
The Nucleus
Source:
https://byjus.c
om/biology/cel
l-organelles/

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells.

It is the largest organelle, which functions as the control center of the cellular
activities and is the storehouse of the cell‟s DNA. By structure, the nucleus is dark,
round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is a porous membrane (like cell
membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and nucleus. Within the nucleus,
there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also carries another essential
14
structure called chromosomes.

Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another

important structure called a gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it
helps in the inheritance of traits from one generation (parents) to another
(offspring). Hence, the nucleus controls the characters and functions of cells in our
body. The primary function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular activities including
metabolism and growth by making use of DNA‟s genetic information. Nucleoli in the
nucleus are responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA.

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 Discussion

This time, let us look to other cell organelles common to both plant and
animal cells.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with
fluid. They are the transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials
throughout the cell. There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae,

tubules, and vesicles, which are found throughout the cell and are involved
with protein manufacture.

2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle,

associated with the production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for
detoxifying the cell.

Figure 2.7. Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Source: https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2012/04/endoplasmic-reticulam.html/

Page 15
 Discussion

Mitochondria

Figure 2.8. The Mitochondria

Source: https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/

Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce

energy-rich molecules for the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally
in several organisms. It is a double membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle,
found in almost all eukaryotic cells.

The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous
compartments. The inner compartment is called „matrix‟ which is folded into cristae
whereas the outer membrane forms a continuous boundary with the
cytoplasm. They usually vary in their size and are found either round or oval in
shape. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces energy
in the form of ATP and helps in the transformation of the molecules.

For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate –

ATP. Mitochondria have their own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the
70s), and a few other molecules that help in protein synthesis.

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 Discussion

Ribosomes

Figure 2.9. The Ribosomes

Source: https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/

Ribosomes are nonmembrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles

found in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in
the form of tiny particles in a large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd
of RNA and 1/3rd of protein. They are named as the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or
80s (found in eukaryotes) The letter S refers to the density and the size, known as
Svedberg‟s Unit. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two sub-
units. Ribosomes are either encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are
freely traced in the cell‟s cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins are the
two components that together constitute ribosomes. The primary function of the
ribosomes includes protein synthesis in all living cells that ensure the survival of the
cell.

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 Discussion
Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound
organelle, which is mainly composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called
cisternae. This cell organelle is primarily responsible for transporting, modifying, and
packaging proteins and lipid to targeted destinations. Golgi Apparatus is found
within the cytoplasm of a cell and are present in both plant and animal cells.

Microbodies

Figure 2.10. The Nucleus

Source:
https://byjus.com/biology/ce
ll-organelles/

Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute, vesicular organelles, found in

both plant and animal cell. They contain various enzymes and proteins and can be 18
visualized only under the electron microscope.

On the basis of their enzymatic composition, they are of the following types:

1. Peroxisomes (leaf peroxisomes and liver peroxisomes)

2. Glyoxysomes

These organelles appear to arise from pre-existing microbodies.

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 Discussion
Cytoskeleton

It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run

throughout the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. It is found in
all living cells, notably in the eukaryotes. The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of
different types of proteins that can divide rapidly or disassemble depending on the
requirement of the cells. The primary functions include providing the shape and
mechanical resistance to the cell against deformation, the contractile nature of the
filaments helps in motility and during cytokinesis.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes which
are found in cells. They are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. The
vacuole stores the food or a variety of nutrients that a cell might need to survive. In
addition to this, it also stores waste products. The waste products are eventually
thrown out by vacuoles. Thus, the rest of the cell is protected from contamination.
The animal and plant cell have different size and number of vacuoles. Compared to
the animals, plant cell have larger vacuoles.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are single membrane, dense spherical vesicles that function to
degrade material. „Lysis‟ means digestion and „soma‟ means body. So, the
lysosomes mean „digestive bodies‟. Hence, lysosomes are the organelles that act
as the „digestive system‟ of the cell. They are also called „suicidal bags„ or „suicide
organelle‟ of the cell.

Lysosomes occur freely in the cytoplasm of the cell. A typical lysosome

contains at least 50 different hydrolytic enzymes. Altogether, they can hydrolyze
every type of biological macromolecule. Typically, these enzymes can function
properly in slightly acidic environments with a pH of 5.

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 Discussion
Now that we are done talking about the organelles that are both present in a
plant and an animal cell, it is now time to discuss the organelles that can only be
found a plant cell or an animal cell. Let us begin with cell organelles unique to PLANT
CELLS.

Plants are unique among the eukaryotes, organisms whose cells have
membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles, because they can manufacture their own
food. Chlorophyll, which gives plants their green color, enables them to use sunlight
to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars and carbohydrates, chemicals the
cell uses for fuel.

20

Figure 2.11. Anatomy of a Plant Cell

Source: https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html

Cell Wall
Like their prokaryotic ancestors, plant cells have a rigid wall surrounding the
plasma membrane. It is a far more complex structure, however, and serves a variety of
functions, from protecting the cell to regulating the life cycle of the plant organism.

Page 20
 Discussion
Plastids
Chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles,
which usually vary in their shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and
ribbon. They are present in mesophyll cells of leaves, which store chloroplasts and
other carotenoid pigments. These pigments are responsible for trapping light energy
for photosynthesis. The inner membrane encloses a space called the stroma.
Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-containing structures known as thylakoids are arranged
in a stacked manner like a pile of coins. Each pile is called as granum (plural: grana)
and the thylakoids of different grana are connected by flat membranous tubules
known as stromal lamella. Just like the mitochondrial matrix, the stroma of chloroplast
also contains a double-stranded circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and enzymes which
required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.

21

Figure 2.12. The Chloroplast

Source: https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/

Chromoplasts. The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments

like xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color
– yellow, orange, red, etc.

Leucoplasts. Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients.

Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins,
and elaioplasts store oils and fats.

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 Discussion

You just learned that plant cells have a cell wall, but animal cells do not. Cell
walls provide support and give shape to plants. Plant cells have chloroplasts, but
animal cells do not. Chloroplasts enable plants to perform photosynthesis to make
food. Moreover, please take note that plant cells usually have one or
more large vacuole(s), while animal cells have smaller vacuoles, if any are
present. Large vacuoles help provide shape and allow the plant to store
water and food for future use. The storage function plays a lesser role in animal cells;
therefore, the vacuoles are smaller.

Now let us focus our attention to cell organelles unique to ANIMAL CELLS.

Figure 2.13. An Animal Cell

Source: https://learnertrip.com/biology/animal-cell-organelles/

1) Nucleolus; 2) Nucleus; 3) Ribosome (dots); 4) Vesicle; 5) Rough

endoplasmic reticulum (RER); 6) Golgi apparatus; 7) Cytoskeleton; 8) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER); 9) Mitochondrion; 10) Vacuole; 11) Cytosol (It’s
not an organelle. It’s the fluid that contains the 1organelles); 12) Lysosome;
13) Centrosome; 14) Cell membrane.

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 Discussion

Centrosome and Centrioles

Figure 2.14.
Centrosome
and Centrioles

Source:
https://byjus.co
m/biology/cell-
organelles/

The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular

structures known as centrioles. Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced
peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein, and the fibril is a set of interlinked triplets. The
core part of the centriole is known as a hub and is proteinaceous. The hub
connects the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up of proteins. The
centrioles from the basal bodies of the cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibers 23
during cell division.

Page 23
 Learning Check 2.2

Directions: Describe the structure and function of the following plant and
animal cell organelles.

CELL ORGANELLES STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS

Cell membrane

Centrosomes

Chloroplasts

Cytoplasm

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes

Mitochondria

Nucleus

Peroxisome

Plastids

Ribosomes

Vacuoles

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 Evaluation

WRITTEN OUTPUT

*The evaluation (written output) part of this module can be accessed using this
Google Form link (to be updated and to be posted) on the Google Classroom.

PERFORMANCE TASK

*The performance task will be given a separate worksheet to be uploaded in the

google classroom.

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 Reflection

What have you learned after having completed this module?

How can you apply to your daily life what you have learned?
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 References

2.3: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (2021, March 6). Biology

LibreTexts. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Bi
ology/Book%3A_Introductory_Biology_(CK-
12)/02%3A_Cell_Biology/2.03%3A_Prokaryotic_and_Eukaryotic_Cells

Cell organelles. (2021, May 5). BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/

Interactive eukaryotic cell model. (n.d.). CELLS

alive!. https://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_model.htm

Lysosomes, vacuoles and microbodies? (2021, August 30). The Virtual

Notebook. https://www.thevirtualnotebook.com/lysosomes-vacuoles-and-
microbodies/

Molecular expressions cell biology: Plant cell structure. (n.d.). Molecular Expressions:
Images from the Microscope. https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html

National Geographic Society. (2020, July 30). Cell

theory. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/cell-theory/

Organelles of the animal cell and their functions. (2019, September 17). Learner
trip. https://learnertrip.com/biology/animal-cell-organelles/

Plant & animal cell differences genetics notes. (n.d.). Spartanburg County School
District
One. https://www.spart1.org/PlantAnimalCellDifferencesGeneticsNotes.aspx
27

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