LEARNING MODULE 3

FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND OUR MORAL

DISPOSITION
 Unit Topics for Module 3
Unit 1: The Ethical Theories/Frameworks
A. Utilitarianism
B. Kant and Rights Theory
C. Natural Law
D. Virtue Ethics
Unit 2: The Challenges of Pluralism and Globalization
A. Pluralism and globalization: the search for universal values
B. Challenges of Fillinnials
C. The Religious Response
D. Synthesis: Making informed decisions

 Module 3 Learning Objectives:

At the end of this learning unit, the students are expected to:
1. Describe the characteristics and principles of utilitarianism
2. Apply the principles of utilitarianism in making sound ethical decisions;
3. Describe the characteristics and principles of Immanuel Kant and his Right
Theory;
4. Apply the Kantian principles in making moral decisions;
5. Describe the characteristics and principles of Natural Law;
6. Apply Natural Law theory in making sound ethical moral decisions;
7. Describe the characteristics and principles of Virtue Ethics by Aristotle;
8. Apply the principles of Virtue Ethics in making sound ethical decisions;
9. Describe pluralism and globalization;
10. Describe the role of religion and its response to the search for universal values
11. Enumerate the 7-step moral reasoning
12. Cite examples demonstrating how to make informed moral decisions.

Unit 1: The Frameworks of Moral Disposition

A. Utilitarianism
(Number of learning hours: 3)
Learning Outcomes:
After studying this unit, you should be able to
1. Articulate the ethical theory - utilitarianism
2. Identify the proponents or founders of utilitarianism
3. Make sound ethical judgments on scenarios or situations based on principle
of utilitarianism

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 Watch a video that explains the principle of utility and the difference between act and
rule utilitarianism. After the video presentation: analyze this scenario: You bought a
mobile phone that is worth 50 thousand pesos. Does it also get the benefit exactly that is
of equal worth? If yes, why? If no, why? (Source: Gallenero, Winston B. et al. 2018. Ethics.
Compilation of the teaching of the New General Education Core Course in Ethics
sponsored by CHED.)

What is Utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism is a theory of morality, which advocates actions that foster

happiness or pleasure and opposes actions that cause unhappiness or harm. When
directed toward making social, economic, or political decisions, a utilitarian philosophy
would aim for the betterment of society as a whole. Utilitarianism would say that an
action is right if it results in the happiness of the greatest number of people in a society
or a group.
"The greatest good for the greatest number" is a maxim of utilitarianism.

Understanding Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a tradition of ethical philosophy that is associated with Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill, two late 18th- and 19th-century British philosophers,
economists, and political thinkers. Utilitarianism holds that an action is right if it tends
to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce sadness, or the reverse of
happiness—not just the happiness of the actor but that of everyone affected by it. At
work, you display utilitarianism when you take actions to ensure that the office is a
positive environment for your co-workers to be in, and then make it so for yourself.

The Three Generally Accepted Axioms of Utilitarianism State That

• Pleasure, or happiness, is the only thing that has intrinsic value.
• Actions are right if they promote happiness, and wrong if they promote
unhappiness.
• Everyone's happiness counts equally.

Source: Tardi, Carla, 2020. Retrieved from

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/u/utilitarianism.asp, June 30, 2020.

Activity
Does it make sense to say that we ought to provide the most happiness to for the most
people? Why?
Does it make sense to say that we ought to provide the most happiness to for the most
people? Why?

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 From the Founders of Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham describes his "greatest happiness principle" in Introduction to

the Principles of Morals and Legislation, a 1789 publication in which he writes: "Nature
has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.
It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we
shall do."
John Stuart Mill had many years to absorb and reflect on Jeremy Bentham's
thoughts on utilitarianism by the time he published his own work, Utilitarianism, in 1863.
The key passage from this book: "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals
utility, or the greatest happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as
they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.
By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and
the privation of pleasure."

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Utilitarianism is a theory of morality, which advocates actions that foster happiness
and opposes actions that cause unhappiness.
• Utilitarianism promotes "the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of
people."
• When used in a sociopolitical construct, utilitarian ethics aims for the betterment of
society as a whole.
• Utilitarianism is a reason-based approach to determining right and wrong, but it has
limitations.

Utilitarianism's Relevance in a Political Economy

In liberal democracies throughout the centuries, the progenitors of utilitarianism
spawned variants and extensions of its core principles. Some of the questions they
wrestled with include: What constitutes "the greatest amount of good"? How is happiness
defined? How is justice accommodated?
In today's Western democracies, policymakers are generally proponents of free
markets and some base level of government interference in the private lives of citizens
so as to assure safety and security. Although the appropriate amount of regulation and
laws will always be a subject of debate, political and economic policies are geared
primarily toward fostering as much well-being for as many people as possible, or at least
they should be. Where there are disadvantaged groups who suffer income inequality or
other negative consequences because of a utilitarian-based policy or action, most
politicians would try to find a remedy.

In Business and Commerce

Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the
greatest good for the greatest number. As such, it is the only moral framework that can
justify military force or war. Moreover, utilitarianism is the most common approach to
business ethics because of the way that it accounts for costs and benefits.
The theory asserts that there are two types of utilitarian ethics practiced in the
business world, "rule" utilitarianism and "act" utilitarianism.
• Rule utilitarianism helps the largest number of people using the fairest methods
possible.

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 • Act utilitarianism makes the most ethical actions possible for the benefit of the
people.

"Rule" Utilitarian Ethics

An example of rule utilitarianism in business is tiered pricing for a product or
service for different types of customers. In the airline industry, for example, many
planes offer first-, business-, and economy-class seats. Customers who fly in first or
business class pay a much higher rate than those in economy seats, but they also get
more amenities—simultaneously, people who cannot afford upper-class seats benefit
from the economy rates. This practice produces the highest good for the greatest
number of people.
And the airline benefits, too. The more expensive upper-class seats help to ease
the financial burden that the airline created by making room for economy-class seats.
"Act" Utilitarian Ethics
An example of act utilitarianism could be when pharmaceutical companies release
drugs that have been governmentally approved, but with known minor side effects
because the drug is able to help more people than are bothered by the side effects.
Act utilitarianism often demonstrates the concept that “the end justifies the
means”—or it's worth it.

In the Corporate Workplace

Most companies have a formal or informal code of ethics, which is shaped by their
corporate culture, values, and regional laws. Today, having a formalized code of business
ethics is more important than ever. For a business to grow, it not only needs to increase
its bottom line, but it also must create a reputation for being socially responsible.
Companies also must endeavor to keep their promises and put ethics at least on par with
profits. Consumers are looking for companies that they can trust, and employees work
better when there is a solid model of ethics in place.
On an individual level, if you make morally correct decisions at work, then
everyone's happiness will increase. However, if you choose to do something morally
wrong—even if legal—then your happiness and that of your colleagues, will decrease.

The Limitations of Utilitarianism

In the workplace, though, utilitarian ethics are difficult to achieve. These ethics
also can be challenging to maintain in our business culture, where a capitalistic economy
often teaches people to focus on themselves at the expense of others. Similarly,
monopolistic competition teaches one business to flourish at the expense of others.
• A limitation of utilitarianism is that it tends to create a black-and-white construct of
morality. In utilitarian ethics, there are no shades of gray—either something is wrong
or it is right.
• Utilitarianism also cannot predict with certainty whether the consequences of our
actions will be good or bad—the results of our actions happen in the future.
• Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for values like justice and individual rights.
For example, say a hospital has four people whose lives depend upon receiving organ
transplants: a heart, lungs, a kidney, and a liver. If a healthy person wanders into the
hospital, his organs could be harvested to save four lives at the expense of his one life.
This would arguably produce the greatest good for the greatest number. But few
would consider it an acceptable course of action, let alone an ethical one.

So, although utilitarianism is surely a reason-based approach to determining right and

wrong, it has obvious limitations.

Source: Tardi, Carla, 2020. Retrieved from

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/u/utilitarianism.asp, June 30, 2020.

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 Activity
Read the case below and make an analysis that aligns to Utilitarianism ethical theory.
Does it make sense to say that we ought to provide the most happiness to for the most
people? Why?

1. Imagine that you are involved in a shipwreck situation – a ship has started to sink in
the middle of the ocean. Eleven people have jumped into a life-boat that has been
designed for a maximum of ten people only, and the life-boat is also starting to sink.
What should the passengers do? Throw one person overboard and save ten lives?
Or stick to the principle of “do not kill”, which means that everybody will drown?
(https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/integrity-ethics/module-1/exercises.html.
Retrieved July 15, 2020)

2. Read the situation below and select which option (i, ii) will you choose. Please
explain your reasoning.

Source:
https://www.stem.org.uk/system/files/community-resources/2017/02/Ethics%20Activity%20Pack.pdf.
Retrieved July 17, 2020).

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 Read the case below and answer the questions that follow. Think of an answer that aligns
in the utilitarian ethical theory.

Case study (Baby Theresa)

This full case is included in The Elements of Moral Philosophy (Rachels and
Rachels, 2012). The following is a summary of the case:

Summary:
Baby Theresa was born in Florida (United States of America) in 1992 with anencephaly,
one of the worst genetic disorders. Sometimes referred to as "babies without brains",
infants with this disease are born without important parts of the brain and the top of the
skull is also missing. Most cases are detected during pregnancy and usually aborted. About
half of those not aborted are stillborn. In the United States, about 350 babies are born
alive each year and usually die within days. Baby Theresa was born alive. Her parents
decided to donate her organs for transplant. Her parents and her physicians agreed that
the organs should be removed while she was alive (thus causing her inevitable death to
take place sooner), but this was not allowed by Florida law. When she died after nine days
the organs had deteriorated too much and could not be used.
(https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/integrity-ethics/module-1/exercises.html.
Retrieved July 15, 2020).

Activity
If you were in a position to make the final decision in this case, what would it be and
why?

Activity
Do you agree that greatest happiness produced become the basis in determining
whether a certain act is moral? If yes, why? If no, why?

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 B. Deontology by Immanuel Kant
(Number of learning hours: 1.5)

Learning Outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to
1. Explain the ethical theory of deontology
2. Differentiate a legal from moral rights
3. Make sound ethical judgments based on principles of deontology

Share an experience or a situation wherein you do an act or make decision that shows
call of duty.

What is Deontology?

Deontology is an ethical theory that place special emphasis on the relationship

between duty and the morality of human actions. The term deontology is derived from
the Greek deon, “duty,” and logos, “science.” In deontological ethics an action is
considered morally good because of some characteristic of the action itself, not because
the product of the action is good. Deontological ethics holds that at least some acts are
morally obligatory regardless of their consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of
such ethics are such expressions as “Duty for duty’s sake,” “Virtue is its own reward,” and
“Let justice be done though the heavens fall.” By contrast, teleological ethics (also called
consequentialist ethics or consequentialism) holds that the basic standard of morality is
precisely the value of what an action brings into being. Deontological theories have been
termed formalistic, because their central principle lies in the conformity of an action to
some rule or law.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/deontological-ethics. Retrieved July 15, 2020

Activity
Read other discussion about Deontology and differentiate this theory to Utilitarianism.

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 Immanuel Kant

The first great philosopher to define deontological principles was Immanuel Kant,
the 18th-century German founder of critical philosophy. Kant held that nothing is good
without qualification except a good will, and a good will is one that wills to act in accord
with the moral law and out of respect for that law rather than out of natural inclinations.
He saw the moral law as a categorical imperative—i.e., an unconditional command—and
believed that its content could be established by human reason alone. Thus, the supreme
categorical imperative is: “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same
time will that it should become a universal law.” Kant considered that formulation of the
categorical imperative to be equivalent to: “So act that you treat humanity in your own
person and in the person of everyone else always at the same time as an end and never
merely as means.” The connection between those two formulations, however, has never
been entirely clear. In any event, Kant’s critics questioned his view that all duties can be
derived from a purely formal principle and argued that, in his preoccupation with rational
consistency, he neglected the concrete content of moral obligation.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/deontological-ethics. Retrieved July 15, 2020

Activity
1. State precisely what Kant means by the “good will” and explain the difference
between hypothetical and categorical imperatives?

2. Think of any actions, attitudes, good policies that would be qualified by the
universalizability test, but you would still wish to maintain that they were morally
permissible.

Activity
It is common for people who take drugs or drink too much to say, “I’m not doing
anything wrong since I’m not hurting anybody other than myself.” What are some ways
that Kant or other Kantians would respond to that? If you disagree with Kant, how would
you reply?

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 Activity
Suppose you are a software engineer and learn that a nuclear missile is about to
launch that might start a war. You can hack the network and cancel the launch, but it’s
against your professional code of ethics to break into any software system without
permission. And, it’s a form of lying and cheating. Deontology advises not to violate this
rule. However, in letting the missile launch, thousands of people will die.

(https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/deontology. Retrieved July 17, 2020).

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 C. Natural Law Theory
(Number of learning hours: 3)

Have you heard of St. Thomas

Aquinas? Thomas Aquinas was an
Italian Dominican friar, philosopher,
Catholic priest, and Doctor of the
Church. His very famous sayings are
the following:

“To one who has faith, no

explanation is necessary. To one
without faith, no explanation is
possible”

“The things that we love tell us what

we are.”

St. Thomas Aquinas found inspiration in writing Natural Law theory on the following
principles:
1. Entire world exhibits order and design;
2. Everything works for some purpose;
3. The use of conscience as a God-given gift; and
4. Some biblical and church teachings.

He combined all these principles as basis in expounding his Natural Law Theory

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 What is Natural Law?

Natural law is a theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings
possess intrinsic values that govern our reasoning and behavior. Natural law maintains
that these rules of right and wrong are inherent in people and are not created by society
or court judges. Natural law is based on divine providence. The fundamental thesis
affirmed here by Aquinas is that the natural law is a participation in the eternal law or the
rational plan by which all creation is ordered; the natural law is the way that the human
being “participates” in the eternal law. Natural law is a rule of action put into place by
one who has care of the community; and as God has care of the entire universe, God’s
choosing to bring into existence beings who can act freely and in accordance with
principles of reason is enough to justify our thinking of those principles of reason as law.
Natural law holds that there are universal moral standards that are inherent in humankind
throughout all time, and these standards should form the basis of a just society. Human
beings are not taught natural law per se, but rather we “discover” it by consistently
making choices for good instead of evil.
Natural law theory further posits that each created being has a purpose, each
animal, each body parts were all created for a particular purpose; so that if we deviate
from such a purpose, we lose our meaning in life. A tree grows up for a purpose; even
the insects have purpose. We all co-exist to pursue something good because God created
all of us as naturally good. According to Aquinas, man’s ultimate purpose is to procreate
so that homosexuality may be considered deviating from the natural purpose of man’s
sexuality.
Aquinas says that the fundamental principle of the natural law is that good is to
be done and evil avoided. This is, one might say, a principle of intelligibility of action. And
Aquinas holds that we know immediately, by inclination, that there are a variety of things
that count as good and thus to be pursued — life, procreation, knowledge, society, and
reasonable conduct.

Examples of situation of obedience and disobedience to the principles of Natural Law:

Example 1: When a child tearfully exclaims, “It’s not fair [that]..." or when viewing a
documentary about the suffering of war, we feel pain because we're
reminded of the horrors of human evil. And in doing this, we are also
providing evidence for the existence of natural law. A well-accepted example
of natural law in our society is that it is wrong for one person to kill another
person.
Example 2: Cutting of the natural trees in the forest to give way for a mountain resort -
resulted to flooding and reduction of oxygen supply.
Example 3: A gay person refuses to procreate and instead embrace the choice of being a
homosexual.
Example 4: A man who refuses to believe in God because God is unseen.

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 Read the passage then answer the questions.

In October 2016, newspaper reported that Pantaleon Alvarez, the speaker of the
House of representatives, was intending to draft a bill which would amend the country’s
Family Code, thereby allowing for the legalization of same-sex unions. This would result in
the possibility of two men together and two women together being identified as a couple
with rights guaranteed and protected by the law. However, as one newspaper report
revealed even before anything could be formally proposed, other fellow legislators
expressed to the media their refusal to support such initiative.

Question 1: Using Natural Law theory, is this legislation viable? (10 pts)

Question 2: What probably are the reasons why the other legislators don’t like this idea?
(10 pts)

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 D. Virtue Ethics by Aristotle
(Number of learning hours: 3)

What comes to your mind when

you hear the word “virtuous”?
How would you feel if somebody
tells you that you are a virtuous
person?

Together, let us explore what the word virtue and virtuous means by looking into
the life of SPO3 Nicanor Canoy, a police officer. Mr. Canoy serves his community as a
police officer with integrity and honesty. Many times, he fought against corrupt fellow
policemen who sell confiscated marijuana and shabu; and many times, also he received
death threats from anonymous persons, telling him to watch over his “too honest”
personality or die a hero. But Mr. Caanoy refused to be intimidated and pursued his
virtues of honesty, service-orientation, and moral courage. He received many awards
from the community and is called a virtuous policeman. In one of his public speech while
receiving an award, Mr. Canoy quoted the wise words of Aristotle on virtues: “To live a
good and happy life, one must pursue a life of moderation and develop virtuous
character…We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”.

The Virtue Ethics of Aristotle

Who is Aristotle?
Aristotle, a student of Plato, was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical
period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the
Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many
subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry,
theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government.
Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him.
It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well
as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique

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 influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject
of contemporary philosophical discussion (Zalta, 2018).

What is virtue ethics?

Virtue ethics
Virtue theory or virtue ethics is based on Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics. Virtue ethics
focuses, not on what is right and wrong but on the character of the human person. In
particular, virtue theorists claim that in order to become a moral person, one must
develop or cultivate his virtues; and by doing so, one flourishes as a human person and
achieve happiness. Morality is a long-term process of developing virtues as habits.
Most common words introduced by Aristotle in his virtue ethics:
➢ Purpose in life (Telos)
➢ Excellence of virtues (Arete)
➢ Practical wisdom (Phronesis)
➢ Happiness (Eudaimonea)
Everyone seeks to achieve a good life. To do this, a person must have particular purpose
or goal to achieve as one desires to achieve (telos). One goal of every human person is to
achieve happiness (eudaimonea). Happiness can only be achieved by living a life of
moderation (known as the golden mean); by living a life of moderation, a person develops
virtues as a habit (arete). There are two types of virtues to be developed: intellectual and
moral. Intellectual virtues are those traits that we should develop pertaining to the
acquisition of knowledge and skills. Moral virtues are those traits that we should develop
pertaining to doing what is right. Virtues, according to Aristotle, are excellence of
character.

Visual Illustration

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 What are the virtues to be developed and what is the golden mean?
The virtues to be
developed encompasses all good
behavior that results to doing
what is right. The correct virtues to
be developed are a balanced
practice of the virtues or the
gesture of moderation or
temperance. Aristotle call this the
golden mean, living a balanced
life. For example, moderation or
temperance is a mean that focuses
on our desires. If we let our desires
control us, we are intemperate. If we deny our desires entirely, then we suppress our
humanity; but controlling our desires to the correct degree leads to excellence.

Passage Reflection 1:
Usually, when we consider a person virtuous, we look at them as models and we try to
copy their virtues. However, virtuous people are not perfect; they have many flaws in
their character - with which, according to Aristotle need to be polished and corrected in
order to continue to flourish as a person and achieve excellence. Consider the life of
Princess Diana. She was tainted with many issues and personal problems, but many
considered her a good role model because of her virtues of simplicity, generosity, social
sensibility, and gentleness.

Passage Reflection 2:
Drinking wines or liquor is perceived as okay if taken in moderation. A sip of a small glass
of champagne or a red wine or even a vodka is acceptable and may even be good for the
health. However, when drinking becomes a bad habit and when the need to take in too
many wines and alcohol becomes addictive, then the drunkard forgets about the virtue
of moderation. Exaggerated intake of alcohol results to destruction of the character and
of the human body.

Compare the four ethical frameworks by completing the information in the table below.

Ethical theories or Proponents/ Important principles and

frameworks Authors characteristics
Utilitarianism
The rights theory of Kant
Natural Law of Aquinas
Virtue ethics

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 Unit 2: The Challenges of Pluralism and Fundamentalism

A. Pluralism and Globalization: New challenges to ethics

(Number of learning hours: 3)

Look at the images below, what comes into your mind?

Please watch a YouTube video, “What is pluralism? - Global Centre for Pluralism” at the
link below.
https://youtu.be/Hs0SndqWgXo

Summary of the Video:

Despite our differences, we need to find our common good through the language of
compassion, language of love, language of tolerance, and language of respect. This is the
way of building peace in the era of globalization.

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 “Because of modernity and technology, the world has now become like a small village.”
There are many proponents of pluralism but one famous author of the theory on
pluralism or pluralization is William E. Connoly.

Pluralism is the doctrine of multiplicity, describing that there are many differences
substances or entity that constitute reality. This world is a diverse community, whereby
each one contributes to the totality of its existence. In politics, may pluralist argue that
representation in the government must be pluralistic, that is, represented by the diverse
components of the community coming from all sectors. Pluralism recognizes the common
good among diverse individuals. For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining
the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus that shared values
are at least worth pursuing. The most important baseline value is thus that of mutual
respect or tolerance. If no such dialogue is possible, extremism and physical coercion are
likely inevitable.
The slogan for pluralism is “Unity in Diversity” - recognizing that there is beauty in
diversity. Not one race is superior or inferior. Our diversity makes each race unique and
worthy to be respected.

Globalization is the increasingly closer integration of countries and peoples of the world
brought about by the enormous reduction of transportation and communication costs
and the breakdown of barriers to the flow of goods, services, capital and knowledge.
Think of it as a tidal wave of change brought about by the impact of new technologies.
Television, the internet and other forms of rapid communication have increased mobility
and commercialization of ideas. Different aspects of globalization include free
movements of capital, trade, cultural, and political differences. (Investopedia, 2020).
Globalization is a social, cultural, political, and legal phenomenon.
• Socially, it leads to greater interaction among various populations.
• Culturally, globalization represents the exchange of ideas, values, and artistic
expression among cultures.
• Globalization also represents a trend toward the development of single world culture.
• Politically, globalization has shifted attention to intergovernmental organizations like
the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Legally, globalization has altered how international law is created and enforced.

Challenges of pluralism and globalization to the new ethics

• Globalization and free trade have only benefited rich countries. For example, first
world countries outsource employees from the third world countries because the
labor is cheaper. But they pay higher salaries for employees from first world countries.
This is unethical and an act of injustice.
• Globalization leads to the fear of global competition that will ultimately result to a
race to the bottom of wages, labor rights, and employment disparities; where the rich
becomes richer and the poor becomes poorer. The gap between rich and poor in the
world is still very large. The bottom 2.5 billion, 40 percent of the world’s population,
live on less than $2 a day and receive only 5 percent of the world’s income. There are
still too many people who die because they are too poor to live. Can trade help? Aid
and a fairer trading system are crucial. As we will see, it can be an enormous help to

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 poor countries. It can start them on the first steps of the ladder of progress.
Tremendous changes are also occurring in the richer countries (Ethical culture, 2020).
• Globalization poses new challenges to environmental exploitation. Rich countries are
allowed to do mining and exploit the environment of poor countries to provide for
the lack of natural resources among rich countries.
• Globalization and pluralism lead to a more tolerant society, allowing for tolerance of
abusive leaders because pluralism allows for maximum tolerance of differences.

Share to your classmates your opinions and reflection on this passage:

One good thing about pluralism and globalization is the increased tolerance in our
diversity and differences. People become more tolerant and respectful of others and
embrace the common good and the universal values that similarly shape people from
around the globe.

However, disparities and economic inequalities allow for a more unstable society, causing
the minority and the poor to challenge the advent of globalization, which may result to
mass uprising and religious revolts.

Make a picture collage depicting your understanding of pluralism, globalization, and

universal values (30 points)

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 B. Challenges to Fillenials
(Number of learning hours: 1.5)

After studying this unit, you should be able to

1. Compare responses to shared moral dilemmas of baby boomers and millennials.
2. State qualities of the Fillennial

Think of moral values of the older generation versus the moral values of millennials.
Discuss the factors that could have influenced these differences between generations.

In a 2010 survey census, there are an estimated 25 million Filipino millennials or

“Fillenials” (aged 15-29) in the Philippines. In 2015, Filipino millennials (aged 15-34) make
up 53% of the working population. Those who were in the 25-29 years age bracket were
the highest percentage of Filipino workers abroad. Most Filipino youths today own a
mobile phone and use the Internet. The Philippines was once dubbed as the social media
capital of the world. It was found out most Filipino youth have a social media account and
the Filipino millennials aged 20-29 are the most common users of Facebook.
Currently, there are four generations working in the same workplace:
• Traditionalists – those born from 1900-1945. The generation that lived through two
World Wars. Their formative years were that of survival.
• Baby Boomers – Those born from 1946-1964. They are called: Baby Boomers” because
of the significant increase in population in their generation.
• Generation X – Those born from 1965-1980. The generation born in the era of video
games and computers.
• Millennials – Those born from 1981 – 2000. They are also called the “digital natives”.
They grew up in the digital age, rather than acquiring familiarity of it as an adult. The
generation born in the internet era.
Generation Z is the fifth classification. These are those who were born in 2001 to the
present. They are also called the iGeneration. They are the generation born both in an era
of individualized mobile technologies (smartphones, tablets, iPad, iPhone, etc).
By 2025, millennials are estimated to account for 75% of the global workforce.
This means that the attitudes and trait of these self-involved, self-taking individuals are
what will be shaping various industries both as workers and consumers. So much
extensive research extensive research is being done to get a better picture of this
generation.

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 Activity
Discuss some difficulties of understanding and conventions that occur between different
generations.

Qualities of Fillenials

A 2016 study dubbed “The Truth About The Youth Philippines,” was conducted by
McCann Truth Central by McCann Worldgroup, a leading global marketing services
company. This was part of a larger study consisting of findings from 33,000 interviews
across 18 countries including the US, Germany, Japan, and the Philippines.
It turned out that there are things the Filipino millennials care more about the millennial
counterparts in other countries. Here are some of the interesting statistics.
• 83% of Filipino youths rely heavily on their parents for advice.
• On adulthood, Fillennials value close family relationships.
• However, they also believe that the age limit for someone to continue living with
their parents is 30 years old. The global average was surveyed at 32 years old.
• Filipino millennials are more active in social media and are more easily influenced
by peers.
• 61% feel pressured to portray themselves in the best way possible in social media.
• 96% feel it is important to a positive contribution to the community.
However, despite the fast-moving world of social media and communication there
are three enduring human truths about being young that as true today as they ever were
in the previous generations.
1. The notion of needing to “find yourself”
2. Being young is still ridden with angst. They are at the stage wherein identity is
being formed. Millennials go through the same agony of “trying to figure things
out” specifically “to figure what kind of person I am.”
3. Friends are everything
4. Finding your group to hang out with the key to establishing the sense of self and
happiness.
5. Finding yourself in the world
6. This pursuit remains relevant across eras. The millennials still strive to figure out
their values, passions and ideals, as well as establishing their sense of personal
justice of what is right and wrong.

Source: Gallenero, Winston B. et al. 2018. Ethics. Compilation of the teaching of the New
General Education Core Course in Ethics sponsored by CHED.

Activity
After reading the qualities of Fillenials, describe the modern Filipino youth.

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 Activity
Cite some issues that cause moral friction between Millennials/Fillennials and their
parents. How will you resolve the conflict? Who is right?

Post a picture or an illustration that summarizes how you understand and see Filipino
millennials.

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 C. The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in Ethics
(Number of learning hours: 1.5)

What is your religion? Do you agree that the church must respond to relevant social issues
in the politics and economy?

Please reflect on this assertion.

Many people who considers themselves “religious” assume that it is the teachings of their
own religion that define what is truly right or wrong or good or bad. There are many
different religions in the world. Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism are the four
largest religious groups in the world at present. The Philippines is predominantly Roman
Catholic, yet many other religions continue to flourish in the archipelago. For followers of
a particular religion, the ultimate meaning of life and their existence, and the ultimate
answer to life’s questions can be found in one’s religion. Therefore, the question of
morality for many religious followers is reduced to following the religious teaching.
Do all religious teachings lead people to do what is right?

The influence of religion to ethics

Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior. A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life
that is simply satisfying, which is held by many philosophers to be more important than
traditional moral conduct. Most religions have an ethical component, often derived from
purported supernatural revelation or guidance. Some assert that religion is necessary to
live ethically. Simon Blackburn states that there are those who "would say that we can
only flourish under the umbrella of a strong social order, cemented by common
adherence to a particular religious tradition”

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 Ethical issues in religion
Problems arise when religious teaching absolutely commands its followers what they
“ought to do”, without considering reason and impartiality. An example of this was when
European Christians who followed their religious leaders’ teaching, massacred Muslim,
Jews, and even fellow Christians to recapture the Holy City of Jerusalem from the so-called
heathens. Another contemporary example was when terrorists who are religious
extremists use religion to justify acts of violence they perform to fellow human beings.
The problem here is that religion sometimes mislead people; the problem is that many
religious people perform heinous crime because they assumed, they were following the
teachings of their supposed religion.

How should religion respond to ethical issues?

The critical issues about one’s culture and religious beliefs show us the need for maturity
or growth in one’s morality, both in terms of intellect and character. Religious leaders
must teach the necessity that their followers must always prudence and reflection: to
become responsible moral agent that does not blindly follow externally imposed
questionable rules; a responsible moral agent who has a well-developed “feel” for making
informed moral decisions. Religious leaders need to mold religious persons who are
morally mature. Moral maturity (according to Lawrence Kohlberg) is described as doing
something good (not for need of reward or fear of punishment) but because it is
inherently and ethically good. For one who is well on the way towards moral maturity,
the task of using one’s reason and principle to understand moral issues becomes a real
possibility and authentic responsibility.

Passage for Reflection

On being religious and spiritual…

Each man according to Plato is a tripartite man (made up of body, soul, and spirit).
Thus, each person strives to become spiritual - the very nature of man. To become spiritual
is to seek the Divine providence and to know the ultimate will of God. After all, life on earth
is temporary and what will last is the spiritual sense of man. To be spiritual is different
from being religious. To be spiritual is an act or a need to relate and communicate with a
God. To be religious does not necessarily mean relationship with God because it could
mean blind obedience to the teachings of a religious leader. To be religious is to follow the
teachings of one’s religion. How do we know that a particular religion is approved of God?
The Holy Scripture says that we can judge a religion as acceptable or not by the fruits seen
in the behavior of its followers: love, joy, kindness, patience, long-suffering, generosity,
wisdom, and truthful.

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 Essay questions (10 points each)

1. What is religion? Is it important to be a part of a particular religious group? Explain.

2. In what can religion become unethical?

3. In what way can religion help a person become morally mature?

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 D. Synthesis: Making Informed decisions : The 7-Step Moral Reasoning
(Number of learning hours: 3)

To make sure that reason and impartiality are both practiced in making moral decisions,
a step-by-step moral reasoning guide was created. What do you think are the steps to be
followed in arriving at a good moral judgment? Please list down your idea of the steps
using only four steps:

Step 4

Step 3

Step 2

Step 1

Thinking ahead! In making ethical decisions, consider the following diagram:

A key distinguishing feature of a moral dilemma is that it typically arises when

individuals or groups might be harmed, disrespected, or unfairly disadvantaged (Beall,
2017). Most ethical decisions lie in a gray area. Oftentimes you are faced with a situation
where there are no clear-cut or obvious choices: the situation cannot be determined by
simple quantitative analysis of data. Ethical decision-making requires interpretation of
the situation, application of your values and estimating the consequences of your action.
In real life, our situations do not only involve between right and wrong; good or bad.
Oftentimes, it is about choosing between good and better or bad and worse.

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 Knowing this, you would ask, how do you make ethical decisions? Here is a 7-step
model for ethical decision-making. Ethical decision-making is a process of evaluating and
choosing among alternatives in a manner that is consistent with moral principles
(University of California, 2004).

The 7-step Moral Reasoning Model

Making ethical choices requires the

ability to make distinction between
competing options. Here are seven
steps to help you make better
decisions.
1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholders
3. Articulate the dilemma
4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with
the principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision

Gather the Facts

Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how, and
why). There may be instances when facts are not available because of the uncertainty
that surround ethical issues. Nevertheless, gather as many facts as you can. Clarify what
assumptions you are making.
Identify the Stakeholders
Identify all the persons involved and will affected in an ethical situation. Who are
the primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are they
stakeholders in the issue? Get the proper perspective. Try to see the situation through
the eyes of the people affected.
Articulate the Dilemma
Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is important
that you express the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values? The purpose of
articulating the dilemma to make sure that you understand the situation and the moral
conflict you are facing. Awareness and comprehension are important in making the right
decision, especially when there are lives that will be affected.
List the Alternatives
Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be choices you neglected.
This will help ensure that you have not been pushed back into a corner. For example, you
may already have solution A and solution B. Try to brainstorm and come up with solution
C that might satisfy the interests of the primary parties involved.
Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in making
your decision. Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line with your values.
Identifying the values and comparing your action with these values are important because
it will help identify if your alternative action is illegal or unethical, thus making this action
discard.

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 Remember the scenario we presented early in our discussion where you were a
junior executive, and you accidentally found out that your officemate was making
anomalous transactions at the expense of your company? (Introduction, Topic 1, When
do you say a situation is a moral experience) You were in a dilemma on whether or not to
divulge what you know because you found out about the anomaly by illegally logging in
to your officemate’s computer. Your possible actions were to keep quiet, confront your
officemate, or report him to the administration. In this situation, what are the values that
need to be upheld? Let us say, the value is honesty. Now, compare the alternatives with
the value of honesty. Does keeping quiet uphold honesty? No. Does confronting your
officemate uphold honesty? No. Does reporting your officemate to the administration
(even if you had to admit that you illegally used his computer) uphold honesty? Yes. Thus,
based on this list, you now know which among the three possible actions the moral
decision is.
Why is it important to have a system in making decisions? In systematically
considering your set of values, the risk of overlooking important principles and
considerations are reduced. Hence, the chance of doing something you will regret in the
future is also reduced.
Weigh the Consequences
When considering the effects of your actions, filter your choices to determine if
your options will violate ethical values. Determine how all the stakeholders will be
affected by your decision.
Make a Decision
Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid “paralysis by
analysis” or the state of over-analyzing for over-thinking) a situation so that a decision or
action is never taken, in effect paralyzing the outcome. There is no easy, painless decision
to a moral dilemma.
However, it is also important that the decision you make reflects the value you
want to uphold.

Tell your classmates what you think.

Here is a case study:
Jen and her messenger husband Lito, along with their three you children, live as
informal settlers in a compound in Halaan City. Jen works as the stay-out house help for
Ms. Carla, who is the administrative assistant of Mayor Balasic of Halaan City. One day,
Ms. Carla wants Jen to do is to sign up as a ghost employee in a city hall project Ms. Carla
is overseeing. Ms. Carla tells Jen she does not have to do anything except to put her
signature in an employee contract. Ms. Carla will give Jen half of the expected Php 8,000
monthly allowance for the six-month long project. Jen, who is an active member of her
local parish, is now feeling conflicted. Ms. Carla wants her to sign soon.

Using the 7-step model for ethical decision making, what must Jen do, and why?

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 Use the 7-step moral reasoning model in resolving the following case: (35 points)

Three successful siblings showed tender loving care to their dying father, who was
in coma for 3 months already. The doctor advised the three siblings that it is better for
their father to physically rest and have the supporting breathing machine be removed.
This could also significantly reduce the mounting hospital bills. The three siblings are now
confused as to what to do.

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