FAEN 101: Algebra

Dr. Joseph K. Ansong

FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

2 Dr. Ansong
Contents

6 Trigonometry 1
6.1 Trigonometric Ratios of Acute and Obtuse Angles . . . . . . . 2
6.1.1 Acute Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
6.1.2 Particular Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
6.1.3 Obtuse Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
6.1.4 Trigonometric Ratios of Any Angle . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.1.5 Features of the Trogonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.2 Graphs of Trogonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.2.1 Reciprocal Trigonometric Ratios (Secant, Cosecant and
Cotangent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2.2 Graph of y = k sin x, k > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.3 Graph of y = sin x − π6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


12
6.2.4 Graph of y = sin kx, k > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.3.1 Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . 17
6.4 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.5 The Half-Angle Identities (t-substitution) . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.6 The Expression a cos x ± b sin x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7 The Factor Formulae (The Sum and Product Formulae) . . . . 26

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Chapter 6

Trigonometry

Radian: A radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle

by an arc which is equal in length to the radius of the circle (see Figure 6.1).
It follows from the definition that the number of radians of one complete

Figure 6.1:

revolution is given by the ratio

circumference 2πr
= = 2π radians.
radius r

Therefore: 1 revolution = 360◦ = 2π radians

Notation: θ radians is denoted by θ rad or θc . That is π = 180◦ . Hence

π 180
x◦ = x =⇒ xc = x (6.1)
180 π

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

6.1 Trigonometric Ratios of Acute and Ob-

tuse Angles
6.1.1 Acute Angles
The trig ratios of acute angles are usually defined by using a right-angle
triangle. Consider the right-angle ABC with sides a, b, c as shown in Figure
6.2.

Figure 6.2:
a c a
sin θ = , cos θ = , and tan θ =
b b c
π  a π  c
Also, sin θ = cos − θ = and cos θ = sin −θ = .
2 b 2 b

6.1.2 Particular Angles

Suppose ∆P QR is an equilateral triangle, with sides 2 units and that P M
is the perpendicular bisector of QR, as displayed in Figure 6.3a. From the
diagram, we have
√ √
|QM | = |M R| = 1, |P M | = 22 − 1 = 3
π π
P Q̂M = 60◦ = and QP̂ M = 30◦ =
3 6
Thus, we have
π  √ √
1 π  3 π  1 3
sin 30 = sin = , cos 30 = cos = , tan 30 = tan =√ =
6 2 6 2 6 3 3

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Figure 6.3:

π
Angle as 45◦ or
4
Consider a right-angle triangle which is isosceles and in which the equal sides
are 1 unit
√ in length, as displayed in Figure 6.3b. From the diagram, we have
|BC| = 2. Thus, we obtain
π  √ √
1 2 π  1 2
sin 45 = sin =√ = , cos 45 = cos =√ =
4 2 2 4 2 2
π  1
tan 45 = tan = = 1.
4 1
π 
0◦ and 90◦
2
Consider ∆ABC as shown in Figure 6.4. As θ → 0, |BC| → 0 and |AC| =
|AB|. Therefore
|BC| 0
sin θ = =⇒ sin 0 = =0
|AC| |AC|
|AB| |AC|
cos θ = =⇒ cos 0 = =1
|AC| |AC|
|BC| 0
tan θ = =⇒ tan 0 = =0
|AB| |AB|
π
Similarly, as θ → 0, ∠ACB → , |BC| = 0 and |AB| = |AC|. Therefore
2
 π  |AB| |AB|
sin = = =1
2 |AC| |AB|

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

Figure 6.4:

π  |BC| 0
cos = = =0
2 |AC| |AC|
π  |AB| |AB|
tan = = =∞
2 |BC| 0

Table 6.1: Table of particular angles

Angle sin cos tan
0 0 √1 0
π 1 3 1
√
6 2 2 3
π 1 1
√ √ 1
4 √2 2
π 3 1 √
3
π3 2 2
1 0 ∞
2

6.1.3 Obtuse Angles

An obtuse angle is an angle that is more than 90◦ but less than 180◦ . For
an angle θ lying between 0 and 180◦ , the supplement of θ is the angle
180 − θ. Trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles cannot be defined by means of
a right-angled triangle. The sine, cosine or tangent of an obtuse angle is the
sine, cosine or tangent of the supplement of the angle, with the appropriate
sign. If θ is an obtuse angle then the following relations, illustrated in the

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next section, hold:

sin θ = sin(π − θ), cos θ = − cos(π − θ), tan θ = − tan(π − θ).

6.1.4 Trigonometric Ratios of Any Angle

Consider a line segment OP of unit length which traces out any angle in an
anticlockwise direction from the line Ox. The sine, cosine, and tangents in
the four quadrants are displayed in Figures (6.5)-(6.8).

First Quadrant
y
sin θ1 = >0
r
x
cos θ1 = > 0
r
y
tan θ1 = > 0
x

Figure 6.5:

Second Quadrant
y
sin θ2 = > 0 [= sin(π − θ2 )]
r
−x
cos θ2 = < 0 [= − cos(π − θ2 )]
r
y
tan θ1 = < 0 [= − tan(π − θ2 )]
−x

Figure 6.6:

Angles Greater than 360◦ (2π)

The trigonometric ratio of any angle θ greater than 360◦ (2π) is the same as
the trig ratio of (θ − 2π). We use the fact that all the ratios are positive in

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Third Quadrant
−y
sin θ3 = < 0 [= − sin(θ3 − π)]
r
−x
cos θ3 = < 0 [= − cos(θ3 − π)]
r
−y
tan θ3 = > 0 [= tan(θ3 − π)]
−x

Figure 6.7:

Fourth Quadrant
−y
sin θ4 = < 0 [= − sin(2π − θ4 )]
r
x
cos θ4 = > 0 [= cos(2π − θ4 )]
r
−y
tan θ4 = < 0 [= − tan(2π − θ4 )]
x

Figure 6.8:

the first quadrant, only sine is positive in the second quadrant, only tangent
is positive in the third quadrant, and only cosine is positive in the fourth
quadrant. This is summarized in Figure 6.9. The acronym “All Students
Take Calculus” is often used to remember the sign of the trig ratio in each
quadrant.

Negative Angles
If OP rotates clockwise so that P moves through the quadrants in reverse
ordering 4th , 3rd , 2nd , 1st , and θ is taken to be negative.
Example 1. For θ = −240◦ . The angle is represented either as θ =
2π 4π
120 or , and may also be represented as θ = −240 or − , as shown
3 3
in Figure 6.10.

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Figure 6.9:

Figure 6.10:

6.1.5 Features of the Trogonometric Ratios

The Sine Function
(a) The maximum value of sin θ is +1 when θ = · · · , −3π/2, π/2, 5π/2, · · · .
That is
π
sin θ = +1 when θ = (4n + 1) for n ∈ Z
2
and the minimum value is −1 when θ = · · · , −π/2, 3π/2, 7π/2, · · · .
That is
π
sin θ = −1 when θ = (4n − 1) for n ∈ Z
2
Thus

| sin θ| ≤ 1 =⇒ −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 for all real values of θ.

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

(b) sin θ = 0, when θ = nπ for n ∈ Z

(c) sin(−θ) = − sin(θ). That is, sine is an odd function. Thus, the graph
of y = sin θ is symmetric about the origin (see Figure 6.11a).
(d) sin(2π + θ) = sin θ. That is, the sine function is periodic with period
2π.

The Cosine Function

(a) The maximum value of cos θ is +1 when θ = · · · , −2π, 0, 2π, · · · . That
is
cos θ = 1 when θ = 2nπ for n ∈ Z
and the minimum value is −1 when θ = · · · , −π, π, 3π, · · · . That is
cos θ = −1 when θ = (2n + 1)π for n ∈ Z
Thus
| cos θ| ≤ 1 =⇒ −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 ∀ θ ∈ R.
π
(b) cos θ = 0, when θ = (2n + 1) for n ∈ Z
2
(c) cos(−θ) = cos(θ). That is, the cosine is function is an even function.
The graph of y = cos θ is symmetric about the y−axis (see Figure
6.11b).
(d) cos(2π + θ) = cos θ. That is, the cosine function is periodic with period
2π.

The Tangent Function

π
(a) tan θ is undefined when θ = (2n + 1) for n ∈ Z.
2
(b) tan θ = 0 when θ = nπ for n ∈ Z.
(c) tan has neither a maximum nor a minimum value. That is
π
−∞ < tan θ < ∞ ∀ θ ∈ R; θ 6= (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z.
2
(d) tan(−θ) = − tan θ. That is, the tangent function is an odd function.
The graph of t = tan θ is symmetric about the origin (see Figure 6.11c).
(e) tan(π+θ) = tan θ. That is, the tangent function is periodic with period
π.

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

6.2 Graphs of Trogonometric Functions

The graphs of the sine, the cosine and the tangent functions are displayed in
Figure 6.11. Note that the graph of y = cos x differs from that of y = sin x
only in its position along the x−axis. Since sin(x + π/2) = cos x, the graph
of y = cos x can be obtained by a translation of the sine curve through a
distance of π/2 units to the left along the x−axis.

Figure 6.11: The graph of (a) y = sin θ (b) y = cos θ (c) y = tan θ

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

6.2.1 Reciprocal Trigonometric Ratios (Secant, Cose-

cant and Cotangent)
The three trig ratios, secant, cosecant, and cotangent can be defined in terms
of the sides of a right-angled triangle ABC as shown in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12:

1 b 1 b
secant θ (sec θ) = = , cosecant θ (cosec θ) = =
cos θ c sin θ a
1 c
cotangent θ (cot θ) = =
tan θ a

The Graph of y = cosec x = 1/ sin x

Figure 6.13 displays the graph of y = cosec x. The characteristics of y =
cosec x are outlined below:
(a) | cosec x| ≥ 1. That is cosec x ≥ 1 or cosec x ≤ −1 for all real values of
x. The line x = nπ (n ∈ Z) are vertical asymptotes.

(b) cosec x is periodic with period 2π. That is cosec(x + 2π) = cosec x.

(c) cosec(−x) = − cosec x, that is, cosec x is an odd function. The graph
of cosec x is symmetrical about the origin.

The Graph of y = sec x = 1/ cos x

Figure 6.14 displays the graph of y = sec x. The characteristics of y = sec x
are outlined below:

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

1
Figure 6.13: The graph of y = cosec x = . The dotted curve shows
sin x
the graph of y = sin x. The dashed vertical lines denote locations where
sin x = 0, i.e. x = nπ, and shows where y = cosec x is undefined.

(a) | sec x| ≥ 1. That is sec x ≥ 1 or sec x ≤ −1 for all real values of x.

π
(b) When x = (2n + 1), (n ∈ Z) sec x is undefined. Therefore x =
2
π
(2n + 1) are vertical asymptotes.
2

(c) sec x is periodic with period 2π. That is sec(2π + x) = sec x.

(d) sec(−x) = sec x, that is, sec x is an even function. The graph of sec x
is symmetrical about the y−axis.

The Graph of y = cot x = 1/ tan x

Figure 6.15 displays the graph of y = cot x. The characteristics of y = cot x

are outlined below:

(a) −∞ < cot x < ∞ ∀x ∈ R, such that x 6= nπ. That is, the lines
x = nπ are vertical asymptotes.

(b) cot x is periodic with period π. That is cot(x + π) = cot x.

(c) cot(−x) = − cot x. That is cot x is an odd function, and so it is sym-

metric about the origin.

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

1
Figure 6.14: The graph of y = sec x = . The dotted curve shows the
cos x
graph of y = cos x. The dashed lines denote locations where cos x = 0, i.e.
x = (4n ± 1)π/2, and shows where y = cosec x is undefined.

6.2.2 Graph of y = k sin x, k>0

The maximum value of y = k sin x is k and the minimum value is −k, since
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 =⇒ −k ≤ sin x ≤ k ∀x ∈ R. It follow that y = k sin x and
sin x have the same period 2π. Note that the graph of y = k cos x is derived
in a similar manner.

π


6.2.3 Graph of y = sin x − 6

We can obtain the graph of y = sin(x − π/6) from the graph of y = sin x by
a simple transformation.
Let (x0 , y 0 ) be a point on y = sin(x − π/6). That is
 π
y 0 = sin x0 − (6.2)
6
Comparing y 0 = sin(x0 − π/6) with y = sin x, we have
π π
x0 − = x and y 0 = y, x0 = x +
6 6
Therefore the mapping of the transformation is
   0   
x x x + π/6
→ = . That is
y y0 y
     
x x π/6
→ +
y y 0

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

1
Figure 6.15: The graph of y = cot x = . The dashed lines denote
tan x
locations where cot x = 0, i.e. x = nπ, and shows where y = cot x is
undefined.

Thus, to obtain the graph of y = sin(x − π/6), we shift the graph of y = sin x
horizontally by π/6 to the right (see Figure 6.16). Also − ≤ sin(x−π/6) ≤ 1.

Figure 6.16: The graph of y = sin(x − π/6).

Remark. (1) The graph of y = sin(x + π/6) is a shift of the graph of

y = sin x by π/6 to the left.

(2) The periods of sin(x ± π/6) and sin x are the same, 2π.

(3) The graph of y = cos(x ± θ) and y = tan(x ± θ) can be sketched in the

same manner.

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

6.2.4 Graph of y = sin kx, k>0

Consider the graph of y = sin 2x (i.e. k = 2). The graph of y = sin 2x can
be obtained from the graph of y = sin x by a simple transformation. Let
(x0 , y 0 ) be a point on y = sin 2x, that is, y 0 = sin 2x0 . Comparing y 0 = sin 2x0
1
and y = sin x, we have y 0 = y and 2x0 = x, x0 = x. So the mapping of the
2
transformation is    0   
x x x/2
→ =
y y0 y
   
x x/2
∴ →
y y

Figure 6.17: The graph of y = sin(2x).

period of sin x
Remark. The period of sin 2x is x = 2π/2 = 2
. Therefore the
period of sin kx or
Period of sin x 2π
sin(kx ± α) = = , where α ∈ R
k k
2π
It follows that the period of R cos(kx+α) = and the period of R tan(kx+
k
π
α) = , where α, R, k ∈ R.
k
The graphs of y = cos kx and y = tan kx are derived in the same manner.

Exercise. Sketch the graphs of the functions using simple transformations:

 π
(a) y = 3 cos 3x (d) y = 2 sin x −
2
(b) y = 3 tan 2x  π
x (e) y = 4 sin 2x −
(c) y = 2 sin 4
2
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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

6.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In the domain x ∈ R, the functions f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x and h(x) =
tan x are many-to-one functions and therefore have no inverse functions.
However, if we restrict the sine function to the domain π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2,
the cosine function to the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ π and the tangent function to
the domain −π/2 < x < π/2, then the functions become one-to-one and
hence have inverse functions. The trig functions with restricted domains
displayed in Figure 6.18 are one-to-one. Also, since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for

Figure 6.18: Restricted trigonometric functions for (a) y = sin x (b) y = cos x
(c) y = tan x

−π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2, −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ π, and −∞ ≤ tan x ≤ ∞ for

−π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2, the functions defined by
h π πi  h π πi 
f: − , → [−1, 1] i.e. sin : − , → [−1, 1] ,
2 2 2 2

g : [0, π] → [−1, 1] (i.e. cos : [0, π] → [−1, 1]) ,

h π πi  h π πi 
h: − , → [−∞, ∞] i.e. tan : − , → [−∞, ∞] ,
2 2 2 2
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are one-to-one and onto, that is, they are bijective, and so have inverse
functions. The inverse functions are defined by
h π πi
f −1 : [−1, 1] → − , , g −1 : [−1, 1] → [0, π]
2 2
h π πi
−1
h : (−∞, ∞) → − ,
2 2
and written as sin−1 x or arcsin x, cos−1 x or arccos x, and tan−1 x or arctan x.
It follows that
π π
(i) y = sin−1 x =⇒ sin y = x provided − ≤ y ≤ and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
2 2
(ii) y = cos−1 x =⇒ cos y = x provided 0 ≤ y ≤ π and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
π π
(iii) y = tan−1 x =⇒ tan y = x provided − ≤ y ≤ and ∀x ∈ R
2 2
π π
(iv) Within the range − ≤ x ≤ , every possible value of sin x occurs
2 2
once and only once. Therefore

y = sin x, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
π π
has exactly one solution in the range − ≤ x ≤ . This is the principal
2 2
value of x. The principal solution is either in the first or the fourth
quadrant. For example, if sin x = 1/2, then the principal solution is
x = π/6 and if sin x = −1/2 then the principal solution is x = −π/6.

(v) Within the range 0 ≤ x ≤ π every possible value of cos x occurs once
and only once. Therefore any equation y = cos x, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 has
exactly one solution in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ π. This is the principal value
of x. The principal solution is therefore in either the first or second
quadrant. For example, if cos x = 1/2, then the principal solution is
x = π/3 and if cos x = −1/2 then the principal solution is x = 2π/3.
π π
(vi) Within the range − < x < , every possible value of tan x occurs
2 2
once and only once. The equation y = tan x, −∞ < y < ∞ has exactly
one solution in this range and this is the principal value of x. The
principal value is therefore in either the first or the fourth quadrant.
For example, if tan x = 1, then the principal solution is x = π/4 and if
tan x = −1 the principal solution is x = −π/4.

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Remark. When solving the equation sin θ = α for −1 ≤ α ≤ 1, we h obtain

π πi
an infinite number of solutions. The solution that lies in the range − ,
2 2
is referred to as the principal value of θ.
For cos β = α for −1 ≤ α ≤ 1, the principal value of β lies in the rane [0, π]
and
 πforπ tan φ = α, −∞ < α < ∞, the principal value of φ lies in the range
− , .
2 2

6.3.1 Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The graphs of the inverse trig functions are obtained by reflecting the re-
stricted portions of the respective graphs of the trigonometric functions about
the line y = x.

Figure 6.19: Inverse trigonometric functions (a) y = sin−1 x (b) y = cos−1 x

(c) y = tan−1 x

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5
Example 2. Without using tables or a calculator, find tan θ if θ = tan−1 +
12
−1 7
tan .
24
   
−1 5 −1 7
Solution. Let α = tan and β = tan
12 24
tan α = 5/12, tan β = 7/24, for 0 < α, β < π/4, since 5/12 < 1 and
7/24 < 1 and 5/12 > 0, 7/24 > 0. Therefore θ = α + β for 0 < α + β < π/2.
Hence
tan α + tan β
tan θ = tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
5/12 + 7/24 204
tan θ = =
1 − (5/12)(7/24) 253

6.4 Trigonometric Identities

Pythagorean Identities

Figure 6.20:

From Figure 6.20, we have

c 2 = a2 + b 2
a b a
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
c c b
 a 2  b 2 a2 + b2
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = + = =1
c c c2
That is
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 , for any angle θ. (6.3)

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Dividing (6.3) by cos2 θ, we get

sin2 θ 1
2
+1=
cos θ cos2 θ

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ , or sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1 (6.4)

Dividing (6.3) by sin2 θ we get
cos2 θ 1
1+ 2 =
sin θ sin2 θ

1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ , or cosec2 θ − cot2 θ = 1 (6.5)

Compound Angle Identities

For any angles A and B, we have
(a) sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
(b) cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B and
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
(c) tan(A + B) = and
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
Proof.
sin(A + B) sin A cos B + sin B cos A
tan(A + B) = =
cos(A + B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A cos B sin B cos A
cos A cos B
+ cos A cos B tan A + tan B
= cos A cos B sin A sin B
=
cos A cos B
− cos A cos B
1 − tan A tan B

Proof.
tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
Replace B in tan(A + B) with −B to get
tan A + tan(−B) tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) = =
1 − tan A tan(−B) 1 + tan A tan B
since tan(−B) = − tan B.

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The Double Angle Identities

The compound angle formulae deal with any two angles A and B and can
therefore be used for two equal angles A = B. Replacing B with A in the
compound angle formulae gives

(a) sin(2A) = 2 sin A cos A

(b) cos(2A) = cos2 A − sin2 A

=⇒ cos(2A) = 1 − 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1,
using the fact that cos2 A + sin2 A = 1.
2 tan A
(c) tan(2A) = 1−tan2 A

The Triple Angle Identities

(a) sin(3A) = sin(2A + A) = sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A

= 2 sin A cos2 A + (1 − 2 sin2 A) sin A

= 2 sin A(1 − sin2 A) + sin A − 2 sin3 A

= 2 sin A − 2 sin3 A + sin A − 2 sin3 A
∴ sin(3A) = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A

(b) cos(3A) = cos(2A + A) = cos 2A cos A − sin 2A sin A

= (2 cos2 A − 1) cos A − 2 sin2 A cos A

= 2 cos3 A − cos A − 2(1 − cos2 A) cos A

= 2 cos3 A − cos A − 2 cos A + 2 cos3 A
∴ cos(3A) = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A

(c)
2 tan A
tan 2A + tan A 1−tan2 A
+ tan A
tan(3A) = = 2 tan A


1 − tan 2A tan A 1 − 1−tan2 A tan A
2 tan A + tan A − tan3 A
=
1 − tan2 A − 2 tan2 A
3 tan A − tan3 A
∴ tan(3A) =
1 − 3 tan2 A

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Alternatively,

sin 3A 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A

tan(3A) = =
cos 3A 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
3
4
tan A sec2 A − tan3 A
=
1 − 43 sec2 A
3 tan A sec2 A − 4 tan3 A
=
4 − 3 sec2 A
3 tan A(1 + tan2 A) − 4 tan3 A
=
4 − 3(1 + tan2 A)
3 tan A − tan3 A
∴ tan(3A) =
1 − 3 tan2 A
√
π 2 √
Exercise. 1) Show that sin = ( 3 − 1), without using tables.
12 4
2) If A, B and C are angles of a triangle, show that

tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C

3) Show that
cot θ + tan θ = sec θ cosec θ

4) Show that
sin A 1 − cos A
=
1 + cos A sin A
5) Show that
2 sin θ + sin 2θ sin θ
=
1 − cos 2θ 1 − cos θ
6) Prove that    
−1 1 −1 1 π
tan + sin √ =
3 5 4
where principal values are implied for all angles.

7) Find the values of x such that

     
−1 x −1 1 −1 1+x
sin √ − sin √ = sin , x > 0.
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

6.5 The Half-Angle Identities (t-substitution)

Note that
sin A = sin(A/2 + A/2) = 2 sin(A/2) cos(A/2)
cos A = cos(A/2 + A/2) = cos2 (A/2) − sin2 (A/2)
2 tan(A/2)
tan A =
1 − tan2 (A/2)
 
A
Theorem 1. If t = tan , then
2
2t 1 − t2 2t
(a) sin A = (b) cos A = (c) tan A =
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 − t2

Proof. Consider Figure 6.21, then we have

   
A t A 1
sin =√ , cos =√
2 1 + t2 2 1 + t2

Now,
  
t 1 2t
sin A = 2 sin(A/2) cos(A/2) = 2 √ √ =
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 + t2

Also, we have

1 t2 1 − t2
cos A = cos2 (A/2) − sin2 (A/2) = − = .
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 + t2

sin A 2t 1 + t2 2t
tan A = = 2
· 2
=
cos A 1+t 1−t 1 − t2

π
Example 3. Given that 2θ + α = , show that
4
1 − 2t − t2
tan α = , where t = tan θ.
1 + 2t − t2
π
Deduce that tan is a root of the equation t2 + 2t − 1 = 0 and that its value
√ 8
is 2 − 1.

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

Figure 6.21:

π
Solution. Let α = − 2θ. Then
4
π  tan(π/4) − tan 2θ
tan α = tan − 2θ =
4 1 + tan(π/4) tan 2θ
[tan θ+tan θ]
1− 1−tan2 θ 1 − tan2 θ − 2 tan θ 1 − t2 − 2t
= = =
1 tan θ+tan θ
+ 1−tan2 θ 1 − tan2 θ + 2 tan θ 1 − t2 + 2t
1 − 2t − t2
∴ tan α =
1 + 2t − t2
Now, let
π π
θ= =⇒ α = − 2(π/8) = 0
8 4
1 − 2t − t2
tan 0 = =⇒ 1 − 2t − t2 = 0 =⇒ t2 + 2t − 1 = 0.
1 + 2t − t2
Solving the quadratic equation, we have
√ √
−2 ± 4 + 4 −2 ± 2 2 √
t= = = −1 ± 2
2 2
√
Since t > 0, we get t = 2 − 1.

Exercise. By using the formulae expressing sin θ and cos θ in terms of t =

tan(θ/2), show that
1 + sin θ (1 + t)2
= .
5 + 4 cos θ 9 + t2
Deduce that
1 + sin θ 10
0≤ ≤
5 + 4 cos θ 9

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

(1 + t)2
[Hint: For the latter part of the question, let y = and try to find the
9 + t2
range of y.]

6.6 The Expression a cos x ± b sin x

The expression a cos x ± b sin x can be expressed in the form R cos(x ± α) or
R sin(x ± α); where α is an acute angle and R > 0.
Proof. We can write:
√
 
a b
a cos x + b sin x = a + b √
2 2 cos x + √ sin x
a2 + b 2 a2 + b2
Now, if
a b b
cos α = √ then sin α = √ and tan α =
a2 + b2 a2+ b2 a
√
=⇒ a cos x + b sin x = ( a2 + b2 ) [cos α cos x + sin α sin x]
√
∴ a cos x + b sin x = ( a2 + b2 ) [cos(x − α)]
√
Let R = a2 + b2 , then

√
 
b
a cos x + b sin x = R cos(x − α), where R = a2 + b2 , α = tan−1
a

Alternatively, we can prove the expression by assuming

a cos x + b sin x = R cos(x − α)

=⇒ a cos x + b sin x = R cos x cos α + R sin x sin α

Comparing coefficients, we have

a = R cos α and b = R sin α

=⇒ a2 + b2 = R2
√ b
∴ R = a2 + b2 , tan α =
a
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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

√
 
−1 b
∴ a cos x + b sin x = R cos(x − α), where R = a2 + b2 , a = tan
a
Similarly, we can show that

√
 
−1 b
a cos x − b sin x = R cos(x + α), where R = a2 + b2 , α = tan
a

Example 4. (a) Express 4 cos x − 5 sin x in the form R cos(x + α)

(b) Express 2 sin x + 5 cos x in the form R sin(x + α)
(c) Find the maximum and minimum values of the expressions in (a) and
(b).
Solution. (a) Let
4 cos x − 5 sin x = R cos(x + α)
4 cos x − 5 sin x = R cos x cos α − R sin x sin α
Comparing coefficients, we have
4 = R cos α and 5 = R sin α
√
=⇒ 42 + 52 = R2 =⇒ R = 41
 
5 −1 5
tan α = =⇒ α = tan = 51.34◦
4 4
Hence, √
4 cos x − 5 sin x = 41 cos(x + 51.34◦ )

(b) Let
2 sin x + 5 cos x = R sin(x + α)
2 sin x + 5 cos x = R sin x cos α + R cos x sin α
Comparing coefficients, we get
2 = R cos α and 5 = R sin α
√
=⇒ 22 + 52 = R2 =⇒ R = 29
 
5 −1 5
tan α = =⇒ α = tan = 68.20◦
2 2
Hence, √
2 sin x + 5 cos x = 29 sin(x + 68.20◦ )

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

(c) We can determine the maximum and minimum values from the follow-
ing inequalities

−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 and − 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1

=⇒ −1 ≤ cos(x + 51.34) ≤ 1
√ √ √
=⇒ − 41 ≤ 41 cos x ≤ 41
√
Thus, for the expression 4 cos
√ x − 5 sin x, the minimum value is − 41
and the maximum value is 41. Similarly, we can show that
√ √ √
− 29 ≤ 29 sin(x + 68.20◦ ) ≤ 29,

and
√ therefore the expression 2√
sin x + 5 cos x has a minimum value of
− 29 and maximum value of 29.

6.7 The Factor Formulae (The Sum and Prod-

uct Formulae)
Consider the compound angle formulae:

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (6.6)

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B (6.7)
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B (6.8)
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (6.9)

Adding equation (6.6) and (6.7) we get

sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2 sin A cos B (6.10)

Subtracting (6.7) from (6.6) we get

sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) = 2 cos A sin B (6.11)

Adding (6.8) from (6.9) we get

cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) = 2 cos A cos B (6.12)

Subtracting (6.9) from (6.8) we get

cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) = −2 sin A sin B (6.13)

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

If we let C = A + B and D = A − B, then we have

C +D C −D
A= , B=
2 2
Therefore equations (6.10)-(6.13) become
   
C +D C −D
sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos (6.14)
2 2
   
C +D C −D
sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin (6.15)
2 2
   
C +D C −D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos (6.16)
2 2
   
C +D C −D
cos C − cos D = −2 sin sin (6.17)
2 2
(6.18)

Example 5. Write the following expressions as products

 π  π
(a) sin 3x + sin x (c) cos 2x + + cos 4x +
3 6
(b) cos 5x + cos 3x (d) sin 3x − sin 5x
   
3x + x 3x − x
Solution. (a) sin 3x + sin x = 2 sin cos
2 2
= 2 sin 2x cos x
   
5x + 3x 5x − 3x
(b) cos 5x + cos 3x = 2 cos cos
2 2
= 2 cos 4x cos x
 π  π  π  π
(c) cos 2x + + cos 4x + = cos 3x + cos x −
3 6 4 12
(d) sin 3x − sin 5x = 2 cos(4x) sin(−x)

= −2 cos 4x sin x

Example 6. Express sin 2x cos x as a sum.

Solution.
1 1 1
sin 2x cos x = [sin(3x) + sin(x)] = sin 3x + sin x
2 2 2

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FAEN 101 : Algebra J.K.A

Example 7. Prove that

sin 5A − sin 3A
= tan A.
cos 3A + cos 5A
Solution.
sin 5A − sin 3A 2 cos(4A) sin(A) sin A
= = = tan A.
cos 3A + cos 5A 2 cos(4A) cos(A) cos A
Example 8. Solve the equation sin2 x + sin x cos x = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 360◦ .
Solution.
sin2 x + sin x cos x = 0
=⇒ sin x(sin x + cos x) = 0
=⇒ sin x = 0 or sin x = − cos x or tan x = −1 < 0
So the admissible solutions are x = tan−1 (−1) and
sin x = 0 =⇒ x = sin−1 (0) = nπ
∴ x = 0◦ , 135◦ , 180◦ , 315◦ , 360◦
Example 9. Solve 6 cos2 x − cos x − 1 = 0 for −360 ≤ x ≤ 0
Solution.
6 cos2 x − cos x − 1 = 0
If we let t = cos x, we get the quadratic equation 6t2 − t − 1 = 0 =⇒
(3t + 1)(2t − 1) = 0. Thus
(3 cos x + 1)(2 cos x − 1) = 0
1
=⇒ 3 cos x + 1 = 0 =⇒ cos x = − , or
3
1
2 cos x − 1 = 0 =⇒ cos x =
2
For the case cos x = −1/3, the acute angle is x = cos−1 (1/3) = 70.53◦ . Since
cos x is negative, solutions are in the second and third quadrants. However,
since 0 ≤ cos−1 (x) ≤ π, we get the solution
x = 180 − 70.53 = 109.47◦
For the case cos x = 1/2 =⇒ x = cos−1 (1/2). Therefore, we get x = 60◦ .
Exercise. (1) By eliminating θ from the pair of parametric equations, find
the corresponding cartesian equation
(a) x = 1 − sin θ, y = 1 + cos θ
(b) x = tan 2θ, y = tan θ
(c) x = a sec θ, y = b sin θ

28 Dr. Ansong