Special Relativity: Luis Anchordoqui

Special Relativity
Luis Anchordoqui
Friday, November 12, 2010
X: Variational Principle
Luis Anchordoqui
Given two points in a plane
y2 y = y(x) 2
⦁
⦁ �
⦁ ds = dx2 + dy 2
y1 1
⦁
x
x1 x2
what is the shortest path between them?

The Shortest Path between Two Points
The length of a short segment of the path is
�
ds = dx2 + dy 2
⇓
dy �
dy = dx ≡ y (x)dx
dx
� ⇓ �
ds = dx2 + dy 2 = 1 + [y � (x)]2 dx
The total length of the path between points 1 and 2 is

� 2 � x2 �
L= ds = 1 + [y � (x)]2 dx
1 x1
This equation puts our problem in a mathematical form
⇓
find the function y(x) for which the integral is minimum
Fermat’s principle
What is the path that light follows between two points?
⇓
Fermat (1601 - 1665)
⇓
the path for which the time of travel of the light is minimum
The time for light to travel a short distance ds is ds/v

v ≡ c/n speed of light in a medium with refractive index n
� 2 � 2 � 2
ds 1
time of travel = dt = = n ds
1 1 v c 1
In general ☛ refractive index can vary
� 2 � x2 �
n(x, y)ds = n(x, y) 1 + [y � (x)]2 dy
1 x1

Calculus of variations
Standard minimization problem of elementary calculus
unknown value of the variable x at which a known function f (x)
has a minimum
❖ Recall that if df /dx = 0 at x0 there are three possibilities
f (x)
x0 x0 x0
x
2 2
✓If d f /dx > 0 ⇒ f has a minimum
✓If d2 f /dx2<0⇒f has a maximum
✓If d2 f /dx2 = 0 ⇒ f there may be a minimum, a maximum,

or neither
New problem ☛ one step more complicated
Thursday, October 14, 2010 Calculus of Variations
how infinistesimal variations of a path change an integral
The Euler-Lagrange Equation
Consider an integral of the form
� x2
S= f [y(x), y � (x), x] dx
x1
y(x) ☛ unknown curve joining points(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
y(x1 ) = y1 y(x2 ) = y2
We have to find the curve that makes s a minimum

f ☛ function of 3 variables f �
= f (y, y , x)
⇓
but integral follows path y = y(x)
⇓
�
integrand f [y(x), y (x), x] is actually a function of just one variable x

The Euler-Lagrange Equation (cont’d)
y Y (x) = y(x) + η(x) (wrong)
y2 2
⦁
1 y(x)(right)
y1
⦁
x
x1 x2
If y(x) ☛ right solution

⇓
S evaluated for y(x) is less than for any neighborhood curve Y (x)
convenient to write
Y (x) = y(x) + η(x)
since Y (x) must pass through points 1 and 2
⇓
η(x1 ) = η(x2 ) = 0
The integral taken along the wrong curve Y (x)
must be larger than that along the right curve y(x)
no matter how close is the former to the latter
to express this requirement ☛ introduce parameter
⇓
Y (x) = y(x) + α η(x)
The integral S taken along the curve Y (x) now depends on α

⇓
S(α)
The right curve y(x) is obtained by setting α=0
⇓
reduction to traditional problem from elementary calculus
⇓
dS/dα = 0 when α = 0
� x2
�
S(α) = f (Y, Y , x)dx
x1
� x2
= f (y + αη, y � + αη, x)dx
x1
differentiate with respect to α
⇓
∂f (y + αη, y � + αη � , x) ∂f � ∂f
=η +η
∂α ∂y ∂y �
⇓ � x2
dS ∂f
= dx
dα x1 ∂α �
� x2 �
∂f � ∂f
= η +η �
dx
x1 ∂y ∂y
=0
Re-write second term on the right using integration by parts
� x2 �x 2 � x 2 � �
∂f ∂f � d ∂f
η (x) � dx = η(x) � �� −
�
η(x) �
dx
x1 ∂y ∂y x1 x1 dx ∂y
endpoint term is zero
� x2 ⇓ � x2 � �
� ∂f d ∂f
η (x) � dx = − η(x) �
dx
x1 ∂y x1 dx ∂y
⇓
� x2 � �
∂f d ∂f
η(x) − �
dx = 0
x1 ∂y dx ∂y
This condition must be satisfied for any choice of the function η(x)
We can conclude that ☛ ∂f d ∂f
− �
=0
∂y dx ∂y
∀x ∈ x1 ≤ x ≤ x2
if all the functions concerned are continuous
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) Joseph Lagrange (1736-1813)
The shortest path between two points
We saw that the length of a path between points 1 and 2 is
� 2 � x2 �
L= ds = 1 + y �2 dx
1 x1
that has the standard form

�
�
f (y, y , x) = 1 + y �2
∂f ∂f y�
=0 = �
∂y ⇓ ∂y � 1 + y �2
d ∂f ∂f
= 0 ⇒ = C
dx ∂y � ∂y �
⇓
�2 2 �2 �2 � �
y = C (1 + y ) ⇒ y = C ⇒ y (x) = m
integration leads to
y(x) = mx + b
Lagrange’s equations for unconstrained motion
Consider a particle moving unconstrained in 3 dimensions
The particle’s kinetic energy is
1 1 2 1
T = mv = mṙ = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 )
2
2 2 2
and its potential energy
U = U (r) = U (x, y, z)
The Lagrangian is defined as
L = T − U ⇒ L = L(x, y, z, ẋ, ẏ, ż)

∂L ∂U ∂L ∂T
=− = Fx = = px
∂x ∂x ∂ ẋ ∂ ẋ
Straightforward calculation shows that Newton’s Law ☛
implies 3 Lagrangian equations in Cartesian coordinates
∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L
= = =
∂x dt ∂ ẋ ∂y dt ∂ ẏ ∂z dt ∂ ż
Hamilton’s principle
Euler-Lagrange equations then imply
⇓
Hamilton’s principle
(1805-1865)
The actual path which a particle follows between points 1 and 2
in a given time interval t1 to t2 is such that the action integral
� t2
S= L dt
t1
is stationary when taken along the actual path

�
✐ A particle’s path is determined by Newton’s second law F = m�a
✏ The path is determined by 3 Lagrange equations

(at least in Cartesian coordinates)
✎ The path is determined by Hamilton’s principle

Generalized coordinates
Instead of Cartesian coordinates ☛ consider now
➤ spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ)
➤ cylindrical coordinates (ρ, φ, z)
➤ or any set of generalized coordinates (q1 , q2 , q3 )
satisfying qi = qi (�r) for i = 1, 2, 3 and r = r(q1 , q2 , q3 )
Next re-write the Lagrangian in terms of these new variables
L = L(q1 , q2 , q3 , q̇1 , q̇2 , q̇3 )
and the action integral
� t2
S= L(q1 , q2 , q3 , q˙1 , q˙2 , q˙3 )dt
t1
The value of the integral is unaltered by this change of variables
⇓
The statement that S is stationary for variations of the path
around the correct path must still be true in the new coordinates
Generalized coordinates (cont’d)
All in all ☛ the correct path must satisfy the 3 Euler-Lagrange equations
∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L d ∂L
= = =
∂q1 dt ∂ q̇1 ∂q2 dt ∂ q̇2 ∂q3 dt ∂ q̇3
Since these new coordinates are any set of generalized coordinates
the comment ☛ (at least in Cartesian coordinates)
can be omitted from our previous statement
Crucial step in deriving Lagrange’s equations of motion
⇓
observation that yield a result equivalent to Newton’s second law
true only if the original frame in which we wrote down
L=T −U is inertial
Though Lagrange’s equations are true for any choice of (q1 , q2 , q3 )
that may in fact be the coordinates of a non-inertial frame
must be careful when we first write down the Lagrangian
⇓
do so in an inertial frame
Variational Principle for Free Particle Motion
Newtonian mechanics can be summarized by a particle of extremal
action
The motion of a free particle in special relativity can be

summarized by a similar variational principle ➤
the principle of extremal proper time
The straight lines along which free particles move in spacetime are
paths of longest proper time between two events
We will demonstrate that this fact constitutes a variational

principle that implies the free particle equation of motion
We will posit the principle of extremal proper time for a free

particle in curved spacetime and use it to derive the free particle
equation of motion
The variational principle of extremal proper time can be stated as ☛
Variational Principle for free Particle Motion
The world line of a free particle between two timelike separated
points extremizes the proper time between them
(cont’d)
Consider two timelike separated points A and B in spacetime,
and all timelike world lines going between them t straight line
Each curve will have a value of the proper time path B
✣
� B � B
1
2 2 2 2
τAB = dτ = [dt − dx − dy − dz ] 2
nearby path
A A A
x
Suppose the world line is described parametrically with parameter σ
chosen so that it takes the value σ=0 at point A and σ = 1 at
point B for all curves we want to consider
(This would not be the case for the parameter τ )
The world line is then specified by giving the coordinates as a
α α
function of σ, namely, x = x (σ) Saturday, November 6, 2010
Equation ✣ can then be written ☛ ✷

� �� 2 � �2 � �2 � �2 � 12
1
dt dx dy dz
τAB = dσ − − −
0 dσ dσ dσ dσ
(cont’d)
We seek the world line (or world lines) that extremize τAB, that is,
the curve for which a small variation δxα (σ) produces a vanishing
variation in the elapsed proper time
This is familiar type of problem from Newtonian mechanics
α
Think of the integrand in ✷ as the Lagrangian, x as the dynamical
variables, and σ as the time
Then ✷ has the same form as action for Newtonian mechanics
Lagrange’s equations are the necessary condition for an extremum
both there and here
� � ✇
d ∂L ∂L
Specifically ☛ − + = 0
dσ ∂(dxα /dσ) ∂xα
with ☛
�� 2 � �2 � �2 � �2 � 12 � � 21
α β
dt dx dy dz dx dx
L= − − − = − ηαβ
dσ dσ dσ dσ dσ dσ

(cont’d)
To see what happens, let’s write out the Lagrange equation ✇
1
for x ≡ x � �
d 1 dx1
=0
dσ L dσ
1
α β
However, L = [−ηαβ (dx /dσ)(dx /dσ)] just dτ /dσ,
2 is
so multiplying by dσ/dτ the previous equation becomes ☛

2 1
d x
2
=0
It is exactly the same for the other coordinates dτ
All four Lagrange equations imply ☛ d2 xα
= 0
dτ 2
This is the correct equation of motion for a free particle
Its solution is straight world line connecting A and B
The world line of a free particle in flat spacetime is a curve
of extremal proper time
Matching the non-relativistic limit
� b
S=K ds
� a �
ds = cdt 1 − v 2 /c2 ⇒ L = Kc 1 − v 2 /c2
In the non-relativistic limit
� �
� v 2
K v2
L = Kc 2 2
1 − v /c = Kc 1 − 2 = constant −
2c c 2
Thus K = −mc guarantees the correct Lagrangian in the
non-relativistic limit � b � tb �
S = −mc ds = −mc2 1 − v 2 /c2 dt
a ta
The minus sign guarantees the existence of a minimum

� � � �
2 i
i ∂L mc 2v mv i
p = i
= − � × − 2 = �
∂v 2 1 − v 2 /c2 c 1 − v 2 /c2
mv 2 + mc2 (1 − v 2 /c2 ) mc2
E = p� . �v − L = � = �
1 − v 2 /c2 1 − v 2 /c2
α
α i dx
Therefore the 4-momentum is ☛ p = (E/c, p ) = mc
ds
Lagrangian density
• We have seen that the state of a physical system consisting of
a collection of N discrete point particles can be specified by
a set of 3N generalized coordinates qi
• The action of such a physical system ☛
�
S= L(qi , ∂t qi )dt
is an integral of the so-called Lagrangian function from
which the system behavior can be determine by the principle
of minimal action
• In a local field theory the Lagrangian can be
� written as the
spatial integral of a Lagrangian density, S 4
= L(φ, ∂µ φ) d x
where the field φ itself is a function of the continuous
µ
parameters x

Lagrangian density (cont’d)
• Minimization condition on δS yields
0 = δS
�
= d4 x [∂φ L δφ + ∂∂µ φ Lδ(∂µ φ)]
where ☛ δ(∂µ φ) = ∂µ (φ + δφ) − ∂µ φ = ∂µ (δφ)

• The second term in the integrand can be integrated by parts
� �
4 4 ∂L ∂(δφ)
d x ∂∂µ φ L ∂µ (δφ) = d x
∂µ φ ∂xµ
µ
integration with respect to x leads to
� � �
∂L ∂(δφ) �
d x4
= ∂ ∂µ φ L δφ�� − d4 x δφ ∂µ (∂∂µ φ L)
∂µ φ ∂xµ �
�
= d4 x [∂µ (∂∂µ φ L δφ) − δφ ∂µ (∂∂µ φ L)]
where � denotes the boundary of the four dimensional

spacetime region of integration
Euler-Lagrange equation
The summary from the previous slide is
� ♝
4
0= d x[∂φ L δφ − ∂µ (∂∂µ φ L) δφ + ∂µ (∂∂µ φ L δφ)]
Using Gauss theorem, the last term in ♝ can be written as

a surface integral over the boundary of the four dimensional
spacetime region of integration
As in the particle mechanics case, the initial and final
configurations are assumed given, and so δφ is zero at the
temporal beginning and end of this region
Hereafter, we restrict our consideration to deformations δφ that

also vanish on the spatial boundary of the integration region
Hence ☛ for arbitrary variations δφ , ♝ leads to the

Euler-Lagrange equation of motion for a field:
∂µ (∂∂µ φ L) − ∂φ L = 0
Maxwell’s equation from the principle of minimal action
For the electromagnetic field we can write
�
4
S= d x L(Aµ , ∂µ Aν )
such that the Euler-Lagrange equation becomes
� �
∂L ∂L
∂µ =
∂(∂µ Aν ) ∂Aν
What are the invariants for the electromagnetic action?
I1 = Fµν F µν
I2 = Fµν ∗ F µν
= F0i F 0i + Fij F ij
1
= −(F 0i )2 + (Fij )2 = �µναβ F αβ F µν
2
= B2 − E2 = 12 �ijk F jk ��
F 0i + 12 �i0jk F jk F i0 + 22 �ij0k F 0k F ij
� ��
Bi Ei
= Bi E i − Bi E i + Bk E k
� .E
= B �

Let’s check the term (cont’d)
�
∗ 4 ∗ µν
S = d x Fµν F
�
4 ∗ µν
= d x(∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ ) F
�
4 ∗ µν
= 2 d x ∂ µ Aν F
� ��
∂µ (Aν ∗ F µν )
dL
Lagrangians that differ in total derivatives L +
dt
give the same equation of motion same for Lagrangian
densities that differ by a divergence
hence a term in the Lagrangian of the form
∗ µν ∗ µν
Fµν F = 2∂µ (Aν F )
does not contribute to the equation of motion
µν µν (cont’d)
We are searching for ∂µ F = 0 the definition of F
guarantees ∗ µν
∂ F =0
Lem = aFαβ Fγρ η αγ η βρ
= a(∂α Aβ − ∂β Aα )(∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ )η αγ η βρ
= 2a∂α Aβ (∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ )η αγ η βρ
∂Lem  
=0
∂Aν
 
∂Lem ∂(∂α Aβ )  ∂(∂γ Aρ ) ∂(∂ρ Aγ )  αγ βρ
= 2a (∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ )η η + 2a∂α Aβ 
αγ βρ
 − η η

∂(∂µ Aν ) ∂(∂µ Aν ) ∂(∂ A )
� �� 
µ ν ∂(∂ µ A ν )
� ��
µ ν
δα δβ δγµ δρν δρµ δνγ
� µγ νρ α βν αν βµ
�
= 2a η η (∂γ Aρ − ∂ρ Aγ ) + ∂α Aβ (η µη −η η )
= 2a [(∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ ) + (∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ )]
= 4aF µν
µν
hence 4a∂µ F = 0 !!!
(cont’d)
The inhomogeneous equation comes out from the interaction term
� S = Sem + Sint�
µν 4 ν 4
S=a Fµν F d x+b Aν J d x
therefore now we have

∂Lint ν
= bJ
∂Aν
yielding the inhomogeneous equation 4a∂µ F µν = bJ ν
In Gauss units b 2 1 ν
= 1/c and so ∂µ F µν
= 2
J which leads to
4ac
1
We have obtained Maxwell’s equations a=−
16πc
∗ µν 4π ν µν
∂µ F = 0 ∂µ F = − J
c
µν µ
In natural units a = 1/4 and b = 1 ☛ ∂µ F = J

Special Relativity: Luis Anchordoqui

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Special Relativity

what is the shortest path between them?

Friday, November 12, 2010

The total length of the path between points 1 and 2 is

The time for light to travel a short distance ds is ds/v

Friday, November 12, 2010

✓If d2 f /dx2 = 0 ⇒ f there may be a minimum, a maximum,

y(x) ☛ unknown curve joining points(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )

We have to find the curve that makes s a minimum

Friday, November 12, 2010

y Y (x) = y(x) + η(x) (wrong)

If y(x) ☛ right solution

The integral S taken along the curve Y (x) now depends on α

that has the standard form

L = T − U ⇒ L = L(x, y, z, ẋ, ẏ, ż)

is stationary when taken along the actual path

✏ The path is determined by 3 Lagrange equations

✎ The path is determined by Hamilton’s principle

Friday, November 12, 2010

The motion of a free particle in special relativity can be

We will demonstrate that this fact constitutes a variational

We will posit the principle of extremal proper time for a free

Equation ✣ can then be written ☛ ✷

Friday, November 12, 2010

so multiplying by dσ/dτ the previous equation becomes ☛

The minus sign guarantees the existence of a minimum

Friday, November 12, 2010

where ☛ δ(∂µ φ) = ∂µ (φ + δφ) − ∂µ φ = ∂µ (δφ)

where � denotes the boundary of the four dimensional

Using Gauss theorem, the last term in ♝ can be written as

Hereafter, we restrict our consideration to deformations δφ that

Hence ☛ for arbitrary variations δφ , ♝ leads to the

Friday, November 12, 2010

therefore now we have

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