Experiment 2 Measuring Resistance and

Research on Voltage-current Characteristic

Resistance is an important physical parameter in electromagnetics. The resistance
characteristics of various electronic components can be simply divided into linear
resistance and nonlinear resistance. In order to fully understand the resistance
characteristics of electronic components, it is often necessary to measure the
functional relationship between voltage and current on the components, which is
Voltage-current Characteristic. In this experiment, basic performance and using
method of usual electrical instruments will be mastered by measuring the
Voltage-current Characteristic of the nonlinear resistance. Students need
understand an important principle: Starting with qualitative observation, and then
quantitative measurement.

【Objective and Requirement of Experiment】

1. Study basic performance and using method of usual electrical instruments.
2. Understand the principle of limiting current and dividing voltage, learn to use
rheochord to limit current and divide voltage.
3. Study and train the wiring skill based on the wiring diagram.
4. Measure the Voltage-current Characteristic of the nonlinear resistance.

【Experiment Principle】

When a DC voltage is applied to both ends of a component, the ratio of voltage U to

current I is called the resistance R of the component, which is,
U
R (1)
I
The above formula is Ohm's Law. Voltage U and current I can be measured by
voltmeter and ammeter respectively.
There are two kinds of connecting way in the circuit of measuring resistance by
Voltmeter-Ammeter method. Figure 2-1 is Ammeter internal connection, and Figure
2-2 is Ammeter external connection. In the simplified measurement, resistance R
can be calculated by following formula:

R U I
1
Here, U is display value of voltmeter, and I is display value of ammeter. But system
error exists in this simplified measurement because both voltmeter and ammeter have

certain internal resistance (Assume them to be RV and R A respectively).

1. The Method of Ammeter Internal Connection

Figure 2-1 is Ammeter internal connection. Voltage U shown by the voltmeter also

includes the voltage U A on the ammeter, so the resistance is:

U Ux U A R
R   R X  R A  (1  A ) R X
I I RX

It is obvious that the resistance measured by this method is larger than the actual

resistance, R X , the error resulted from the ammeter can be corrected by the following

formula:

RA
R X  R (1  ) (2)
R
It could be seen from the above Formula (2), if the resistance is very large, then it’s
better to use the method of ammeter internal connection.
2. The method of Ammeter External Connection
Figure 2-2 is Ammeter External Connection, and current shown by the ammeter - I also

includes the current to the voltmeter, I V , so the measured resistance is:

U UX UX
R  
I I X  IV IV
I X (1  )
IX

Expand the above formula by binomial, when I V  I X

,

RX
R  R X (1  ) (3)
RV
2
The resistance measured by this method is smaller than actual resistance, R X , and

the error resulted from the voltmeter can be corrected by the following formula:

R
R X  R (1  ) (4)
RV

It could be seen from the above Formula (4), if the resistance is very small, then the
method of ammeter external connection is better for measurement.
3. Voltage - Current Curve
In the coordinate system, where x-coordinate represents the voltage U on the
component, and y-coordinate represents the current through the component, the
relationship curve that current I varies with the change of voltage U is called
Voltage-Current characteristics curve of the component.

If the voltage on the element is proportional to the current through it, the
Voltage-Current characteristic of the component is a straight line, just as shown in
Figure 2-3. This kind of component is called linear element. Generally speaking,
resistance of metal conductor is linear resistance, and the resistance is the reciprocal

of the slope ( R  U I ).

If the ratio of the voltage on an element to the current is not a constant, these
components are called nonlinear elements. The usual transistor is a kind of nonlinear
element, and the resistance of transistor is related to the magnitude and direction of
the voltage between both ends.
A transistor is formed by P-N junction, which is combination of N-type semiconductor and
P-type semiconductor, just as shown in Figure 2-4. Transistor has positive pole which is
on the side of P-type semiconductor and negative pole which is on the side of N-type
semiconductor. P-N junction has the characteristic of mono-directional conduction, in
other words, the forward resistance of the transistor is low（ current direction is from P to
N ）, but the reverse resistance of the transistor is very high (current direction is from N to
3
P ).
When a positive voltage is applied on both
ends of a transistor （ that is, P ends with high
potential and N ends with low potential）, the
current varies exponentially with voltage ( as
the top part of Figure 2-5 ) if the voltage is
larger than positive start-up voltage
(Germanium transistor is 0.2～0.3V, and silicon
transistor is 0.6～0.8V ).
Note: Current must not exceed rated current

I M ( I M is an important indicator of a transistor ), otherwise, there is possibility for the

transistor to be destroyed . If negative voltage is applied at both ends of the

transistor （ that is, P ends with low potential and N ends with high potential ），when
the voltage varies over a large range, the current changes very slightly and weakly (as
lower part of Figure 2-5); when the voltage reaches the inverted breakdown voltage

U B （ U B is also an important indicator of a transistor）, the inverted current increases

rapidly with the increase of voltage, P-N junction will be broken down.

【Experimental Apparatus】

Ammeter, Voltmeter, Rheochord, Resistance box, DC Stabilized voltage power , Digital

voltmeter, Switch etc.

1 DC Stabilized Voltage Power Supply

At present, transistor stabilized voltage power supply is widely used in laboratory,
which is very convenient because of the high stability, small internal resistance and
continuously adjustable output. The main specification is maximum output voltage
and maximum output current. Take model WYJ-30 as an example, the maximum
output voltage and maximum output current of this DC stabilized voltage power supply
is 30V and 2A respectively.

2 Eletric meter
2.1 Voltmeter
A voltmeter is used to measure the voltage between any two points in a circuit.

4
Based on the range, it can be divided into voltmeters, milli-voltmeters and
micro-voltmeters, which are expressed with “V”、 “μV” respectively.
“mV”、 It should
be in parallel connection with both ends of the component under test.
2.2 Ammeter
Ammeter is used to measure the strength of current. Based on different range, it can
be divided into ammeter, milli-ammeter and micro-ammeter, which are expressed with
symbol “A”、 “μA” respectively.
“mA”、 Ammeter should be in serial connection in
circuit. Be careful of the range, polarity and internal resistance of the ammeter.

Main specification of an electric meter is:

(1) Range: The voltage or current when the pointer has maximum deflection. For
example, the range of the voltmeter is 3V, which means the pointer will have
maximum deflection when 3V voltage is applied to both ends of the meter.
(2) Internal resistance
Internal resistance is the resistance between two ends of the meter. Different ranges
of the same meter have different internal resistance. Take a voltmeter for example,
the internal resistance of two ranges 3V/6V are 3000  and 6000  respectively.
The internal resistance of the voltmeter is generally expressed by  /V, and the inner
resistance of the range can be calculated by the below formula:
Internal resistance=Range  Ohm per Volt
Here, Ohm per Volt is 1000  /V for all ranges.
When using the same range, the internal resistance is the same despite that the
measured voltage is different.
(3) Accuracy Grade
The accuracy level of a meter is represented by the percentage of the meter’s basic
error. The meter’s accuracy has a 7 levels, which is grade 0.1，0.2，0.5，1.0，1.5，
2.5，5.0. For example, a grade 0.5 meter has a basic error of plus or minus 0.5%.
The maximum allowable error of the meter ( that is error limit of instrument ), can be

calculated from the accuracy level  and range of the meter Am :

 ins   %  Am

Measure the voltage of 3V and 15V by the voltmeter of grade 0.5 and range 15 V, the
percentage errors of measurement are 2.5%(0.5% × 15÷ 3) and 0.5%(0.5% × 15÷ 15)
respectively, which means the percentage error would be smaller when the
measurand’s value is closer to the range of the meter, so generally make the pointer

5
 over 2/3 of the full range by choosing the appropriate range.

Be careful of below points when using electric meters:

(1) Choose electric meter
Select ammeter (or voltmeter) with appropriate range according to the current (or
voltage) to be measured. If the selected range is less than the current (or voltage) in
the circuit, the meter will be damaged. If the selected range is too large and the
pointer deflection is too small, the measurement is inaccurate. The voltage or
current to be measured should be estimated in advance. Choose a larger range to
test after estimation, and then select the appropriate range according to the test
value, and try possibility to deflect the meter's pointer over 2/3 of the full range.
(2) Direction of current
The deflection direction of the DC meter pointer is related to the direction of the
current, so pay attention to the "+" and "-" marks on the terminal of the electricity
meter when wiring and make sure that current goes in from the terminal marked "+"
and goes out from the terminal marked "-". Do not put the wrong polarity so as to
avoid damaging the pointer.
(3) Parallax problem
When reading, sighting must be vertical to the scale surface. A flat mirror is attached
to the surface scale of the precise meter, and the meter’s reading is accurate when
the image of a pointer in the mirror overlaps the pointer.
(4) Put the meter correctly. The dial is generally marked for placement, for example,
symbol “ — ” or “ ┌ ┐ ” means horizontal placement; “ ↑ ” or “ ⊥ ” means
vertical placement; “∠” means tilted placement. Failure to place as requirement will
affect measurement accuracy.
(5) The meter should point to zero before use, otherwise zero should be adjusted.

3 Variable Resistors
Common variable resistors include rheochord, rotatory resistance box, etc., which are
used to change current and voltage of circuit.
When choosing rheochord and resistance box, first pay attention to the following two
points:
First, magnitude of resistance is appropriate;
Second, maximum allowed current (or power) meets the requirement.
The above two points are generally marked on rheochord and resistance box. Just be

6
careful.
3.1 Rheochord
Rheochord can be used to control the voltage and current in the
circuit according to the connection method in the circuit, which
can be described as Figure 2-6. Moving contactor C can
change the resistance between A and C, as well as B and C.
There are two ways to use rheochord.
(1) Current-limiting circuit
In Figure 2-7, the resistance in the full circuit changes when sliding contactor C, and
current in circuit changes too, so this is called current-limiting circuit. All resistance of the
variable resistor is connected to the loop circuit when contactor C slides to B. In this

case, R AC is maximum and the current is minimum. On the contrary, R AC =0 when

contactor C slides to A and the current is maximum. This kind of rheochord working as
current limiting is generally called current restrictor.
Before switching on the power, generally contactor C needs to slide to B to get

maximum R AC and minimum current for safety. Then gradually adjust the resistance of

current restrictor and increase the current to the required value.

(2) Voltage division circuit.

As Figure 2-8 shows, U AB  U AC  U CB after switching on the power. The output

voltage U CB applied to the resistance R could be regarded as part of U AB , which

would change with the position change of contactor C. When contactor C is sliding to B,

U CB =0, which means that output voltage is zero; When contactor C is sliding to A,

U CB  U AB , which means that output voltage is maximum. In this case, output voltage

U CB could vary between zero and the voltage of the power. This kind of rheochord working

as voltage dividing is generally called voltage divider.

Before switching on the power, generally contactor C needs to slide to B to get minimum
voltage between two ends of R for safety. Then gradually adjust the resistance of
voltage divider and increase the voltage between two ends of R to the required value.

7
3.2 Resistance box
The panel diagram of rotatory resistance box is as Figure 2-9. There are a set of
standard resistors inside, which are made of manganese copper wire. Different
resistance values can be obtained by rotating the knob on the resistance box. For
example, when “  10000”points to 6; “  1000”points to 2; “  100”points to 4; “  10” points
to 9; “  1”points to2; “  0.1”points to 1, the total resistance is:

6  10000+2  1000+4  100+9  10+2  1+1  0.1=62492.1（  ）。

For resistance box of model ZX21, 0，0.9  ，9.9  ，99999.9  are marked respectively
beside the four binding posts. The adjustable range of the resistance value between the
two posts beside 0 and 0.9  is 0～0.9  ; The adjustable range of the resistance value
between the two posts beside 0 and 9.9  is 0～
9.9  ; The adjustable range of the resistance
value between the two posts beside 0 and
99999.9  is 0～99999.9  . If only needing to
change the resistance within range 0 ～ 0.9  ,
choose the two posts beside 0 and 0.9  ,
accordingly, if only needing to change the
resistance within range 0～9.9  , choose the two
posts beside 0 and 9.9  . In this case, the rest part of resistance box will not have
influence on the low resistance under test, which will improve the measuring accuracy.

Resistance box has below specifications:

(1) Total resistance, means the maximum resistance. Common total resistance of
resistance box is 99999.9  .
(2) Rated power, that is rated power of each resistor in the resistance box. Common
rated power of resistance box is 0.25 W. Rated current could be calculated from

rated power. For example, when using tap position of 100  , the allowable current

8
 W 0.25
is: I =   0.05(A) When tap position is larger, rated current is smaller.
R 100
Too large current will heat the resistance, which will lead to inaccurate resistance
values and even damage resistance.
(3) Instrument error of resistance box. Generally different gears of resistance box have
different accuracy levels, and it’s error tolerance is:

 ins   ( i %  Ri )  R

In above formula,
 i is the accuracy grade of each display panel of resistance box,

Ri
is the display value of each display panel, R  is residual resistance (that is,

resistance when display value of resistance box is zero)

For example,

“  10000”:  i ＝0.02

“  1000”:  i ＝0.05

“  100”:  i ＝0.1

“  10”:  i  0.1

“  1”:  i ＝1

“  0.1”:  i ＝1

Residual resistance: R   1.125

If the measured resistance R=4523.6  ， then instrument error is calculated as
below:

 ins  0  0.02%  4000  0.05%  500  0.1%

 20  0.1%  3  1%  0.6  1%  1.125
 2  0.5  0.02  0.03  0.006  1.125
 3.681

9
【Experiment Content】

1 Study on forward Volt-Ampere characteristic of transistor

(1) Connecting circuit according to Figure 2-14-1 (Ammeter external connection ). In the
figure, R is the resistor to limit current of transistor, which is 200 Ω . Select the larger
range of Ammeter and Voltmeter. The output voltage of the power is about 2 V.
(2) Adjust ends C of the resistance box and observe the change of voltage and current,
then select the appropriate range of ammeter and Voltmeter so that pointer of electricity
meter can deflect more than two-thirds of full scale. Select measuring points and record
the number of scale which pointer of ammeter and voltmeter deflects. This experimental
process is called qualitative observation before quantitative measurement.

2 Study on reversed Volt-Ampere characteristic of transistor

(1) Connecting circuit according to Figure 2-14-2 (Ammeter internal connection ).
(2) Select 3 V as the range of the voltmeter, switch ammeter to micro-ammeter with the
range of 100  A or 500  A. Let the voltage increase slowly from zero, and observe how
the current changes with voltage.
(3) Select appropriate measuring points according to the variation of voltage and current
and record the number of scale which pointer of micro-ammeter and voltmeter deflects.

3. Convert number of scale to corresponding current value and voltage value

( Express measurement result based on error tolerance of instrument). Take the voltage
U as the x-coordinate, the current I as the y-coordinate, draw the forward and inverted
characteristic diagram with coordinate paper and compare.

【Matters need attention】

1.The positive and negative poles of electric meters, P pole and N pole of the diode
cannot be connected inversely. When measuring forward Voltage-Current characteristic,
display value of milliammeter must not exceed the maximum forward current allowed by

diode( that is I M , which is given by lab). When measuring inverted Voltage-Current

10
characteristic, display value of voltmeter must not exceed the reverse breakdown voltage

allowed by diode( that is U B , which is given by lab).

2.Set power voltage output to minimum, adjust divider resistance of rheochord to

minimum before wiring and switching on the circuit. Switch on power and switch on switch
only after circuit is fully connected and carefully checked.

【Preview Questions 】
1. Why is Ammeter external connection used to measure the forward volt-ampere
characteristic curve?
2. What should be careful when power supply, electricity meter and rheochord are
connected to the circuit?

【Reflection Questions】
1. What are the main using ways of the Rheochord? How to use it? Explain by this

experiment.

2.In an experiment, if the voltage of the power supply is 6V, measured resistance is 50Ω,

range of the Ammeter ( milli-ammeter ) is 150/300mA, internal resistance of range 150mA

is about 0.4Ω, Range of voltmeter is 1.5/3.0/7.5Ｖ, internal resistance per volt is about 200

Ω . How to choose the range of electric meter? Which connecting way is better for the

ammeter?

11
12
 【Experimental Data Recording】

1. Study on the forward volt-ampere characteristic curve of diode

Voltmeter:Range_______mV, Full Scale______Scales, Grade______Level

Ammeter:Range_______mA, Full Scale _____Scales, Grade______Level

U（ Number of
Scales）
I（ Number of
Scales）
U（ Number of
Scales）
I（ Number of
Scales）

2. Study on the inverted volt-ampere characteristic curve of diode

Voltmeter:Range_______mV, Full Scale______Scales, Grade______Level
Ammeter:Range_______mA, Full Scale _____Scales, Grade______Level

U（ Number of
Scales）
I（ Number of
Scales）
U（ Number of
Scales）
I（ Number of
Scales）

13
【Data Processing and Analysis】

1. Forward volt-ampere characteristic curve of diode

Error limit of instrument: Uins  U m   %  ,  Iins  I m   % 

,

Uncertainty： UU  , UI  .

U/mV
I/mA

2. Inverted volt-ampere characteristic curve of diode

Error limit of instrument: Uins  U m   %  ,  Iins  I m   % 

,

Uncertainty： UU  , UI  .

U/mV
I/μA

3. Draw the forward and inverted Voltage-Current characteristic diagram in the same
coordinate paper (Forward characteristic curve is drawn in the first quadrant, Inverted
characteristic curve is drawn in the third quadrant).

14