Product Technology

NDT Training & Certification

 Product Technology
Steel Production

Casting Wrought Production Welding

Extrusion
Forging
Rolling
Defects Inherent
Processing
Service
Heat Treatment
 Steel Production
2 Stage Process
 Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
 Carbon content of Pig Iron is lowered by
reacting with oxygen
 The molten metal is then cast into Ingots
or continuously cast
 Ingots are rolled into Blooms, Billets or
Slabs
 Steel Production
1st Stage
 Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted
by other materials.
 Raw materials Hematite (Fe2O3)
or
Magnetite(Fe3O4)
+
Coke
Limestone
Air
 Steel Production
Blast Furnace

Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3%

carbon)
 Steel Production
 Pig iron converted to steel by blowing
molten metal with oxygen or oxygen
rich gases
 Oxygen reacts with excess carbon

 C + 2 O  CO2
 C + O  CO
 CO + O  CO2
 Steel Production
 Bessemer
 Open hearth process
 Basic oxygen process
 Steel Production
 Basic oxygen process
Solid scrap
 Steel Production
 Basic oxygen process
Molten Pig Iron
 Steel Production
 Basic oxygen process

Oxygen lance
 Steel Production
 Basic oxygen process

Steel
 Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing

Hot top
 Steel Production
Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)
Ingots are used for further processing
2 types of mould - Narrow end up, Wide end up
 Steel Production
 Metal solidifies from outside inwards
3 types of crystal formed
 Chill or fine exui-axed

 Columnar

 Large equi-axed
 Smelting Defects
Primary pipe/sink

 Pipes
 Shrinkage Secondary
pipe
 Smelting Defects
 Non-metallic inclusions
 Smelting Defects
 Segregation of metals
 Steel Production
 Alternative to ingots is Continuous casting

Tundish

Mold forming slab

Water spray
chamber

Rollers
Steel Production
 Steel Production
Advantages of Continuous casting

 Faster : 300 tons of steel in 45 mins

compared to 12 hours
 No piping problems
 Cheaper : No ingot molds, handling
Product Technology

Casting
 Casting Process

 Liquid metal is caused to fill a cavity and

solidify into a useful shape
 All materials used in metal manufacture
cast at some time
 Casting Process

 Stage 1 : A pattern of the finished

item slightly over sized
 Stage 2 : Mould constructed from
the pattern
 Stage 3 : Liquid metal poured
through the channels to fill
the mould
 Casting Methods
 Sand casting
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
 Casting
Pouring Riser
basin

Sprue

Core
Runner
 Casting

Chaplets Chills
Riser

Outlet used to indicate that the cavity is full

Core:

To make internal holes and passages

Chaplet: To position the Core

Chills: For directional solidification (Uniform Cooling)

 Casting
 Casting involves the solidification from
liquid to solid
 Solidification proceeds from outside to
centre
 Solidification involves shrinkage
Grain Growth
 Casting Methods
 Sand casting
 Die casting / Injection moulding
 Die Casting
Casting
cavity

Injection
piston

Moving Die Fixed platen

platen
 Casting Methods
 Sand casting
 Die casting / Injection moulding
 Investment casting / Lost wax process
Investment Casting
Wax
Pattern
Investment Casting
Coat with
refractory
slurry
Investment Casting

Reinforce with plaster

backing (Investment)
Investment Casting

Oven dry to liquify or

vaporise pattern and dry
mould
Investment Casting

Pour metal
Investment Casting

Remove investment material

 Choice of Casting Method
Dimensional Accuracy
 Investment casting Cost
 Die casting  Sand casting
 Sand casting  Die casting
 Investment casting
 Casting Defects
Primary pipe/sink

 Shrinkage cavities
 Sinks – Secondary
 Surface depression pipe

on a casting
 Casting Defects
Blowholes and porosity

Cross-sectional
changes /corners
 Casting Defects

 Inclusions
 Scabs
 Fins
 Casting Defects
Shrinkage
 Casting Defects
Scabs
 Casting Defects
Scabs
 Casting Defects
Fins

Gaps
 Casting Defects
Fins- excess metal of casting

Fin
 Casting Defects
 Hot tears The larger section The grain are
cools slower than the different
smaller section between the
sections

Hot Tears
Hot Tears
COLD SHUT
Stream of molten metal meeting at different temperatures
 Casting Defects
 Segregation
Product Technology

Wrought Production Methods

 Wrought Production

 Forging
 Extrusion
 Rolling
 Wrought Production
Forging Extrusion
 Metal confined under  Metal forced through
pressure to cause a die under a large
plastic flow load

Rolling
 Thickness reduction
through
compression
 Rolling
Ingots, slabs and billets rolled to produce long
length products with uniform cross section
PRIMARY ROLLING
PROCESS / COGGING

Two-High Reversing Mill

 Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS

Secondary
piping

Two-High Reversing Mill

 Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS
Lamination

Three-High Reversing
Mill
 Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS

Non-metallic
inclusion

Two-High Reversing Mill

 Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS
Stringers

Three-High Reversing
Mill
 Rolling
PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS

Segregation of
metals

Two-High Reversing Mill

 Rolling
SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS
Banding

Three-High Reversing
Mill
 Cold Rolling
 Initial rolling hot
 Finishing by cold working

Cluster mill 4 High mill

Seams occur in rolled bar stock or parts machined from bar
stock.

They are inclusions, porosity, or more commonly, metal folds

that have been elongated by the rolling process during
fabrication.

They are long, straight discontinuities that run parallel to the

direction of mechanical working. If the seams contain foreign
material, they may produce no indications, or very faint
indications.

They may be classified as defects depending on size and

location.
 Rolling
 Bloom - Square c/s 150x150mm minimum
 Slab - Rectangular c/s area greater than 14400 mm2
 Billet - Square 50x50 up to 120 x 120mm

 Primary rolling- ingot to blooms and slabs

 Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs to plates ,
sheets etc
 Forging
Blacksmith

Hammer

Anvil
 Forging
Blacksmith / Open die forging

Hammer
(Tup)

Anvil
 Forging
• Pressure forging
 Forging
• Closed die
 Forging
• UPSET FORGING

Upset forging increases the

diameter of the work piece by
compressing its length.

Based on number of pieces

produced, this is the most widely
used forging process.

A few examples of common parts

produced using the upset forging
process are engine valves,
couplings, bolts, screws, and other
fasteners.
 Forging

Change the Shape

Orient the grain flow - stronger

Create the welded joint

 Forging
Forging Burst (cracks) – Internal & External

Forging Lap

Flakes and shatter cracks are internal fissures

seen in large forgings. Hydrogen picked up
during melting and casting segregates at
internal voids and discontinuities and
produces these defects during forging.
 Extrusion
• High loads used to shape ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys
• Items produced are of uniform cross section

• Direct
• Indirect
• Impact
 Direct Extrusion
Die

Billet Ram
 Indirect Extrusion
Die

Billet

Extruded
item
 Impact Extrusion
Punch
Blank

Die
 Extrusion Defects
 Oxide films (‘Extrusion’ defect)
 Surface cracks
 Grain structure variation
Impact Extrusion
 Wrought Production Defects
 Cracks
 Laps
 Seams
 Stringers
 Slugs
 Bursts
 Laminations
 Wrought Production Defects
 Banding
 Excessive flash
 Lack of fill
 Mismatch
 Internal cracking
 Mechanical marks
 Other Wrought Processes
Drawing
 Material is reduced or changed in profile
by pulling through a die

Die

Wire or rod Force

 Other Wrought Processes
Drawing
 Material is reduced or changed in profile
by pulling through a die

Die

Tube Mandrel Force

Product Technology
Welding
 A Weld : Definitions

 A union between  A continuous defect

pieces of metal at surrounded by
faces rendered parent material
plastic or liquid by NASA
heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
 Deposition Rate:

The term used to describe the mass of metal deposited per

unit of time

Weld Sequence:

The order and direction in which joints, welds or weld runs are
made

Tack Weld

Weld used to assist assembly or to maintain misalignment of edge

 Welds
 An ideal weld must give a strong bond
between materials with the interfaces
disappearing

To achieve this
• Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
• Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
• Metals shall be free from impurities
• Metals shall have identical crystalline structures
 Welding
 A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources
 Ultrasonics
 Electron beam
 Friction
 Electric resistance
 Electric arc
 Electric Arc Welding

Electrode

Power
supply

Work piece

Clamp(Earth)
 Electric Arc Welding
Arc Welding Processes
 Manual metal arc (mma / smaw / stick)
 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG / MAG / GMAW)
 Submerged Arc (SAW)

Differences between them

 Methods of shielding the arc
 Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
 Degree of automation
 Joint Design
Fillet
Single V

Single Bevel

Corner
Single V
Partial pen.

Double V
 Joint Design
Lap Joint

Corner fillet weld

Cruci-form

Edge Weld
 Weld Prepareration / Joint Design

BEFORE WELDING C
L
Included angle
60°
Parent metal/
Base metal Angle of bevel
30°

Root Face
2-3mm
Fusion face/ Root Gap
Sidewall or bevel 2-3mm
Single -V Butt
 A FINISH WELD

AFTER WELDING

Weld width Weld reinforcement

Weld cap
Capping
Crown Surface

Toes

Fill pass
HAZ Hot Pass Weld Layer
Root run
Penetration
Weld bead Root bead
Root reinforcement
 MMA

Manual Metal Arc Process (MMA)

(USA: SMAW)
Definition
Electrode Uses an arc to produce weld metal in
core wire between a consumable electrode and
parent metal
Electrode
covering Type of process
Manual
Electric Arc
Gas shield Solidified slag

Molten weld pool Build up of weld metal

Penetration
Parent material
 TIG
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Definition
Uses an arc to produce weld metal in (USA: GTAW)
between a non consumable electrode and
parent metal Cap Switch
power
Type of process cable
Switch
Manual / fully auto Handle

Filler wire Tungsten

Shielding gas
Deposited Gas
weld metal inlet
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 TIG
Helium Argon mixes
Argon (Ar) Inert

▪ Suitable for welding carbon ▪ Suitable for welding carbon

steel, stainless steel, steel, stainless steel, copper,
aluminium and magnesium. aluminium and magnesium

▪ Lower cost, lower flow ▪ High cost, high flow rates.

rates.
▪ More suitable for thicker
materials and materials of
▪ More suitable for thinner
high thermal conductivity.
materials and positional
welding.
 TIG
Advantages & Disadvantages TIG Welding:

Advantages Disadvantages

▪ High quality ▪ High skill factor required

▪ Good control ▪ Small consumable range
▪ All positions ▪ High protection required
▪ Low hydrogen ▪ Low productivity
▪ Minimal cleaning ▪ High ozone levels
 Metal Active Gas / Metal Inert Gas (MAG / MIG) - USA: GMAW

The gas metal-arc welding process (GMAW), often

called MIG, has revolutionized arc welding. In this
process:-
Wire electrode
A consumable electrode (in the form of wire) is fed
from a spool through the torch (welding gun) at a
preset controlled speed. As the wire passes through the
contact tube of the gun, it picks up the welding
Shielding gas in
current. - Semi Auto / fully auto
Contact tip and
electrode wire guide
Electric Arc
Gas shield
Molten weld pool Build up of weld metal
Penetration

Parent material
CHAPTER 4 WELDING PROCESSES, ACCESSORIES & CONSUMABLES

Advantages & Disadvantages of MIG / MAG Process

Advantages Disadvantages

▪ High productivity ▪ Lack of fusion (dip)

▪ Easily automated ▪ Small range of consumables
▪ All positional (dip & pulse)
▪ Expensive equipment
▪ Material thickness range
▪ Complex equipment
▪ Continuous electrode
▪ Not so portable
Low Hydrogen Welding Process

TIG
MIG
MAG
 Submerged Arc
Reel feed

Flux
retrieval Consumable
electrode

Flux feed

Slag

Weld metal
Parent metal
 Submerged Arc Welding

High Thickness steel plates – High Heat

input – Solidification cracking will take
place

Surface Breaking Porosity – Damp Flux

 Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
 Solidification cracks
 Hydrogen induced cracks
 Lamellar tearing
 Reheat cracks
 Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
 Longitudinal  HAZ
 Transverse  Centreline
 Branched  Crater
 Fusion zone
 Parent metal
 Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification Crack
 Occurs during weld solidification process
 Steels with high sulphur content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
 Requires high tensile stress
 Occur longitudinally at the weld centre
line
 eg Crater cracking
 Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
 Requires susceptible grain structure, stress
and hydrogen
 Hydrogen enters via welding arc
 Hydrogen source - atmosphere or
contamination of preparation or electrode
 Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling
 Most likely in HAZ
 Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
 Step like appearance -
 Occurs in parent material or HAZ
 Only in rolled direction of the parent material
 Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees
and fillets
 Requires high sulphur or non-metallic
inclusions
 Welding Defects
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
 Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels
during post weld heat treatment or service at
elevated temperatures
 Occurs in areas of high stress and existing
defects
 Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post
weld heat treatment
 Welding Defects
 Incomplete root penetration

Causes
 Too large or small a root gap
 Arc too long
 Wrong polarity
 Electrode too large for joint preparation
 Incorrect electrode angle
 Too fast a speed of travel for current
 Welding Defects
 Root concavity or Suck Back
Causes
 Root gap too large
 Insufficient arc energy
 Excessive back purge (TIG)
Contraction & shrinkage
of the molten pool at the
root of the weld, due to
incorrect weld preparation
or insufficient heat input
 Welding Defects
 Lack of fusion

Causes
 Contaminated weld preparation
 Amperage too low
 Amperage too high (welder increases speed of
travel)
 Welding Defects
 Undercut

Causes
 Excessive welding current
 Welding speed too high
 Incorrect electrode angle
 Excessive weave
 Electrode too large
 Welding Defects
 Incompletely Filled Groove

Causes
 Insufficient weld metal deposited
 Improper welding technique
 Welding Defects
 Gas pores / Porosity

Causes
 Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
 Contaminated preparation
 Low welding current
 Arc length too long
 Damaged electrode flux
 Removal of gas shield
 Welding Defects
 Inclusions - Slag

Causes
 Insufficient cleaning between passes or
poor cleaning between runs
 Contaminated weld preparation
 Welding over irregular profile
 Incorrect welding speed
 Arc length too long
 Welding Defects
 Inclusions - Tungsten

Causes
 Contamination of weld during TIG welding
process
 Welding Defects
 Burn Through

Causes
 Excessive amperage during welding of root
 Excessive root grinding
 Improper welding technique
 Welding Defects
 Arc Strikes -  Spatter

Causes Causes
 Electrode straying onto  Excessive arc energy
parent metal  Excessive arc length
 Electrode holder with  Damp electrodes
poor insulation  Arc blow
 Poor contact of earth
clamp
Weld defects can create
localized hard spots which
may contain cracks
Temporary Backing Bar – to control root
penetration
 Heat Treatment
 Post heat treatment performed to
improve specific metallurgical or
mechanical properties or stress relief

 Softening Controlled by
 Hardening  Heating rate

 Tempering  Temperature attained

 Stress Relief  Time at the elevated

temperature
 Cooling rate
 Heat Treatment
Hardening
 Produce hard but
brittle material
 Heat to above
transformation range
 Cool very quickly (
quench ) in oil, water
or brine
 Heat Treatment
Stress Relief
 Relax stresses without significant
changes in the metallurgical structure
 Heat to 550-650 degrees C

 Hold for 1 hour per 25mm thickness

 Cool in air
 Heat
Full Annealing
Treatment
 Produces very soft
low hardness material
for machining or cold
work
 Heat to above 910
degrees C
 Hold
 Cool very slowly in
furnace
 Once reached 680 C ,
cool in air
 Heat Treatment
Normalising
 Maintains and improves mechanical
properties and modifies grain structure
 Heat to above 910 degrees C

 Hold

 Cool in air
 Nature and Origin of Defects

 Inherent
 Processing
 In Service
 Heat Induced Defects

 Heat treatment cracks

 Grinding cracks
 Friction induced cracks
 In Service Cracks Cyclic stress

Fatique

Fatigue cracks
crack


 Stress corrosion cracks

Hydrogen