The NERVOUS SYSTEM (Anatomy of the Brain)
called SINUSIS: swelling/opening in the brain in
I. INTRODUCTION
A. BRAIN
― Largest organ in the body
― Wgt: more than 3 pounds
― Contains more than 100 bilion cells
― Constitutes just 2% of the body’s wgt
― Like jelly because of water
― Has no place for metabolic processes
― All activities of the body are devoted to
the care & protection of brain
― Almost fully developed at birth, lacking
mostly insulation
― Requires a slightly different operating
env’t than the body
― BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER: separates 2
systems
― Covered and protected by a rigid-bony
case (SKULL)
― BRAIN DEATH: modern definition of death
― SKULL: composed of 2 layers of bone with
air spaces b.w them that makes the skull
lighter and more protective than solid
bone; round shaped
― BRAIN STEM: connects spinal cord to the
DIENCEPHALON
B. COMPONENTS OF BRAIN
1. MENINGES: Coverings of the brain
a. Dura Mater:
― “hard mother”/ “hard-
protecting mother
― Outer and toughest covering
― Separate most of the 2 halves
of brain
b. Arachnoid
― “spider-like”
― Middle layer; very fine;
many vessels are carried
― Circulates cerebrospinal
fluid and blood
c. Piamater
― “delicate-mother”
― Innermost covering
― Analogous to visceral pleura and
visceral pericardium
― Adheres to the brain
 MENINGITIS: inflammation od meninges
 GALAS APONEUROTIA: surface attaching to the
muscles of scalp
 FALX CEREBRI: separates both cerebrum lobes
 ARACHNOID VILLUS: Project up into cavity
any structure that contain fluid called CSF
2. ARACHNOID VILLAE
― Produces or secretes CSF in the brain’s
sinus(open spaces)
― CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
― Covers brain and spinal cord
― Produced by choroid plexuses
― Located in walls of ventricles
― Reabsorbed through the arachnoid
villae in the dural venous sinuses
― FUNCTIONS:
1. Provides mechanical protection for
the brain and spinal cord; provides
buoyancy
2. Provides chemical protection;
optimal env’t for neuron function
3. Circulates nutrients to parts of the
brain; it is an exchange area for
wastes
C. CLINICAL APPLICATION
― Skull structures almost always tear the dura
mater, resulting in 3 typical clinical
application
1. SUBDURAL HEMATOMA
― Pool of blood under the dura that
puts pressure on the brain
― Common in the elderly, because
the brain shrinks with age and a
large hematoma can develop
without symptoms
2. EPIDURAL HEMATOMA
― Pool of blood b/w dura and skull
3. SUBARACHNOID HEMATOMA
― Functionally an intracerebral
hemorrhage
― Untreatable once it occurs b/c
draining it would cause more brain
trauma
D. VENTRICLES
― Reservoirs of CSF
― “little valley”
1. 2 Lateral Ventricles:
― Located in the cerebral hemisphere
― Have horn & goes down to temporal
lobe
2. 3rd Ventricle
― Midline b/w the halves of thalamus
3. 4th Ventricle
― b/w the cerebellum & brain stem
 CENTRAL CANAL: safety mechanism;
trauma
E. HYDROCEPHALUS
― Blockage of CSF circulation
― Can be corrected with mechanical shunts &
valves by hydrocholic engr.
― Water in the brain
F. BLOOD SUPPLY IN THE BRAIN
― Blood is supplied to the brain through the
internal carotid artery & basilar artery
Formed by the junction of the right &
left vertebral arteries
1. CIRCLE OF WILLIS
― Internal carotid & basilar arteries join to
form it
― From which branch the anterior cerebral
artery (communicating), middle cerebral
artery & the posterior cerebral artery
― Provides anastomes for the 2 sides of the
brain and back up for failure of one or
more arteries
― Incomplete circle of willis exposes parts of
the brain to possible damage in the case
of occlusion of a vessel
 VERTEBRAL ARTERIES: join in the head to form
the basilar artery
 LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS: cause by
interruption of blood flow to the brain for
seconds
 An interruption to 1-2 minutes can cause brain
damage; more than 4 minutes results to DEATH
 PRIMITIVE BRAIN: has driving reflex
 CARL SAGAN: believed primitive & modern
brain
 Glucose stores in the brain are limited
 A drop in blodd glucose can cause confusion,
convulsions, loss of consciousness & death
 The driving reflex shuts off circulation to
unneeded parts of the body upon immersion in
very cold water. This can lead to survival for
periods much longer than 4 mins w/o brain
damage
 Certain unlearned reflexes may have come from
ancient conditions & may have been
“hardwired” into the brain during evolution
G. ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS OF BRAIN
1. Medulla Oblongata:
― Skinny & long
― Medulla “central”
― Start at the Foramen magnum (“the
big hole”)---- everything that comes
out of the brain
― Contains cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI,
XII
― Contains the cardiovascular center (heartrate) &
respiratory center (sneezing, coughing,
incoughing)
― Motor and sensory nerve cross sides in here
― w/in it are all ascending (sensory) and
descending (motor) tracts
 IPSILATERAL: Same side
 CONTRALATERAL SIDE: Opposite side
2. PONS
― Bridge that controls the nuclei for cranial
nerves V, VI, VII, VIII where motor &
sensory tracts converge
― Fibers connecting the right and left sides of
cerebellum
― Pneumotaxic & apneustic center
H. CEREBELLUM
― Bun-like behind the brain
― Center of intention & coordination
― Wgere all the input from sensory areas of the
body come to be coordinated, analyzed &
redistributed
― Coordinates input from sensory organs of
proprioception & movement & endures that
intention and actual movement are the
same
― It makes possible coordinated complex
function such as dancing, playing piano, &
engaging sports
― Motor rating intent to activity
I. DIENCEPHALON
― Found between the midbrain & cerebrum
1. Thalamus
― Major center for receiving input or
reflexes & relaying reflex (e.g.
knowledge, coordination)
― It is the center for acquisition of
knowledge, awareness, emotion &
memory complex
― Coordinates & integrates things that
don’t have specific location in brain
2. PINEAL GLAND
― Secretes melatonin
― Sleep inducer
― Sets the internal biologic clock
― Maintaining body clock
3. HYPOTHALAMUS
― Under thalamus
― Relays reflexes related to smell
 ― Secretes hormones for regulating the
hormones of the anterior pituitary
gland
― Major regulator of homeostasis
― Receives input that is interpreted to
correct for changes in osmotic
pressure, hormone concentrations &
blood temperature
― Controls autonomic n.s ( heart rate,
respiration, GI tract, urinary bladder)
― Affect emotions of aggression, pain,
pleasure
― Regulates thirst & hunger responses
(primitive responses)
― Controls body temp
― Regulates
― Rhythms of sleep and awakeness
J. CEREBRUM
― Contains the bulk of the brain mass
― Outer layer of the brain
― CEREBRAL CORTEX: made of an outer layer of
gray matter composed of more than 1 billion
neurons
― WHITE LAYER: beneath the gray matter ,
made up of myelinated & unmyelinated
axons connecting neurons from diff. parts of
brain
― The 2 hemispheres are separated by an
extension of the dura mater called the FALX
(sickle-shaped)
― Connected by the CORPUS CALLOSUM
(Hardbody)---- Has transverse fibers that take
information & tell the pther side what the
brain is thinking
― Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes
LESSON 2: PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN
I. NERVOUS SYSTEM
― Mediated by ekectrucally ions
― Sends electrical signal to individual cells
― Does so very rapidly (in milliseconds)
― Duration of action is very short
― Targets specific organs for action
― Specific (or converging) receptor organs at
the end of each neuron receive these signals
II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
― Secrete chemical messengers called
HORMONES
― Function much more slowly than nervous
(second-hours)
― Less specific (or diverging) reaches all of the
body’s cells via BLOODSTREAM
― Duration of action is longer than electrical
signals
― 7 secs because it has to circulate
 BOTH system provide redundancy & different
types of action such as ADRENALINE
PRODUCTION, can be performed by either or
both system
 BOTH function to maintain homeostatsis
 BOTH are communication systems
A. FUNCTION OF NERVOUS
― Travel in 2 directions and each direction has
a separate set of nerves
a. EFFERENT IMPULSES
― Or descending
― Nerves send impulses away from the brain
― Also called MOTOR NERVES
― Produce action in distant organs
b. SENSORY IMPULSES
― Ascend nerves to brain
― Called AFFERENT IMPULSES--- deliver
information from peripheral nerves to brain
― Move along afferent nerves
 The integrative function analyzes input
from afferent impulses, files these data
& stimulate action in response to
sensory input
MOTOR NEURON
― Send messages to yhe body from brain
― Descending impulses (below the brain)
― Efferent means TO CARRY
― Motor impulses
SENSORY FUNCTION
― In the opposite direction
― Comes upward/toward the brain that’s
why called AFFERENT
― Ascending function
HYPOTHALAUS AND MIDBRAIN
― Integrative function
― Analyzes data and figures out
III. KINDS OF NERVOUS TISSUE AND THEIR FUNCTION
A. NEURONS (nerve cells )
― Initiate & relay electrical nervous impulses
toward and away from the brain
― 3 BASIC PARTS
1. Cell Body: main part
2. dendrites (trees): receive incoming
messages/information and sent down to
axon
3. Axons: deliver outgoing messages ;
sausage shaped
 Nerves can have any arrangement of
dendrites and axon including 1 input
to many outputs
 DIVERGENCE: many inputs to 1 output
  CONVERGENCE: 1 input to many
outputs
 some axons are MYELINATED
(insulated) for rapid impulse delivery.
These axons display SALTATORY
(jumping) conduction
 other axons are unmyelinated
 MYELIN SHEATHS develops as a baby
grows yet not complete when baby is
born. Disesase can interrupt this
process
 NEUROLEMMOCYTE (SCWHANN CELL)
 Attach themselves to the
fiber/nerve axon
 Wrap around and becomes myelin
sheath like a copper wire
B. NEUROGLIA
― Connective verves that hold the structure of
the nervous system together
― These cells nurture the neurons
― Much more numerous than neurons
― Regenerated over time because they can
regenerate their stem cells not the neurons
― Are the source of most cancerous cells in
the brain cancer
― Not conducting cells
 NEUROFIBRILE NODE (node of Ranvier)
 BABINSKI REFLEX: seen on baby;
uncoordinated from an
unmyelinated fiber; toes curl down; it
can be seen on adults there’s a
problem to the brain process b/c its
an abnormal reflex
