Citrus Diseases in Somalia

Mogadishu region: Citrus cultivars and climatic data

Fungal diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region
Virus and virus-like diseases in the Mogadishu region
Exocortis
Important diseases probably not present in the Mogadishu region
Diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region: A summary
Hargeisa region: General information and climatic data
Greening
Tristeza in the Hargeisa region
Other virus and virus-like diseases
Fungal diseases
Salt toxicity
Insect pests
Conclusions and recommendations
Bibliography

A survey of virus and virus-like diseases of citrus was conducted in two regions of Somalia (see
Map 13): the area around Mogadishu from Giohar to Goluin (see Map 14), along the River
Scebeli; and the area around Hargeisa (see Maps 15 and 16) in the northwestern part of the
country.

Mogadishu region: Citrus cultivars and climatic data

Grapefruit is the major citrus variety grown in the Mogadishu region. The oldest trees are 20 to
30 years old and were planted by Italian citrus growers. These trees are all grafted on sour orange
rootstock, and the scions represent old-line cultivars.

In the 1970s, new plantations of grapefruit trees were established. The cultivars used comprised
not only old varieties but also new ones such as Marsh seedless, Ruby, Redblush, etc. The
rootstock was mainly sour orange, but rough lemon also began to be used. The grapefruit trees
cover approximately 1 000 ha. The best orchards have a yield of 20 tonnes per hectare, but many
produce less. Normally, under good management, grapefruit orchards should give at least 50
tonnes per hectare.

Since 1980, the Genale nursery has distributed about 150 000 grapefruit trees. This number
should be sufficient to plant about 500 ha of new citrus orchards. This brings the total area of
production of grapefruit trees to about 1 500 ha.

Besides grapefruit, small-fruited acid lime is the second most important citrus variety grown in
the Mogadishu region. Lime trees cover approximately 500 ha, but receive very little care.

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The mean monthly maximum temperatures at Genale (latitude 1°50' North, altitude 69 m),
fluctuated in 1965 between 33.5°C and 28.6°C, the mean monthly minimum temperature
between 23.6°C and 21°C, and the mean monthly temperature between 28.3°C (April) and
24.9°C (July). The absolute maximum temperatures per month were between 39°C in March-
April and 34°C in July, the absolute minimum temperatures between 20°C in April and 13°C in
January. These data indicate that the Mogadishu region has a uniformly warm climate. Relative
humidity is always high and varies from 74 percent to 82 percent. Rainfall is relatively low and
reached 471 mm in 1965. There are two rainy and two dry seasons. Gigal is the major dry season
and lasts from December to March inclusive, with a total of 32 mm of rain in 1965. Gigal
is  followed by Gu, the major rainy season, with 230 mm of rainfall from April to June
inclusive. Hagal is the second dry season (100 mm for July and August) and Der the second
rainy season with 107 mm of rain in September, October and November.

Citrus trees flower during the first rainy season (Gu) from April to June, with fruiting reaching
maturity from December to February (20 percent of annual crop). The major blossom period
occurs during the second rainy season (Der) from September to November with fruits ripening
from May to September (80 percent of annual crop).

MAP 13 Somalia

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During Gigal, the dry season from December to March, the Scebeli River is low, irrigation water
is pumped from wells and salinity can be high. From April to November, irrigation water comes
from the river.

The wind regime follows two monsoons. From April to October, winds (3.2 km/see and above)
come from the southwest and south. From November to March, they blow from the northeast and
east (less than 2.4 km/see).

Field research on citrus is carried out at the Central Agricultural Research Station (CARS) at
Afgoi on approximately 6 ha of land. Several citrus varieties were introduced at CARS in the
period 1966 to 1969. The introductions were from California and Sicily as well as from Somalia.
Some of these cultivars and especially those from Italy and Somalia were probably not free of
virus and virus-like diseases since, for instance, concave gum symptoms were observed on
Avana mandarin from Palermo.

These introductions have been used in various trials, including variety screening and rootstock
trials. In view of the very poor condition of the trees in these trials, it is doubtful whether much
information can be gained from the experiments.

New budwood introductions (Ruby and Reed grapefruits; Carter, CRC and Frost navel sweet
oranges) were made in 1978 and used for rootstock trials planted in 1979, comprising Brazilian
sour orange, rough lemon, Citrus macrophylla, Rangpur lime, Carrizo citrange, citrumello
4475, Citrus taiwanica and Citrus amblycarpa. Impietratura-like symptoms and severe
symptoms of stubborn have been seen on Frost navel sweet orange. All sweet orange trees on
Carrizo citrange rootstock have died.

In 1981-82 the Genale nursery introduced seven grapefruit cultivars from the French Citrus
Experiment Station in San Giuliano, Corsica. These cultivars, certified free of known virus and
virus-like diseases, included white flesh varieties: Marsh seedless, David seedless and Little
River; a pink variety: Thompson; and red varieties: Redblush, Ruby, Shambar.

Fungal diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region

Rio Grande gummosis

The most important of all diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region is Rio Grande gummosis.
The disease has been seen in practically all grapefruit orchards. On grapefruit and orange trees,
the symptoms -profuse gum production - appear high up on the trunk and out on the larger
branches (Figs 237 to 239). The gum oozes out of vertical cracks in the bark (see Fig. 244) and
runs down along the trunk or hangs down from the branches in stalactite manner (Figs 236, 239
and 240). At the time of initial gumming there is no scaling of the bark at the sites where the
bark is split. However, the first stage in the healing-over process is the sloughing of thin scales of
dead outer bark. Then follows the development of scar tissue generated by the bark. Repair is
only temporary and healed-over lesions may again start gumming and enlarging (Figs 241 and
242). In this way, lesions may pass through repeated cycles of recovery and relapse, in the course
of which they progressively enlarge and expose more and more wood. In old, inactive lesions the

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wood is exposed (Fig. 240). The gum pockets may be located deep in the wood (see Fig. 245)
and the gum travels a considerable distance in and along the wood, so that gum pockets may
exist far removed from the nearest active, gum-producing lesion.

MAP 14 The Mogadishu region, Somalia

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The bark scaling associated with the healing-over process and the sloughing of scales of dead
outer bark can be pronounced (Fig. 243) but should not be confused with that of scaly bark
psorosis (see Figs 98 to 100), "popcorn" (Fig. 101) or phytophthora gummosis.

In Somalia, Rio Grande gummosis is widespread throughout the Mogadishu region from Giohar
to Goluin. It mainly affects grapefruit trees. The first symptoms appear on seven- to eight-year-
old trees. Older trees can be very severely affected, with dieback and leaf drop in addition to
gumming. Rio Grande gummosis-affected trees seem to be more susceptible to attack by the
larvae of the borer Macrotoma palmata (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae).

There seems to be a correlation between the appearance of the first symptoms of Rio Grande
gummosis and the year when the grapefruit trees are pruned for the first time indeed, it has been
pointed out by several citrus growers that the disease shows up soon after the trees have been
first pruned. In general, trees are pruned at the age of six to seven years, and Rio Grande
gummosis appears when the trees are seven to eight years old. These observations tally with the
results obtained in California, where it was found that the causal fungal agent enters the tree
through pruning wounds. If so, only very few signs of the disease should be present in orchards
where trees are only slightly pruned, or not pruned at all. This is precisely the case in one of the
orchards visited. Even though this gummosis-free, unpruned, grapefruit orchard is only nine
years old, many other orchards of the same age show severe gummosis, and in all these orchards
pruning is carried out.

Once infection invades the trunk, it is practically impossible to eliminate the disease by surgery.
Control has to be by prevention. Pruning should therefore be reduced to a minimum and only
small branches with a diameter of less than 25 mm should be cut. Pruning cuts should be
disinfected and, when dry, covered with wound dressing or asphalt. In California, carbolineum
with 2 percent phenols has been recommended as a disinfectant for pruning wounds and, for final
coating on the disinfected wood, low melting-point asphalt mixed with an equal quantity of
carbolineum.

Heat- and frost-injured areas are also points of entry for the Rio Grande gummosis agent.
Obviously, only heat injuries must be considered in Somalia. Whitewashing of trunks and
branches that might become exposed to sunlight (after heavy pruning) should be carried out with
a zinc-copper-lime mix.

Phytophthora gummosis or footrot

The second most important disease in the Mogadishu region is footrot or phytophthora
gummosis. Normally, Rio Grande gummosis does not kill affected trees, but footrot does. It is a
truly destructive disease. The differences between the symptoms of footrot and Rio Grande
gummosis are as follows. Phytophthora gummosis is essentially a disease of the hark; though a
thin layer of  wood under the affected bark may be stained brown: The entire bark is affected by
the fungus, not only the outer layer as in Rio Grande gummosis or scaly bark psorosis. Contrary
to Rio Grande gummosis, there are no pockets of gum in the wood. The disease often begins at
the soil level when a susceptible citrus species (scion or rootstock) is directly in contact with the
earth. Indeed, footrot is due to soil-borne fungi of the genusPhytophthora: P. citrophthora, P.

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nicotianae var. parasitica, P. syringae Kleb., or P. hibernalis Came. When phytophthora-
resistant rootstocks are used, footrot lesions usually begin near the bud-union and expand rapidly
in an upward direction (Figs 222 and 223). Trunk lesions rarely extend higher than 35-50 cm
from the ground or the bud-union line.

In the following cases footrot can also occur below ground, and soil must be removed from
around the tree to expose the lesions:

 The rootstock is phytophthora-susceptible. The order of susceptibility among rootstocks

commonly used is starting with the most susceptible sweet lime, lemon, acid lime, sweet
orange, rough lemon, Cleopatra mandarin, citranges, sour orange and Poncirus
trifoliata. In Somalia only two rootstocks are used commercially: the phytophthora-
susceptible rough lemon and the phytophthora-resistant sour orange. At the Government
orchard at Balad, only the trees on rough lemon show footrot.
 The bud-union line is below soil-level (see Figs 228 and 230) and the rootstock trunk as
well as part of the scion trunk are in the soil. Footrot lesions can develop not only on the
rootstock but also on susceptible scions such as grapefruit and sweet orange.
 Soil is put around the trunk, and the bud-union line is covered (see Figs 224 to 226).
Removal of the soil exposes phytophthora-footrot lesions (see Fig. 228).

In these cases, development of the pathogen requires the soil in contact with the phytophthora-
susceptible trunk to be moist or wet. Soil moisture at or near saturation is most favourable for
fungal growth, spore production and movement of zoospores. The fungus is very sensitive to
moisture fluctuations; its activity ceases when soil dries out.

P. citrophthora grows fastest when the temperature is near 25°C. P. parasitica  has a higher
optimum, near 30°C. Such temperatures are characteristic of Somalia at various times of the
year.

Finally, a pH of 6.0-7.5 favours the growth and multiplication of the fungus. Such pH levels are
common in Somali soils.

Thus, Somalia has excellent conditions for the development of the soil-borne Phytophthora spp.
Footrot can only be prevented by the use of resistant rootstocks and proper horticultural practices
(Fig. 231). Unfortunately this is not often the case. Rough lemon is often the rootstock, trees are
budded too low, with the bud-union close to or even buried in the soil, and soil is put around the
trees.

Virus and virus-like diseases in the Mogadishu region

Cachexia-xyloporosis

On practically all mandarin trees encountered, cachexia-xyloporosis symptoms were seen,

namely the presence of gum impregnations in the bark' pegs on the cambial side of the bark, and
stem pitting, that is, pits in the wood matching the pegs on the bark. Gum impregnations in the
bark of susceptible species are easily seen by scratching the trunk with a knife at the bud-union

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to remove the outer layer of bark, as shown in Figures 38, 40 and 42. When only the scion and
not the rootstock is susceptible, gum impregnations will only be seen above the bud-union. This
is precisely the case of mandarin (susceptible) on sour orange (tolerant) (see Figs 38,48 and 49).
With sweet orange on sweet lime, Rangpur lime, tangelo or Citrus macrophylla, gum
impregnation and/or stem pitting would only be seen below the bud-union as the sweet orange
scion is tolerant but none of the four rootstocks are (see Fig. 57).

To diagnose cachexia-xyloporosis further, a piece of bark should be removed at the bud-union

line as shown in Figures 38, 41 and 44. The piece of bark will show gum only in the susceptible
part, the mandarin bark in the case of Figures 38 and 39, but not the sour orange bark. Similarly,
only the cambial side of the mandarin bark will show pegs (see Figs 39, 41, 43 and 45). After
removal of bark, the exposed wood shows stem pitting (see Figs 38, 41, 44 and 54).

Cachexia-xyloporosis is a bud-propagated disease. This fact is well illustrated in the Al Sabahyia

orchards. On this farm there are three mandarin orchards. One is 30 years old, the second, 20
years old and the third, ten years old. Buds for the youngest orchard were taken from trees of the
20-year-old orchard which had, in turn, been taken from the oldest orchard.

In other words, the 30-year-old orchard is the source for both the 20- and the ten-year old
orchards. The 30-year-old orchard happened to be contaminated by a mild strain of cachexia-
xyloporosis (as well as concave gum). Both the 20- and the ten-year-old orchards also show the
symptoms of cachexia-xyloporosis and concave gum.

Concave gum

The concave depressions (see Figs 102 to 105) induced on susceptible species (mandarins,
tangelos, sweet oranges, grapefruits, etc.) by the concave gum agent (not yet identified) were
seen on mandarin trees at CARS at Afgoi (Avana mandarin from Italy) and at Al Sabahyia
orchards on trees which also bore cachexia-xyloporosis symptoms. This example shows that
more than one pathogen can infect the same trees concomitantly.

Popcorn

Figure 101 illustrates a sweet orange trunk showing symptoms of popcorn at the Al Sabahyia
orchard. Small scales or flakes of the outer bark loosen, break away and finally drop, leaving the
small pustules uncovered. Although the pustules are reminiscent of the eruptive forms of scaly
bark psorosis, they are smaller, rarely measuring more than 10 mm in diameter, and do not
enlarge. Gum exudation may be frequently observed in this type of lesion. Symptoms of popcorn
were observed by Childs (1953) on sweet orange trees in Florida and by Rossetti on sweet
orange in Brazil and Portugal (Rossetti and Salibe, 1965).

Impietratura

Impietratura is an infectious disease affecting grapefruit, sweet orange, mandarins, lemon

and Citrus volkameriana. Affected fruit is hard, like stone - hence the name impietratura -and
there are gum pockets in the albedo (see Figs 1 16 and 1 17). Mild impietratura-like symptoms,

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i.e. gum in the albedo, have been seen on several occasions in Somalia on navel sweet orange.
As boron deficiency also results in the presence of gum in the albedo, further work is required to
assess the presence of the impietratura agent in the country.

The presence of impietratura in Somalia would not be surprising, however, since several citrus
varieties, including navel orange, have been introduced from Sicily, where impietratura is
widespread.

Cristacortis

Cristacortis affects many citrus species, and sour orange in particular. The disease is
characterized by conspicuous pegs on the cambial side of the bark with corresponding pits in the
wood (see Figs 109 to 114). In cristacortis there are no gum impregnations in the bark.
Cristacortis-like symptoms have been seen on sour orange carrying a mandarin top. Graft-
inoculation experiments are required to assess the presence of the cristacortis agent in Somalia.
Like impietratura, cristacortis is well known in Sicily.

Stubborn

Stubborn disease is due to the helical mycoplasma Spiroplasma citri. Highly typical symptoms

of stubborn, such as those seen in Figure 148, have been seen at CARS at Afgoi on navel sweet
orange trees from California. Trees are stunted, with small, cupped leaves that also display
mottle. Fruit peel is thick and coarse at the peduncular end but thin and smooth at the stylar end
(see Fig. 165). Seeds are aborted and the fruit axis is curved, giving lopsided fruit (see Fig. 168).

Symptoms identical to those seen at CARS were also noticed on navel sweet orange trees in the
Salah Ahmed Ali orchard at Jambalul. This is not surprising as budwood for these navel trees
was obtained from CARS.

The navel sweet orange cultivar carrying stubborn disease is of Californian origin. Stubborn is
widespread throughout California, and there are several cases where budwood imported from
California was found to carry stubborn.

Miscellaneous

Grapefruit trees on sour orange rootstock with overlapping bud-unions have been noticed. This
situation is sometimes encountered with tristeza-infected trees on sour orange rootstock. The
tristeza-induced necrosis of the sour orange sieve tubes below the bud-union line prevents the
rootstock from growing as fast as the scion and results in the scion overlapping the stock. Trees
were analysed for the presence of CTV using ELISA on shoots taken to Bordeaux. The assays
were CTV-negative.

Alga spots produced by the partly parasitic alga, Cephaleuros mycoida, have been noticed on
small-fruited acid lime leaves.

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Russeting due to the citrus rust mite, Phyllocoptruta oleivora, has been seen on fruit of
grapefruit trees.

Exocortis

Symptoms of exocortis can only be seen when a susceptible rootstock, such as

P. trifoliata, citrange, Rangpur lime or sweet lime is used (see Figs 83, 85 to 87). None of these
rootstocks is used in the Mogadishu region, as sour orange is the major rootstock. Sour orange is
tolerant of exocortis, as is grapefruit, the major scion species grown on sour orange in the
Mogadishu area. Exocortis cannot, therefore, be observed on grapefruit trees grafted on sour
orange rootstock even when such trees are infected with the exocortis viroid, as is probably the
case in several orchards in the Mogadishu region. Only indexing, i.e. graft inoculation of bark
from a candidate tree into a highly susceptible Etrog citron (Citrus medica) line, will show if the
candidate tree is infected or not. Citron will react to graft inoculation of the exocortis agent by
specific symptoms including leaf epinasty and curling, as shown in Figure 90 (see Chapter 1,
Tables 2 and 3).

It is well known that many old-line citrus cultivars are infected with the exocortis agent. This is
very probably the case with the old grapefruit lines that were imported into Somalia many years
ago, from Italy or other countries, at a time when indexing for exocortis was not yet developed.
Old sweet orange and mandarin lines are also known to be frequently infected with exocortis,
even though, being tolerant, they do not show symptoms of the disease. It is, therefore, more
than likely that many old lines of the major commercial citrus species carry exocortis in Somalia.

It is important to be aware of this situation. Indeed, many tristeza-tolerant rootstocks are

susceptible to exocortis. Hence, it would be dangerous to graft old-line citrus cultivars on these
rootstocks, as they will undoubtedly develop exocortis whenever the old-line cultivar carries the
exocortis pathogen.

Important diseases probably not present in the Mogadishu region

Tristeza

For three reasons, tristeza is probably not present in the Mogadishu region.

 None of the many small-fruited acid lime trees examined showed any symptoms of CTV
infection. Neither leaf vein clearing nor stem pitting could be observed. From the absence
of these symptoms, it is probable that CTV is not spreading in the Mogadishu region.
 None of the many trees grafted on sour orange rootstock that were observed during the
survey showed any signs of a tristeza-like decline.
 Most African strains of CTV, such as the Kenya strains, for instance, cause stem pitting
on grapefruit. No stem pitting was observed on grapefruit.

It is essential that the virus be kept out of the area, for at least three reasons:

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  Even though Toxoptera citricida, the black tropical citrus aphid vector of CTV, is
apparently not present in the Mogadishu area, another CTV aphid vector is - Aphis
gossypli, the cotton aphid. This aphid spreads CTV in Israel.
 Most trees are on sour orange and with this rootstock form a scion-rootstock combination
that is susceptible to CTV.
 Most trees are grapefruit trees and this species is itself susceptible to certain CTV strains,
regardless of rootstocks.

Greening

No evidence for citrus greening disease was seen in the Mogadishu region. The psyllid vector of
the disease, Trioza erytreae, has never been reported, no signs of its presence were found and the
climate of the Mogadishu region is considered too hot for T. erytreae.

MAP 15 The Hargeisa region, Somalia

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Citrus canker

No evidence for citrus canker, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri, was
found in the Mogadishu region.

Diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region: A summary

The two major diseases of citrus - which is mostly grapefruit on sour orange rootstock in the
Mogadishu region are fungal diseases: Rio Grande gummosis and phytophthora gummosis or
footrot. Cachexia-xyloporosis, a viroid disease, was seen on most mandarin trees examined.
Exocortis, also a viroid disease, could not be observed, as all grapefruit, sweet orange and
mandarin trees on sour orange rootstock are tolerant to the exocortis agent. It is, however, very
likely that many old-line grapefruit, sweet orange, mandarin and lemon trees carry the exocortis
viroid. Similarly, the grapefruit and sweet orange (but not mandarin) trees on sour orange are
tolerant to the cachexia-xyloporosis viroid. Old-line grapefruit and sweet orange cultivars may
very well carry the cachexia-xyloporosis agent without showing symptoms of the disease.

No evidence for the presence of tristeza, greening or citrus canker was found in the Mogadishu
region. A. gossypii, a vector of tristeza virus, is present in the region. T. erytreae, a psyllid
vector of greening, is not present.

Hargeisa region: General information and climatic data

The information given below has been taken from the main report by SOGREAH on the
Northwest Region Agricultural Development Project.

The northwestern region has a population of 450 000, of whom 300 000 live in the Hargeisa area
(altitude I 300 m). Irrigated land covers 760 ha, of which 490 ha are watered permanently by
pumping water from wells. In addition, a further 3 000 ha are suitable for irrigation.

The major agricultural problems are: inadequacy of supply of agricultural equipment and inputs
(often no fuel is available to operate pumps for irrigation), lack of qualified extension personnel,
poorly organized marketing and insufficient agricultural credit.

With an average rainfall of 400 mm per year, the northwestern region is classified as a semi-arid
zone. Rainfall varies from year to year. The northeast monsoon lasts from October to May, and
the southwest monsoon from June to September. The major humid season (Gu) -with 60 percent
of rainfall - extends from April to June; the second humid season (Der or Karan),  from July to
October. The main dry season is from October-November to February-March.

In the highlands, the absolute maximum temperatures never go above 33°C, but they are above
or close to 30°C from March to October. The absolute minimum temperatures vary between
10°C and 19°C; they are above 15°C from March to September. The mean relative humidity is
between 55 percent and 65 percent.

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Monthly average meteorological data

Cultivated land is composed mainly of recent alluvial soils, and the soil pH varies from 7.7 to
8.7. The pH of water is between 7.4 and 7.9. Water often has a high chloride content (10 to 700
mg/l) and this explains the numerous cases of salt injury encountered in citrus.

MAP 16 Northwest Region Agricultural Development Project, Somalia

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TABLE 47 Agricultural production in the Hargeisa region, Somalia

  1986 1988
  (tonnes)
Fruit 4 300 7 500
Vegetables 540 2 000
Maize 580 2 000
Coffee   100

Production levels for 1986 and 1988 are given in Table 47.

Citrus covers a total of 270 ha of land irrigated by pumped water. Total production reaches 2 700
tonnes, with an average production of 10 tonnes a year per hectare.

Citrus was introduced into Hargeisa in 1930 from Cyprus and Australia. A citrus nursery was
started at Arapsiyo in 1945 with new citrus introductions, but there is no record of their origin.
The Arapsiyo nursery was transferred to Geed Deeble (see Map 16) in 1951, but had to be closed
later because of lack of water. From 1951 to 1962 the two nurseries functioned together. The
Arapsiyo nursery made trees available to all farmers, while the Geed Deeble nursery worked
only for the government. New citrus introductions were made in 1959 from various countries
including Ethiopia, the United States of America, East Africa (Kenya) and Zanzibar (now part of
the United Republic of Tanzania). According to Bové, the trees found to be affected by greening
and tristeza (see below) were very probably imported from Kenya, where the two diseases are
known to be widely distributed; tristeza is present everywhere, in both the highlands and the
coastal lowlands, while greening is present only in the highlands above 700 m. Greening is also
present in Ethiopia.

Greening

Greening in the Hargeisa region

Greening was observed in the Arapsiyo area on 26-year-old navel (Figs 177 and 179) and Jaffa
(Fig. 178) sweet orange trees, probably grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The disease in this
orchard also affected mandarin trees. The trees affected by greening also carry tristeza.

The diagnosis of greening in this orchard is based on field symptoms and detection of the
greening organism by electron microscopy in Bordeaux. Symptoms include yellow, sparse
foliage with zinc-deficiency patterns (Fig. 179); off-season flowering (Fig. 179); fruit of various
sizes with aborted seeds; and leaves with severe leaf mottling and vein corking (Fig. 180).
Electron microscopy revealed the presence of the greening organism in the sieve tubes of the
affected trees (Fig. 19).

Other orchards in the Arapsiyo area also had greening-affected trees. In the Osman Ashour
Hassan orchard, many navel and non-navel sweet orange trees showed typical symptoms of

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greening, with severe leaf mottle and seed abortion. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence
of greening (Fig. 20). One tree in the Aden Mohamad Olod orchard showed greening-like
symptoms, with fruit of various sizes, aborted seeds and off-season flowers. However, the trees
in this orchard also suffered from severe drought. The Ahmed Dahir orchard has many beautiful
sweet orange trees, but one had very typical and severe symptoms of greening except for a single
branch which was still symptomless. It is well known that greening-affected trees often show
signs of the disease only on part of the canopy, especially when infection is still recent (see Fig.
217).

MAP 17 Citrus growing areas of Ethiopia

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In the Awbarkadle area (see Map 16), east of Hargeisa, trees infected with tristeza virus, and
probably also with the greening bacterium, were seen in the orchard of Mohamad Abdullah
Aboussita. A mandarin tree and a sweet orange tree in this orchard were found to be infected by
tristeza as shown by ELISA in Bordeaux. The trees came from Kenya. It is likely that some of
the trees are also affected by greening.

The situation regarding psyllid vectors of greening in the region

Only the African psyllid vector (T. erytreae)  of greening is present on the African continent, and
in particular in Kenya and Ethiopia. T. erytreae was first reported as being present in Ethiopia by
Schmutterer (1971) and, since then, has been reported from all areas where typical greening
symptoms have been observed (see Map 17 - greening was found in all citrus areas except Gode,
Lower Awash and Dilla/Yirga Alem). It has also been found on a rutaceous bush, Clausena
anisata (Willd.) Beneth., known from South Africa to be a host of T. erytreae (Schwarz,
1976). Vepris undulata is  another wild rutaceous host of T. erytreae.

The presence of T. erytreae  in a citrus-growing area is revealed by the highly typical concave
depressions that psyllid nymphs produce on the lower side of citrus leaves (see Figs 189 and
192). Each depression is, so to speak, a nest in which a nymph has developed. The depressions
on the lower side of the leaf correspond to an equal number of "bumps" on the upper side of the
leaf (see Figs 190 and 193).Diaphorina citri, the Asian psyllid vector of greening, does not
produce such depressions and bumps.

No adults or nymphs of T. erytreae  were seen during the survey in the Hargeisa region.
Furthermore, no bumps or depressions could be found either on young leaves or on adult leaves
of any age. This indicates that T. erytreae has probably been absent from the Hargeisa region for
the last three or four years. Whether it is absent, or present only in very low numbers, is difficult
to say on the basis of these observations. Further surveys must be made at various times of the
year and especially when new growth flushes are produced, since the psyllid eggs are deposited
on very young citrus leaves. However, knowing that T. erytreae is present in Ethiopia at Erer
Gota and Urso in the vicinity of Dire Dawa, a town located only 100 km east of Hargeisa at a
similar altitude (1200 m) to that of Hargeisa (I 300 m), it is fairly likely that T. erytreae
is  present, at certain times at least, in the Hargeisa region.

Tristeza in the Hargeisa region

CTV was detected in citrus material from the Hargeisa region both by ELISA on bark samples
from young shoots of trees suspected of being infected with the virus, and by electron
microscopy of ultra-thin sections through leaf midribs of trees suspected of having greening
disease (Figs 32 and 33).

Two navel sweet orange trees (trees 3 and 4), one Jaffa sweet orange tree (tree 5) and one
unidentified sweet orange tree (tree 6) that were all infected with the greening organism, were
also infected with CTV. One mandarin tree (tree 1) and one additional sweet orange tree (tree 2)
were also infected with CTV; they were not tested for greening, but it is likely that they carried
the disease. The case of the Osman Ashour Hasan orchard (trees 6 and 7) is significant. This

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orchard contained many sweet orange trees with greening symptoms, and the greening organism
was detected in one tested tree (tree 6). This tree was also infected with CTV and it is probable
that all the trees infected with greening were also infected with CTV. In the same orchard, a
small-fruited acid lime (C. aurantifolia) (tree 7) had severe greening-like leaf mottle symptoms
and, in addition, mild stem pitting. ELISA showed this tree to be CTV positive. On the basis of
leaf mottle and ELISA, this tree could be infected by both greening and CTV. Many other lime
trees have been observed in various orchards in the Hargeisa region, but no symptoms of tristeza
could be seen on these trees.

Tristeza has been reported in Ethiopia and more particularly in the Dire Dawa region, I 00 km
west of Hargeisa (Schwarz, 1976; Dereje et al., 1977). The most efficient aphid vector of CTV,
T. citricida, isreported as the most common aphid on citrus in Ethiopia (Crowe and Kamal,
1979). If so, the presence of T. citricida in the Hargeisa region is to be expected, even though no
evidence of it was seen during the survey. It should not be confused with Toxoptera aurantii (see
the drawings on p. 36). A. gossypii is another vector of CTV. Its presence in the Mogadishu area
is well established but whether it occurs in the Hargeisa region is not known.

The rootstock used in the Hargeisa region would appear to be rough lemon, even though no
records are kept by the farmers. Sweet orange trees on rough lemon are tolerant of CTV, and
only indexing on acid lime seedlings and ELISA are able to detect the virus in these trees. It is
likely that there are many more such infected, symptomless trees in the Hargeisa region.

Other virus and virus-like diseases

Scaly bark psorosis

Scaly bark psorosis, or psorosis A, is a graft-transmissible, virus-like disease. Symptoms of it

(see Figs 98 to 100) were seen on Jaffa sweet orange trees in the Hadj Ali orchard (Horo-Hadley
area). These trees are grafted on rough lemon rootstock and also show bud-union crease (see
below).

Concave gum

Concave depressions typical of concave gum were seen on the trunks of navel sweet orange trees
and mandarin trees on rough lemon rootstock.

Bud-union crease

Jaffa sweet orange trees grafted on rough lemon often show bud-union crease, a sign of
incompatibility between the rootstock and the scion. In certain cases it has been shown that bud-
union crease is a graft-transmissible disease. Symptoms of it have been seen in many orchards of
the Hargeisa region (Fig. 134). Practically all Jaffa sweet orange trees on rough lemon that were
seen showed bud-union crease.

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Stubborn

Stubborn-like symptoms, including bushy growth, off-season flowering and navel closure, were
seen on navel sweet orange in the Awbarkadle area.

TABLE 48 Diseases observed in Somalia on citrus in October-November 1986

Relative status
Diseases
Mogadishu Hargeisa
Virus and virus-like diseases
Bud-union crease   ++
Cachexia-xyloporosis +++  
Concave gum + +
Cristacortis ± ±
Impietratura ±  
Popcorn +  
Scaly bark psorosis   +
Tristeza   ++++
Diseases due to phloem-restricted prokaryotes
Greening   ++++
Stubborn + +
Fungal diseases
Phytophthora footrot +++ ++++
Rio Grande gummosis +++ +
Nutritional disorders
Salt toxicity   +++

Fungal diseases

Phytophthora footrot

Several cases of footrot due to poor cultural practices were observed on mandarin and sweet
orange trees on rough lemon (Awbarkadle area), on acid lime (Horo-Hadley area) and on Jaffa
sweet orange on rough lemon (Malukta area).

Rio Grande gummosis

Severe Rio Grande gummosis with abundant gum exudations was seen on Jaffa sweet orange

(Malukta and Horo-Hadley areas).

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Salt toxicity

Figure 255 shows typical symptoms of salt toxicity or leaf burn on sweet orange leaves. This is
not surprising as the irrigation water often has a high chloride content, sometimes reaching 700
mg/l.

Salt burn was seen in many orchards in all the areas visited. In the Malukta area, rough lemon
seedlings in the nursery showed severe salt toxicity symptoms.

Insect pests

Severe infestations of scales (Coccus spp.) on navel sweet orange fruit and twigs have been seen
in the Awbarkadle area. This scale problem was even more important in 1983. Coccus
hesperidum  (soft brown scale) and Coccus viridis  (soft green scale) have been reported in
Somalia. Control may be obtained by spraying with oil emulsion or malathion. Note that
parathion not only does not control soft scale but also destroys the parasites that exert some
biological control over it. Chalcid wasps are known to control Coccus spp. in Somalia. Severe
infestations of cottony cushion scales (Icerya aegyptiaca) (Homoptera, Margarodidae) have been
seen in the Dararwegne area.

Fruit damage due to fruit-flies was mentioned in connection with several orchards, where crop
losses as high as 50 percent have been observed. Ceratitis capitata, the Mediterranean fruit-fly,
is believed to be involved.

Conclusions and recommendations

Diseases present in Somalia

Table 48 shows the diseases observed in Somalia on citrus during the survey (October-
November 1986). As may be seen, the major diseases in the Mogadishu region are Rio Grande
gummosis, phytophthora footrot and cachexia-xyloporosis. In the Hargeisa region, greening and
tristeza are of paramount importance, but salt toxicity and phytophthora footrot are important
too.

Need for certified budwood

In spite of several introductions of budwood in 1966, 1969 and 1978, some apparently free of
virus and virus-like diseases, many symptoms of such diseases could still be seen in the Somali
orchards, especially on sweet orange and mandarin.

The Genale nursery has begun to release grapefruit trees propagated from the seven grapefruit
varieties (Marsh seedless, David seedless, Little River, Thompson, Redblush, Ruby, Shambar)
certified free of virus and virus-like diseases, and introduced in 1981-82 from the French Citrus
Experiment Station at San Ginliano, Corsica.

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Cultivars of sweet orange and mandarin, certified free of virus and virus-like diseases, must also
be reintroduced from reliable sources.

Introduction of plant material from countries that cannot guarantee the quality of their material
should be prevented. In particular, no citrus plant material should be introduced from the
countries in Table 49, because of the presence of the diseases and their vectors as indicated.

Recommendations concerning greening and tristeza in the Hargeisa region

Greening and tristeza are the two most important graft-transmissible diseases of citrus found in
Somalia. They occur in the Hargeisa region but not in the Mogadishu region. They are
transmitted by insect vectors, the psyllid T. erytreae for greening, and aphids T. citricida, A.
gossypii, etc. for tristeza.

An extensive survey based on ELISA detection of the virus must be carried out for tristeza in
order to determine the exact extent of the disease. Infected trees must be eradicated if at all
possible. It must be remembered that trees on rough lemon rootstock show no symptoms of
tristeza as they are tolerant of CTV.

TABLE 49 Presence of diseases and vectors by country

Country Diseases Vectors

Greening T. erytreae
Ethiopia
Tristeza T. citricida

Greening D. citri

India Tristeza T. citricida

Citrus canker  

Greening T. erytreae
Kenya
Tristeza T. citricida

Witches' broom
Not identified
disease of lime
Oman
Citrus canker  

Saudi Arabia Greening D. citri

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 Citrus canker  

Witches' broom
Not identified
United Arab disease of lime
Emirates
Citrus canker  

Greening T. erytreae
Yemen
Citrus canker  

A similar survey must be carried out for greening. It seems likely that trees infected with CTV
are also infected with the greening organism. Thus, eradication of tristeza-infected trees would
also remove many greening-affected trees.

Even though no evidence of T. erytreae, the psyllid vector of greening, was found, further
surveys are necessary to evaluate the vector status. Also, the presence of T. citricida, the aphid
vector of CTV, must be confirmed. This aphid should not be confused with T. aurantii (see the
drawings on p. 36).

Finally, no plant material (except fruit) must be moved out of the Hargeisa area. This is to
prevent spread of tristeza and greening to other parts of Somalia.

Bibliography

Chapot, H. 1970. The possibilities of improving and developing fruit crops, with particular
reference to citrus. Addis Ababa, Inst. Agric. Research.

Childs, J.F.L. 1953. An actinomycete associated with gummosis disease of grapefruit

trees. Phytopathol., 43: 101 - 103.

Crowe, T.J. & Kamal, A. 1979. A checklist of aphids recorded from Ethiopia (Homoptera:
Aphididae). Inst. Agric. Res.  [Addis Ababa] Entomol. Bull.,  3.

Dereje, A., Alemu, M., Niemann, E., Lemma, K., Van Bruggen, A.H.C. & Gebre, S.K. 1977.
A report on a preliminary phytopathological survey of citrus and pepper plantations. Addis
Ababa, State Farms Development Authority.

Rossetti, V. & Salibe, A.A. 1965. Incidence of different types of psorosis in citrus varieties in
the State of Sao Paulo. In Proc. 3rd Conf: IOCV, p. 150-153. Gainesville, Univ. Fla. Press.

Schmutterer, H. 1971. Contribution to the knowledge of the crop pest fauna in Ethiopia.
Z. Angew. Entomol., 67: 371 389.

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Schwarz, R.E. 1976. Citrus greening in Ethiopia. Technical Report for UNDP/ FAO Project
ETH/74/002. Addis Ababa, Inst. Agric. Research.

SOGREAH. (n.d.) Report on the North-West Region Agricultural Development Project.

Grenoble, France, SOGREAH, Ing. Conseils.

Van Bruggen, A.H.C. & Almaz Yilma. 1985. Virus and virus-like diseases of citrus in
Ethiopia. FAO Plant Prot. Bull., 33(1): 2-12.

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