PREFACE........ .................. ......................................................................................................

iii

INTRODUCTION TO THEUNDERSTANDING OF THE SELF.......................................ix

WHAT IS S E L F ? ............................................................ ......................... ................. ...I ......*

CHAPTER 1: THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES........... ................................... 1

INTRODUCTION............................................................ .................... ...... ......... 1

Different Perspectives in the Explanation of SELF.............................................. 5

Philosophy......... .......... ........ ........ ............... ................................ ......... .?....; 7

Sociology..................................... ................. ....................... ;................ ....... ..... 21

The Self As a Product of Modem Society Among Other Constructions.......21
Mead and the Social Self........... ........... ...... ...... ................... ...................... 23

Anthropology...................................................... ................ ........................ .* .... 27

The Self and the Person in Contemporary Anthropology.......................... .27
. The Self Embedded in Culture.......... ........ ......... ...... ........... .:............... .... 28

Psychology........................................ ............... ................ .................................. 31

The Self As A Cognitive Construction............................ ............................. 32
Harter’s Self-Development Concept............................. ...................................
William James and The Me-Self; 1-Self.............. ...... ................ ....... .......... 34
Real and Ideal Self-Concepts............ ...... ............... .......................................35
Multiple vs Unified Selves.............................................................................38
The Unity of Consciousness........... ...... ......................... ............. ............... 39
One Self or Many Selves?....................... ..................... ....... ......................... 39
Allport’s Personality Theory............................ ..........................................,..39
True vs False Selves.......... ....................... ...................... .............................. 40

The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastem Thought.......... ................................44

Western Concept of Self............................................ ........ ....................... ...44
Eastern Concept of Self............................... .............. ..................................45
Individualistic vs Collective Self...... ............ ................ ....... ...................... .49
Understanding Your Score on the Individualism-Collectivism Scale.......... 50
CHAPTER 2: UNPACKING THE SELF.................................................. ........... ............ ......55
*

INTRODUCTION.......... ..................................... ............ ...................................55

The Physical Self..................................................................................... ........... .56

What Philosophers Think About Beauty.................. ..........................................57

What did psychology discover about beauty?............... ........ ............................58

How Cultural Traditions Shape Body Image ............................ .................. 59
The Relationship Between Body Image and Self-esteem............................. 60
Does your body image have an impact on your self-esteem?......................61
How important is physical beauty?...................... ........ ............... ........... —61

The Sexual Self..................... ...................... ............................. ............ ............. .64

Development of the Sexual Organs in the Embryo and Fetus.....................65
Further Sexual Development Occurs at Puberty......................................... 66
Understanding the Human Sexual Response............................................... 69
Sex and the Brain. What parts are involved?............................................... 71
Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment....................72
The Diversity of Sexual Behavior........................... ..... ................. ...... ....... 75
Gender Identity............................ ............. ................................. ................ 75
What is LGBTQ+?....................... ............. ..... ............. ........................... .....75
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Issues........—.............. ............ .... 76
Sociocultural Factors..........—......................................................... ............. 77
: / ■
V'Family Influences.................................................................. ....... .............. 77
Urban Setting.......... ............. .......... .......... ........ ............... ........ ........ ....... 77
History of Sexual Abuse ................. ................ ...... .......... ........ ........... ..... 78
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD’s ) ........... .............................. .............. 78
The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012...........78
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies of Reproductive Health Law...................79
Advantages and Disadvantages of Family Planning............................... .....79
Benefits of Using Family Planning According to DOH........................... —..80
The Natural Family Planning Method............ ............ ...... .... .............. ..... 81
Hormonal Contraception/Artificial Family Planning.................... ........... ..83

The Material/Economic Self................. ........... —— .......... .......... ..... ............. 88

I Shop Therefore I Am: I have, Therefore I am?......: ............................. 89
Consumption and Production....... .................. —— ....... ......... ................. 89
Conscious Consumption..... :.......................... ................... .......... .......... .....89
Psychological/Sociological Consumption..... ............................................... 89
Identity and Consumer Culture.............. ............ ..... ...................... *......... .90
' ' The Problem with Consumerism... .... ................. ................. ...... ............... 91
Avoid the Trap..................... ............... .............. —........................................91
55 •The Spiritual Self........................ .'......... ......... .......... ........ ................................ 94
Spiritual Versus Religious ......... .............. ............... .............. ...................... 94
55 The Practice of Religion: Belief in Supernatural Being and Power.............. 96
56 The Political Self.......................................... ...... ............... ..... ...... ................. 108
57 Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community
and Institutional Factors........................ ......... .........................................108
58
Strengths of the Filipino Character........................... ........ ..... ................. 110
59
60 The Digital Self............................................. ..... ................ ....................... ,.... 117
61 Selective Self-Presentation and Impression Management........................119

61 CHAPTERS MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF,............................................130

64 ■[
INTRODUCTION................... .................. ....... ............................. ................. 130
65 j..
Learning to Be a Better Student............. ..... ..................... ....................... 132
66
What Happens During Learning? Brain and Behavior Changes............... 132
69
Left Brain/Right Brain Activity........... ...... ....... ........... ........ ...... ............ 133
71
72 Metacognition and Study Strategies............ ...................... ............. ............... 138
75 Metacognitive Teaching Strategies
(Helping Students Learn How to Learn). ..................................................... 138
75 j
75 { . Metacognitive Awareness Inventory....................................... ................. 139
76 j Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) Scoring Guide.......................142
77 Pre-assessment (Self-Assessment) of Content...................................... ......... 143
77
Self-Assessment of Self-Regulated Learning Skills..................................... . 143
77 ['
78 ( . Think Aloud for Metacognition....... ........ ...................... ^........ ................ ...... 146
.78 j. Concept Mapping and Visual Study Tools ........................... ............................ 147
.78 !
How to use a Concept Map.......... .................................................................... 148
.79 i
.79 ; Classroom Assessment Tools.............................................. ...... ...................... 149 '
.80 Metacognitive Note-Taking S k i l l s ..................................... ........ ....... ..... .... 151
.81 Beginning of Class (Plan + Connect).............................. ........ ................. 151
.83 | End of Class (Reflecting on Learning)...,............................. ..................... 151
.38 f Reflective Writing.... ............................... ................... ,..... ............................ :. 152
.89 j Managing your Own Learning: Self-Regulated Learning....... .................. 152
.89 | Self-Regulation as a Process....................................... ........... ................... 153
.89
,89 Setting goals for Success ........................ ............. ........................................159
.90 The importance of goals............................................................................ 159
.91 Albert Bandura’s Self-efficacy........... ................................ ................. ..... 160
.91

I
 What is Self-Efficacy?.................................... ................... ............................... 161
What is a SELF-CONCEPT?......................... ...................................:........ 163
i What is SELF-ESTEEM? ............. ............................. ......................... ....... 164

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory................................ ............. ......................... .... 166

SMART Goals................... ..... ............ .................. ...1......................... 167

Taking charge of one’s health..........:....................... ..................................... 170

. Stressors and responses............................................. .......... .............. ............ 173

What is stress?.......................... .......... ....... ................. ........................ ...173
Eustress............................... ........ ............... ............... .............................. 173
Neustress..................................... ............ ............................. *....... . 173
Distress............................................................... ........................ ........ ...... 174

Souses of Coping and Strength....... ..... ..........................................................175

Coping With Stress........................... ............ ........ i................ :................ 175
24 Positive Coping Strategies for Stress.............................. ........ ....... .... 177
Stress and Filipinos.... ........... ............ ............. .......... .......................... . 177
Filipino Traits and Values ...... ......................... ...... ..... ............................. 178
The Role of Social Class, Race, and Gender in Social Stress....... ............. . 183
Taking care of the self: The need for self-care and compassion.......... ..... 185
Deficiency Versus Growth..... ............... ............................... ..................... 186
Motivated by Unsatisfied Need......... ...... ................................................ 186
Self-care: What is it and why is it important?................. ................. ....... 188
Compassion’s Surprising Benefits for Physical and Psychological Health 189

REFERENCES.................................. ............. ........... ........ .............. ,...... ....................192

 The “self” has many aspects. These aspects make up the “self’s” integral parts, such
as. self-awareness, self-esteem, self-knowledge, and self-perception. With these aspects,
the person is able to alter, change, add, and/or modify himself or herself for the purpose
of gaining social acceptance.
The “self” is an important study in psychology. It holds that the “self” is either the
cognitive or the affective representation of the individual. Cognitive is relating to or
involving conscious intellectual activity while affective is relating to or arising from
feelings influenced ,by emotions (Merriam-Webster, 2017). r

Surfacing Students' Beliefs and Concerns Regarding the Self

Have you ever thought of not caring for yourself? Do you believe that it’s better
tp love some other people than to love your own self? But, do you also think of loving
yourself more than loving others? Well, this course will definitely help you to discern,.
ponder, and decide whether your beliefs and concerns about yourself and identity deem
to socially or culturally evolve depending on your experiences, family upbringing, as
well as media conditioning. Hold on... before you say yes!
Let’s take a journey down to the innermost aspect of your being... yourSELF....

Discussion of the Mechanics of the Course

Understanding the Self is a new GE core course for all college students regardless of
the diverse courses they will take.
This is a three-unit course, thus, requiring three hours per week of lecture. This
course uses an Outcome-Based Education (OBE) SYLLABUS to allow students to
appreciate learning better with enriching, creative, fun-filled activities, as well as mind-
boggling exercise^ fhat enable them to develop high critical-order thinking skills while
in school.
They will be attending a class with group activities, group discussions, exercises,
readings, POP Psych tests (either paper-and-pencil or online), quickie surveys (also
known as mini-research/action research), dyad activities, film-viewing, role-playing,
writing short reflections and essays, journal writing, and many more.

k : ______
 "Believe in yourself! Have faith in your abilities! Without a humble but
reasonable confidence in your own powers you cannot be successful or
happy.”
—Norman Vincent Peale

B INTRODUCTiON

How well do you know yourself? Are you aware of your talents? Skills? Weaknesses?
Strengths? #
The persistent question, “Who am I?” is rooted in the human need to understand
the basis of the experiences of the “self.” When people are asked to explain their
understanding of the word, the usual answers are: “It’s who I am.” “It’s me, my essence.”
“It’s what makes me unique and different from everyone else.”
For a more meaningful understanding of the “self,” numerous studies have been
conducted and various approaches have been developed from concepts about it.
Important philosophers from ancient to contemporary times sought to describe the
essential qualities that compose a person’s uniqueness. On the other hand, sociology
sees the “self” as a product of social interactions, developed over time through social
activities and experiences.
Anthropology views the “self” as a culturally shaped construct or idea. Anthropologists
assert that it is an autonomous participant in the society as much as it is submerged in
the community. Meanwhile, rather than giving a definition, psychology sees the “self” as
having characteristics or properties that can be used to describe it. Pioneers,in the study
pointed out that the “self” is related to its physical and social environment, itis unique,
and it is necessary to its experiences.
Eastern and Western civilizations have always sought to understand the “self.” Their
views, however, stand on different perspectives. British philosopher Alan Watts (known
for his interpretations of Eastern philosophy and mythology) talked about the great

(mmmmismBsmami) 1
 “m y th s” of the Self. However, it should be noted that the term “m y th ” here is not used to
describe a false story, rather it is used as a means to interpret a reality.
According to Watts, the pervading myth in the West is that “the world is an artefact.”
This means there is a clear distinction between the creator and the creation. This
perspective indicates that the Western interpretation of the “self” possesses an internal
distinction from its external environment. That even though the “self” functions in the
world, the “self” is still its own. In the East however, the myth is that “the world is
a drama and all things are actors with specific parts to play.” There is no distinction
. between the creator and the creation as all that exists is immersed in one and the same
existence. This perspective suggests that the “self” in Eastern traditions is seen through
the eyes of a community, rather than a detached, single entity. However, Watts further
clarified that his statements on the two great myths of the “self ” is only a description of
what it is “ like” in that civilization, and not a definition of what it “is.”
Learning the various fundamental concepts of the “self ”is significant because these
ideas lay the foundation that will foster in you, the learner, a deep reflection and insight
into the continuous pursuit of self-discovery.

In this chapter, the student will understand the construct of the self from
various disciplinal perspectives. The student will also reflect on a concrete
experience on a holistic point of view.

I. Objective:
At the end of the chapter, students will be able demonstrate various
ways of understanding the self.

II. Learning Outcomes: <

At the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self
from various disciplinal perspectives;
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across
different disciplines and perspectives;
3. Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the
self; and
4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the
development of one’s self and identity by developing a theory of the
self.
 pZ )c6caM lo/t

"If you feel lost, disappointed, hesitant, or weak, return to yourself, to who
you are, here and now and when you get there, you will discover yourself, like
a lotus flower in full bloom, even in a jnuddy pond, beautiful and strong.”
—Masaru Emoto, Secret Life o f Water

How did ancient thinkers view a human being? Who were those curious enough
to study how human beings perceive themselves? One aspect that makes us humans
different from all other creatures on earth is our capacity to build on knowledge. We
learn, we apply it in our lives, and we use acquired ideas to create.
Philosophical musings have produced some of the most important original ideas over
the centuries. Their contributions to all areas of learning are inestimable. Some views
may be more popular, others- a bit unknown, but humanity’s development is founded
on the views of our ancient thinkers. What is philosophy? Philosophy is from the Greek
words philo- (loving) and S o p h ia (knowledge, wisdom). At its simplest; philosophy means
“loving knowledge” or “loving wisdom.” The term philosophy as originally used by the
Greeks meant “the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake ” . # .
Naturally, the need to understand the “self” did not escape the philosopher’s curious
mind. Hence, here are the most relevant philosophical views that will give you a historical
framework in your quest of understanding yourself.

M p IFFERENT PERSPECTIVES IN THE EXPLANATION OF S eI f

How do you define “self”? Do you have the same definitions of self in philosophical
and psychological perspectives?
Let’s find out how the philosophers define or describe self during the early and
modern times. But before going into the details of their significant contributions in the
understanding of the self, let’s have an exercise first.
 "PHILOSOPHER’S GALLERY WALK”

orally, let him/her sign in the box being answered.

He believes that the

A philosopher who states Explain this statement,
human mind at hirth is a
that "fact, therefore 1am" "1 think, therefore lam."
"tabula rasa."

Knows the philosophy Discuss the philosophy Recite the three kinds
of Immanuel Kant. Of Hume. of being by Plato.

i l

Explain this phrase,

Give an example/personal
Explain the physical body is an
experience of the phrase
"Socratic method." important part
"I act, therefore I am."
oftheself.

f------------------ -— ---------------- - ......... ............... ......... .........•»

Differentiate between
Know the life of John Discuss the statement,
Descartes'and Gilbert
Locke. "1 sense, therefore 1am."
Ryle's views about the "self."

fc— ___ ____ _____ ^-----...................... .............■ - .................................. - ............................... ..........................................^

— .....................

This philosopher states

Give the background of
Tell who Augustine is. that reason is the final
. Descartes.
authority of morality.

I ............................... ■'..... ;■ J

6
iPhilosophy

Socrates . j ■*
Socrates was a Greek philosopher and one of the
very few individuals who shaped Western thought
(Internet E n cyclopedia o f Philosophy, 2017). However,
unlike the other philosophers during his time,
Socrates never wrote anything. Knowledge about
Socrates is through second-hand information from
the writings of his student Plato (another of the
most influential Western thinkers) and historian
Xenophon (T he S ta n fo rd E n cyclopedia o f Philosophy,
2017). ,
Socrates was known for his method of inquiry
ip testing a n idea. This is called the Socratic Method
Source: https://w w w .biography.fpm /
whereby an idea was tested by asking a series of people/socrates-9488126
questions to determine underlying beliefs and the
extent of knowledge to guide the person toward
better understanding (Maxwell, 2015). Socrates was described to have gone about in
Athens questioning everyday views and popular Athenian beliefs. This apparently
offended the leaders in his time. He was then accused of impiety or lack of reverence
for the gods and for corrupting the minds of the youth. At 70 years old, Socrates was
sentenced to death by drinking a cup of poison hemlock (Brickhouse & Smith, 2002).
Some of Socrates’ ideas were:
• The soul is immortal.
• The care of the soul is the task of philosophy.
• Virtue is necessary to attain happiness
Socrates believed that philosophy had a very important role to,play in the lives of
the people. One of his most-quoted phrases is, “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
According to Socrates, self-know ledge or the examination of one’s self; as well as the
question about how one ought to live one’s life, are very important concerns because only
by knowing yourself can you hope to improve your life (Rappe, 1995). Socrates believed
that you as a person should consciously contemplate, turn your gaze inward, and analyze
the true nature and values that are guiding your life.
He added self-knowledge Would open your eyes to your true nature;-which contrary
to pop culture, is not about what you own, how many “Likes” you get in your social media
posts, or how successful you are in your career. In fact, your real self is not even your
body. According to Socrates, the state of your inner being (soul/self) determines the
quality of your life.

7
 Socrates said existence is of two kinds:
1. The visible, and
2. Theinvisible.
The visible existence changes while the in visible existence remains constant
(Connolly, 2017). According to Socrates, this is the state of the human being. The body,
which is visible, changes; the other part, the kind that is invisible to humans yet sensed
and understood by the mind remains constant. In the Socratic Dialogue, Plato wrote
what Socrates said about the body and the soul: “When the soul and body are together
nature assigns our body to be a slave and to be ruled and the soul to be ruler and master”
(Hamilton et al., 1961; Organ, 1986). However, Socrates said that the body was a
reluctant slave, and the soul gets dragged toward what is always changing. This would
leave the soul confused (Organ, 1986).
Socrates also believed that the goal of life is to be happy. How does one become
happy? According to Socrates, the virtuous man is a happy man, and that virtue alone
is the one and only supreme good that will secure his/her happiness. Virtue is defined as
moral excellence, and an individual is considered virtuous if his/her character is made up
of the moral qualities that are accepted as virtues, i.e., courage, temperance, prudence,
and justice (The S ta n fo rd E n cyclopedia o f Philosophy, 2017). According to Socrates, even
death is a trivial matter for the truly virtuous because he/she has realized that the most
important thing in life is the state of his/her soul and the acts taken from taking care of
the soul through self-knowledge.

Plato

“Good actions give strength to

ourselves and inspire good actions in
others."
—Plato

Plato was the student of Socrates. He

wrote the Socratic Dialogue where Socrates
was the main character and speaker. Plato’s
philosophical method was what he identified
as “collection and division” (Phaedrus, 265e;
Smith, 2017). In this method, the philosopher
Public Domain. Courtesy o f Wikipedia. would collect all the generic ideas that
seemed to have common characteristics and
then divided them into different kinds until the subdivision of ideas became specific. He
is best known for his T h eory o f F o rm s that asserted the physical world is not really the
“real” world because the ultimate reality exists beyond the physical world.
 Plato is perhaps the single most important influence of the Western concept of
“self.” According to Plato, the “soul” is indeed the most divine aspect of the human
being. However, his concept of the divine is not a spiritual being but rather one that has
an intellectual connotation. The self/soul/mind according to Plato is the aspect of the
human beings by which the Forms (ideas) are known.

The Three parts of the soul according to Plato are:

• The appetitive (sensual)
The element that enjoys sensual experiences, such as food, drink, and sex”

• The rational (reasoning)

The element that forbids the person to enjoy the sensual experiences; the part
that loves truth, hence, should rule over the other parts of the soul through the
use of reason

• The spirited (feeling)

The element that is inclined toward reason but understands the demands of
passion; the part that loves honor and victory

St. Augustine
Saint Augustine, also called Saint Augustine of
Hippo, is one of the Latin Fathers of the Church, one
of the Doctors of the Church, and one of the most
significant Christian thinkers. His philosophical
approach to Christian thinking is the most
influential theological system. His written vtorks
are among the foundations of medieval and modern
Christian t h o u g h t (Encyclopcedia B rita n n ic a , 2017).
Saint Augustine was deeply influenced by
Plato’s ideas. Not surprisingly, he adopted Plato’s
view that the “self” is an immaterial (but rational) All knowledge leads to God.
soul. Giving the Theory of Forms a Christian
perspective, Augustine asserted that these F o rm s were concepts existing within the
perfect and eternal God (The Catholic University of America Press, 1982) where the soul
belonged. Saint Augustine held that the soul held the Truth and was capable of scientific
thinking. Saint Augustine’s concept of the “self” was an inner, immaterial “I ” that had
self-knowledge and self-awareness. He believed that the human being was both a soul
and body, and the body possessed senses, such as imagination, memory, reason, and
mind through which the soul experienced the world.
He also reasoned that human beings through the senses could sense the material,
temporal objects as we interacted with the material world; the immaterial but intelligible

9
(def.able to be understood only by the intellect, not by the senses) God would only be
clear or obvious to the mind if one tune into his/her immaterial self/soul.
The aspects.of the self/soul according to Saint Augustine’s are:
• It is able to be aware of itself.
• It recognizes itself as a holistic one.
• It is aware of its unity.
1 i

Saint Augustihe believed that the human being who is both soul and body is meant
to tend to higher, divine, and heavenly matters because of his/her our capacity to ascend
and comprehend truths through the mind. He connected the ascension of the soul with
his assertion that everything related to the physical world belongs to the physical body,
and if a person concerns himself/herself with this physical world then he/she will not
be any different from animals. Saint Augustine pointed out that a person is similar to
God as regards to the mind and its ability; that by ignoring to use his/her mind (or the
incorrect use of the mind) he/she would lose his/her possibility to reach real and lasting
happiness (The S ta n fo rd E n cyclopedia o f Philosophy, 2017; Mendelson, 206).

Rene Descartes
Rene Descartes was a French philosopher,
mathematician, and scientist. He is considered the
father of modern Western philosophy. Descartes is
often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the
use of reason to describe, predict, and understand
natural phenomena based on observational and
empirical evidence (Bertrand, 2004; Grosholz, 1991).
Descartes proposed that doubt was a principal
tool of disciplined inquiry. His method was called
hyperholical/metaphysical doubt, also sometimes
“I Think, Therefore I A m .” referred to as methodological skepticism . It is a
systematic process of being skeptical about the truth
of one’s beliefs in order to determine which beliefs could be ascertained as true (Roger,
1994; Philosophy Glossary University of Houston).
Rene Descartes’ famous line “Cogito ergo sum” translated as “I think, therefore I
am” became a fundamental element of Western philosophy as it secured the foundation
for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. He asserted that everything perceived by the
senses could not be used as proof of existence because human senses could be fooled.
He added that there was only one thing we could be sure of in this world, and that was
everything could be doubted. In turn, by doubting his own existence, Descartes proved
that there is a thinking entity that is doing the act of doubting.

10
 Descartes’ claims about the “self” are:
• It is constant; it is not prone to change; and it is not affected by time.
• Only the immaterial soul remains the same throughout time.
• The immaterial soul is the source of our identity.

He further asserted that this thinking entity could exist without the body because
it is an immaterial substance. Nevertheless, this immaterial substance (self) possesses a
body and is so intimately bound/joined by it that the “self ” forms a union with its body.
Despite this body-soul union, Descartes reasoned that the soul is still distinct from the
body.
Some distinctions between the soul and body as pointed out by Descartes are:

It is a conscious, thinking substance that is It is a material substance that changes

unaffected by time. through time.
t i

ft is known only to itself (only you know It can be doubted; The public can correct
your own mental event and others cannot claims about the body.
correct your mental states).

It is n o t made up of parts. It views the It is made up of physical, quantifiable,

entirety of itself with no hidden or separate divisible parts.
compartments. It is both conscious and
aware of itself at the same time.

John Locke
John Lock was a philosopher and physician ahd was one
of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers. The Age
of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason was an intellectual
and philosophical movement that dominated the ideas in
Europe during the 18th century.
If Descartes described the “self” as a thinking thing,
Locke expanded this definition of “self” to include the
memories of that thinking thing. Locke believed that
the “self” is identified with consciousness and this “self”
consists of sameness of consciousness. This is usually
Human mind at birth is a
interpreted to mean that the “self” consists of memory;
tabula rasa, which means
that the person existing now is the same person yesterday
that knowledge is derived
because he/she remembers the thoughts, experiences, or
from experience
actions of the earlier self (Natsoulas, 1994; Fuchs, 2017).
For Locke, a person’s memories provide a continuity of experience that allows him/
her to identify himself/herself as the same person over time. This theory of personal
identity allows Locke to justify a defense of accountability (Winkler, 1991). According

11
 to Locke since the person is the same “self” in the passing of time, he/she can.be held
accountable for past behaviors. However, Locke insisted that a*person could only be held ^
accountable for behaviors he/she can remember. Locke believed that punishing someone 1
for behaviors he/she has no recollection of doing is equivalent to punishing him/her for *
t

actions that was never performed. He asserted that the state of the person who cannot
remember his/her behavior is the same as the state of the person who never committed ‘
the act, which meant the person was ignorant. *
/

David Hume i
David Hume (1711 -1776) was a Scottish philosopher,
economist, and historian during the Age of Enlightenment.
He was a fierce opponent of Descartes’ Rationalism.
Rationalism is the theory that reason, rather ’ than
experience, is the foundation of all knowledge. Hume,
along with John Lbcke and Bishop George Berkeley, was
one of the three main figureheads of the influential British
Empiricism movement. Empiricism is the idea that the
origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasized
the role of experience and evidence (especially sensory
A ll know ledge is derived
perception) in forming concepts, while discounting the
from h um an sen ses.
notion of innate ideas (S ta n fo r d E n cyclopedia o f Philosophy,
2017).
Hume is identified with the b u n d l e t h e o r y wherein he described the “self” or
person (which Hume assumed to be the “mind”) as a bundle or a collection of different t
perceptions that are moving in a very fast and successive manner; therefore, it is in a
“perpetual flux.” Hume’s theory began by denying Descartes’ view of the immaterial
soul and of its experiences. Empiricists like Hume believed that human intellect and
experiences are limited; therefore, it is impossible to attribute it to an independent
persisting entity (i.e., soul). David Hume concluded that the “self” is merely made up of
successive impressions (Pike, 1967; Seigel, 2005).
Hume divided the mind’s perceptions into two groups stating that the difference
between the two “consists in the degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike
upon the mind” (Hume, p. 10):
1. Impressions. These are the perceptions that are the most strong. They enter the
senses with most force. These are directly experienced; they result from inward
and outward sentiments.
2. Ideas. These are the less forcible and less lively counterparts of impressions.
These are mechanisms that copy and reproduce sense data formulated based
upon the previously perceived impressions.

12 7/

k.
 Hume asserted that the notion of the “self” could not be verified through observation.
He argued that if you can directly know, then what you know are mere objects of what
your senses are experiencing. With this idea, he believed there is no logical justification
for the existence of anything other than what your senses experienced. For Hume, the
“self” was nothing but a series of incoherent impressions received by the senses. This
description of experience revealed, according to Hume, no permanently subsisting self
(Montgomery, 1889).
Hume compared the “self ” to a nation; whereby a nation retains its “being a nation”
not by some single core or identity but by being composed of different, constantly
changing elements, such as people, systems, culture, and beliefs. In the same manner,
the “self ” according to Hume-is not just one impression but a mix and a loose cohesion
of various personal experiences. Hume insisted that there is no one constant impression
that endures throughout your life.
Hume did not believe on the existence of the “self.” He stressed that your perceptions
are only active for as long as you are conscious. According to Hume, should your perception
be “removed” for any time (such as when you are sleeping), and you can no longer sense
yourself then you also cease to exist. In this line, Hume seemed to reduce the “self” as a
light bulb that may be switched on or off.
Hume’s “self” is a passive observer similar to watching one’s life pass before the eyes
like a play or on a screen; whereby the total annihilation of the “self” comes at death.

Immanuel Kant
Philosopher Immanuel Kant is a central figure in
modern philosophy. His contributions to metaphysics,
epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics have had a profound
impact on almost every philosophical movement that
followed him. Among other ideas that Kant proposed was
that, the human mind creates the structure of human
experience.
Kant’s view of the “self” is transcendental, which
means the “self” is related to a spiritual or nonphysical
realm. For Kant, the self is not in the body. The self is R E A S O N is the fin a l
outside the body, and it does not have the qualities of the au th o rity o f m orality.
body. Despite being transcendental, Kant stressed that the
M o rality is achieved only
body and its qualities are rooted to the “self.” He proposed
when there is absen ce o f
that it is knowledge that bridges the “self” and the material
w ar b ecau se o f th e resu lt
things together (Boeree, 1999; Brook, 2004).
o f enligh ten m en t
 Two kinds of consciousness of self (rationality):
. * .

1. Consciousness of oneself and one’s psychological states in inner sense, and

2. Consciousness of oneself and one’s states by performing acts of apperception.

Apperception is the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by

assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses:
Kant’s point is that what truly exist are your ideas and your knowledge of your ideas;
that you perceive the outside world through the self with your ideas. Kant pointed out
that the material world is not just an extension, and that you are merely seeing objects.
He insisted that you perceive the outside world because there is already an idea residing
within you. These ideas are what connect you to the external world. He defended the
diverse quality or state of the body and soul (self) presenting that “bodies are objects of
outer sense; souls are objects of inner sense” (Carpenter, 2004).
Two components of the “self”:
1. The “self” by which you are aware of alterations in your own state.
In n e r self.
This includes your rational intellect and your psychological state, such as moods,
feelings, and sensations, pleasure, and pain.
2. It includes your senses and the physical world. It is the common
O u te r se lf.
boundary between the external world and the inner self. It gathers information
from the external world through the senses, which the inner self interprets and
coherently expresses.
II

Kant proposed that the “self” organizes information in three ways: ?

1. Raw perceptual input,
2. Recognizing the concept, and
3. Reproducing in the imagination.

Kant’s “self" has a unified point of self-reference. You are

conscious of yourself as the subject, and you are conscious of
yourself as a common subject of different representations.
Here Kant confirms that the impressions you perceive point
tb one single common fact - the “self” is the subject of these
experiences.

Sigmund Freud
Philosopher, physiologist, and psychologist Sigmund
Freud was one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th
century. His most important contribution* particularly in
psychology, was psychoanalysis, a practice devised to treat
those who are mentally ill through dialogue.
 The vast majority of European philosophers before Freud (from Flato and Aristotle
to Kant and Descartes) regarded human beings as having an “essence” to which the
self/soul is ascribed. The “self” was an eiitity in itself characterized as the subject (the
focal point: the topic and doer of the action), of the physical and mental actions and
7 experiences. The notidn is that the self is essence and subject points to the idea of an
entity that is unified, single, undivided, and unaffected by time.
Freud, however, did not accept the existence of any single entity that could be put
t forward as the notion of “self.” His workin the field of psychoanalysis was groundbreaking
because it answered questions about the human psy ch e in a way that no one else had
5
7 before him. In psychology, the psych e i s the totality of the human mind, both conscious
and unconscious. (Watson, 2014).
f In his earlier structural division of the psyche, Freud distinguished three levels of
consciousness:
1. Conscious, Which deals with awareness of present perceptions, feelings,
thoughts, memories, and fantasies at any particular moment; *
2. Pre-conscious/subconscious, which is related to data that can readily be
brought to consciousness; and
i 3. Unconscious, which refers to data retained but not easily available to the
\ individual’s conscious awareness or scrutiny. #
1
Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the proposed existence of the
unconscious as: .; . ' '
1. A repository for traumatic repressed memories; and ‘
2. The source of anxiety-provoking drives that is socially or ethically unacceptable
to the individual.

Psychoanalytic Theory is a personality theory

based on the notion that an individual gets motivated
by ,unseen forces, controlled by the conscious and
the rational thought. Sigmund Freud did not exactly
create the notion of the conscious versus unconscious
mind, but he certainly was responsible for making it
popular, and this was one of his main contributions
r
[: to psychology (McLeod, 2008).
t
i
To explain his model, Freud used the analogy of
an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

15
 Freud further structured the psyche/mind into three parts:
1. Id. It operates on the pleasure principle. Every wishful impulse should be satisfied
immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its demands,
you experience pleasure; when it is denied, you experience “unpleasure” or
tension.
2. Ego. It operates according to the reality principle. It works out realistic ways of
satisfying the id’s demands (often compromising or postponing satisfaction to
. avoid negative consequences of society). The ego considers social realities and
norms, etiquette, and rules in deciding how to behave. If the ego fails to use the
reality principle, anxiety is experienced, and unconscious defense mechanisms
are employed to help ward off unpleasant feelings.
3. Superego. It incorporates the values and morals of society. The superego’s
function is1to control the id’s impulses. It persuades the ego to choose moralistic
goals and to strive for perfection rather than simply realistic ones.

The superego consists of two systems:

1. Conscience. If the ego gives in to the id’s demands,
the superego may make the person feel bad through
guilt.
2. Ideal self. It is an imaginary picture of how you :
ought to be. It represents career aspirations; how to
treat other people; and how to behave as a member
of society.
According to Freud’s structure of the mind, the ego and
the superego function in different levels of consciousness.
There is a constant movement of memories and impulses from one level to another. The
id, oil the other hand, is unaffected by reality, logic, or the everyday world as it operates
within the unconscious part of the mind.

Gilbert Ryle
Philosopher and professor, Gilbert Ryle produced a
critique on Descartes’ idea that the mind is distinct from
the body. He wrote T h e C oncept o f M in d (1949) where he
rejected the notion that mental states are separable from
physical states. Ryle called the distinction between mind
and matter a “category-mistake” because of its attempt to
analyze the relation between “mind” and “body” as if the
two were terms of the same categories (Nath, 2013).
 Ryle’s points against Descartes’ theory are:
• The relation between mind and b<jdy are not isolated processes
• Mental processes are intelligent acts, and are not distinct from each other.
• The operation of the mind is itself an intelligent act.
According to Ryle, the rationalist view that mental acts are distinct from physical
acts and that there is a mental world distinct from the physical world is a misconception.
Ryle described this distinction between mind and body as “the dogma of the ghost in the
machine” where he explained there is no hidden entity or ghost called “soul” (also
understood as mind or self) inside a machine called “body” (Ryle, 1992).
Ryle criticized the theory that the mind is a place where mental images are
apprehended, perceived, or remembered. He asserted that sensations, thoughts, and
feelings do not belong to a mental world separate from the physical world. Knowledge,
memory, imagination, and any other abilities or dispositions do not reside “within” the
mind as if the mind were a space in which these could be stored or located.
If Ryle believed that the concept of a distinct “self” is not real, where do we geT our
sense of self? Ryle asserted that it is from our behaviors and actions. For example, you
think of yourself as a kind person because of your acts of kindness. In Ryle’s view, your
actions define your own concept of “self” (who you,are).

Paul Churchland
Philosopher and professor Paul Churchland is known for
his studies in neurophilosophy and the philosophy of mind.
His philosophy stands on a materialistic view or the belief
that nothing but matter exists. In other words, if Something
can be seen, felt, heard, touched, or tasted, then it exists.
There is nothing beyond the sensory experience.
Thus, in Churchland’s view the immaterial, unchanging
soul/self does not exist because it cannot be experienced by
the senses (1989).
Churchland insisted that the idea of a mind or soul is not
in consonance with the physical changes that have occurred
in the hereditary characteristics of the human species “T he p h y sical brain a n d
over successive generations. Specifically, Churchland’s N O T the im ag in ary
idea is called elim inative m aterialism or the claim that m in d g iv e s u s ou r sen se
people’s common-sense understanding of the mind (or folk o f se lf”
psychology) is false, and that certain classes of mental states
which most people believe in do not exist (Churchland,
1989; Baker, 1995).
 To prove his point, Churchland pdinted out that in mental conditions, such as
depression, it is technically wrong to say that the person is “out of his mind” because
neuroscientists have found that brain activity, and even brain shape, appears to be
associated with severe mood disorders. Moreover, he pointed out that in a severe head
injury, the victim’s personality changes occur. He pointed, out that if the mind were a
separate entity, then the victim should have retained his/her personality despite the
damage to the brain. Thus, Churchland asserted the sense of “self” originated from the
brain itself, and that this “self” is a product of electrochemical signals produced by the
brain.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty
Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a philosopher and' author.
Emphasizing the body as the primary site of knowing the
world, Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s idea of “self” is an embodied
subjectivity. The term “embodied” is a verb that means to
give a body to (usually an immaterial substance like a soul).
Subjectivity, in philosophy, is the state of being a subject
an entity • that possesses conscious experiences, such
as perspectives, feelings, beliefs, and desires. Moreover,
a subject acts upon or affects some other entity, which in
philosophy is called the object. A subject, therefore, is
something that exists, can take action, and can cause real
effects (on an object).
• • .. ■ £

Merleau-Ponty rejected the Cartesian mind-body

dualism and insisted that the mind and body are
intrinsically connected. By emphasizing the primacy of the
body in an experience, he also veered away from the established notion that the center
of consciousness is the mind (Thompson, 2004).
He asserted that human beings are embodied subjectivities, arid that the
understanding Of the “self” should begin from this fundamental fact. He added that
the body is not a mere “house” where the mind resides. Rather it is through the lived
experience of the body that you perceive; are informed; and interact with the world
(Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 2017).
Merleau-Ponty argued that the body is part of the mind, and the mind is part of the
body; that although there could be a stand-alorie mental faculty that perceives what the
senses experience, it needs, the body to receive these experiences, act on its perceptions,
and comiriunicate with the external world. According to Merleau-Ponty, the body acts
what the mind perceives as a unified one.

18
 “CHANT,ACT, AND PLAY”
Instructions:
1. Divide the class into 11 groups.
2. Let each group pick ONE philosopher whom they will be portraying in class.
3. Each group will think of a chanjt or slogan that they will recite.
4. They will also act as the “real” philosopher. 1
5. Lastly, they will present a short play about the philosopher’s assumption/theory/
philosophy.

| s o c io l o g y

"Not only is the self entwined in society; it owes sociefy its existence in the
most literal sense."
—Theodor Adorno

"MIRROR, MIRROR ON THE WALL”

Make a short video presentation by asking your family members, friends, J

classmates, and even strangers to say something about their impressions on you. It :
can be positive or negative. *

■ The Self As a Product of Modern Society Among Other Constructions

Sociologists are concerned with questions about the person in the community. For
example, They ask questions, like: “How does society influence you?” “How do you affect
society?” More importantly, “Who are you as a person in the community?” Sociology
posits that socially formed norms, beliefs, and values come to exist within the person
to a degree where these become natural and normal (Elwell, 2003), thus) developing the
person’s self-identity.
Modernization has significantly changed society, and this has affected how an
individual builds and develops his or her self-identity. Pre-modern society was centered
on survival. People behaved according to social rules and traditions while the family
and the immediate environment provided supervision on how to get through life.

21
 Choosing where tip' live, what line of work to do, and even who to marry was very limited
(Hermannsdottir, 2011). *
Modernization, however, has improved people’s living conditions. A person in the
modern society is free to choose where to live, what to do, and who to be with. However,
stability has also decreased as traditions and traditional support systems, such as the
family, have decreased in importance. In modern societies, individualism is dominant,
and developing one’s self-identity is central (Giddens, 1991).

Key characteristics of modernity

According to Giddens (1991), the most patent, major characteristics of modernity
are:
1. Industrialism , the social relations implied in the extensive use of material
power and machinery in all processes of production;
2. Capitalism, a production system involving both competitive product markets
and the commodification (putting a price tag) of labor power.
3. Institutions of surveillance, the massive increase of power and reach by
institution?, especially in government; and
I

4. Dynamism, the most evident characteristic of a modem society. Dynamism is

characterized as having vigorous activity and progress. In a modern society, life
is not a predetermined path with limited options based on location, family, or
gender, it is a society full of possibilities. Everything is subject to change, and
changes happen much more rapidly than ever before in human bistory.

Social groups and social network

Sociologist George Simmel expressed that people create social networks by joining
social groups. A so c ial g ro u p is described as having two or more people interacting with
one another, sharing similar characteristics, and whose members identify themselves
as part of the group. An example of a social group is your family, your b a r k a d a , your
f classmates. Meanwhile, so c ia l n etw ork refers to the ties or connections that link you to
your social group (Khan Academy, WEB). The connection you have with your family is
your blood relation; the connection you have with your b a rk a d a is your friendship; and
the connection you have with your classmates is the common interest to learn.
A social group is either organ ic or ra tio n al. An organic group is naturally occurring,
and it is highly influenced by your family. This is usually formed in traditional societies
because there is little diversity m these communities. Sociologist George Simmel stated
that you join these groups because your family is also a part of it, in the first place. He
called it organic m otivation. Simmel noted that the positive effect of organic groups is
ro o ted n ess. This means the foundation of the social network runs deep, thus, giving the
person a sense of belongingness. The downside, however, is that organic groups imply

L
less freedom and greater social conformity. You are expected to act and behave according
to your community’s standards (Allan, 2012).
Rational groups occur in modern societies. Modern societies are made up of
different people coming from different places. The family in modern societies is not the
main motivation when joining rational social groups. Rational groups are formed as a
matter of shared self-interests; moreover, people jdiri these groups out of their own free
will. Simmel called this rational motivation.'Rational groups imply greater freedom,
especially the freedom of movement. Relationships based on self-interest are not as
embedded as organic relationships. Interests change and when they do, group members
change. The relationship between rational social networks is tenuous, and the person
feels no meaningful connection with the others (Allan; 2012).

| M e a d and the Social Self

"A multiple personality is in a certain sense normal."

. . . —George Herbert Mead
— — : ~ —
Have you ever watched someone do something? Of course you have. Even as babies
J
we watch others, like mom or dad, do something. Why do we do that? It’s how we
learn. We learn to do things; we learn what’s safe and what’s not. When we watch other
people, we learn a lot about ourselves. Moreover, when we watch others, we also come to
understand people. We understand why they behave .the way they do; what identity they
claim; and what role they play in society.
On the other hand, while you get to know youfself and understand others by watching
people, how can you understand yourself? Canyou “watch” yourself as objectively as you
do the others? This is the question that sociologist George Mead explored.
George Herbert Mead was a sociologist from the late 1800s. He is well known for
his “th eory o f th e S o c ia l S elf.” Mead’s work focused on how the “self” is developed. His
theory is based on the perspective that the self is a product'of social interactions and
internalizing the external (i.e., other people’s) views along with one’s personal view
about oneself. Mead believed the “self” is not present at birth; rather it develops over
time through social experiences and activities.

Developing the self

Mead developed a concept that proposed different stages of self-development. These
stages are lan g u ag e, play , a n d g am e .
According to Mead, self-development and language are intimately tied. Through
shared understanding of symbols, gestures, and sound, language gives the individual
the capacity to express himself or herself while at the same time comprehending what
the other people are conveying. L a n g u a g e sets the stage for self-development.
 I-

The second stage for self-development is p lay . At this level, individuals role-play or
assume the perspective of others. Role-playing enables the person to internalize some
other people’s perspectives; hence, he or she develops an understanding of how the other
people feel about themselves (and about others, too) in a variety of situations.
Meanwhile, the g am e stage is the level where the individual not only internalizes the
* other people’s perspectives, he or she is also able to take into account societal rules and
adheres to it. According to Mead, the self is developed by understanding the rule, and
Oije must abide by it to win the game or be successful at an activity.
i t '

Two sides of self: “I” and “Me” [

Mead sees the person as an active process, not just a mere reflection of society. He
further proposed,two interactive facets of the self: the “I ” the and “m e." The “m e" and the
“I " have a didactic relationship, which is like a system of checks and balances. According
to Mead, “m e" is the product of what the person has learned while interacting with
others and with the environment. Learned behaviors, attitudes, and even expectations
comprise the “m e." The “m e" exercises social control over the self. It sees to it that rules
are not broken.
On the other hand, the "J” is that part of the self that is unsocialized and spontaneous.
It is the individual’s response to the community’s attitude toward the person. The
“I " presents impulses and drives, It enables him or her to express individualism and
creativity. The “I " does not blindly follow rules. It understands when to possibly bend or
stretch the rules that govern social interactions. It constructs a response based on what
I has been learned by the

I t
f

24
1 anth¥ o p o l o g y

“Indeed, much of the self is learned by making new memories out of old
ones.” .
—Joseph E. Ledoux

3
"ME AND MY CULTURE”

* Observe your own culture. What is the beauty of your culture? *

* «

I Compare your culture with another culture. Does your family religiously :
: practice your cultural customs and traditions, like celebrating fiestas, Christmas, *
* and so on, or everything has changed because of consumerism (the actions of :
* people who spend a lot of money on goods and services)? « *
*****»*«**#***«»*y*. ««*•****«*«**«*****<>*•* * * * * » * • * * « • • * » • » • « « • • » •. »*««•»* * « « « « # * * * • * * * * * « < • « * « * # *

|The Self and the Person in Contemporary Anthropology

What is anthropology? What is its view about the concept of “self”? Anthropology is
the study of people, past and present. It focuses on understanding the human coftdition
in its cultural aspect. In a general sense, anthropology is concerned with understanding
how humans evolved and how they differ from one another. Anthropology is a very
dynamic field, and anthropological literature offers several different definitions of
“self.” This discussion, however, will tackle the widely.acceptable definitions of “self” in
modern anthropology.

A unit but unitary

One definition of “self” in modern anthropology characterize? the term in its
most general, ordinary, and everyday use. Anthropologist and professor, Katherine
Ewing (1990), described the self as encompassing the “physical organism, possessing
psychological functioning and social attributes.” This definition portrays the “self” as
implicitly and explicitly existing in the mind comprised of psychological, biological, and
cultural processes.
Neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux (2002) conceptualized the i m p l i c i t and e x p l i c i t
aspects of the self (Kemp, 2012). The aspect of the self that you are consciously aware of
is the explicit self while the one that is not immediately available to the consciousness
is the i m p l i c i t aspect. This concept can be traced to the famous psychologist Sigmund
Freud’s “l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; ” however, LaDoux’s view on how the “self” wasdeveloped
asserted that it is framed, maintained, and affected biologically, mentally, and socially.
According to LeDoux (2002), “the self is not static; it is added to and subtracted from by
genetic maturation, learning, forgetting, stress, ageing, and disease.” This is true of both
the im plicit aiad explicit aspects of the self.

Self as representation
Ewing (1989) asserted that a “self” is illusory. “People construct a series of self­
representations that are based on selected cultural concepts of person and selected
‘chains’ of personal memories. Each self-concept is experienced as whole and continuous,
with its own history and memories that emerge in a specific context to be replaced by
another self-representation when the context changes.” By self-representation, Ewing
meant culturally shaped “self” concepts that one applies to oneself (Quinn, 2014); “it is
the mental entities that are supposed to represent the self” (Schlichtet, 2009).
According to Ewing (1990), people from all cultures have been observed to be able to
rapidly project different self-representations, depending on the context of the situation.
The person is unaware of these shifts; however, he/she will still experience wholeness
and continuity despite these shifts.

|The Self Em bedded in Culture

How individuals see themselves, how they relate to other people, and how they relate
to the environment are deeply defined by culture. If one finds the view that the “self”
is a product of society, then it is plausible that the ways of how the self is developed are
bound to cultural differences as well.
Cultural anthropologists have argued that the self is culturally shaped and infinitely
variable. “Cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the
human psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences
in mind, self, and emotion” (Shweder, 1991, p. 72). The basic idea is that the principles
of how the mind works cannot be conceived of as universal, but that it is as varied as the
culture and traditions that people practice all over the world.
Cultural psychologists distinguished two ways of how the self is constructed.
These are the independent and interdependent constructs. These self-construals are
also imbedded in culture. C o n striia l is an interpretation of the meaning of something;
hence, in this sense, (he meaning of “self.” The independent construct is characteristic
of in d iv id u alistic culture, such as in North America and Europe. Individualistic culture
represents the self as separate, distinct, with emphasis on internal attributes or traits,
skills, and values. The interdependent construct is typical of the co llec tiv ist culture in
East Asia stressing the essential connection between the individual to other people.
Developmental psychologist Catherine Raeff (2010), believed that culture can
influence how you view: relationships, personality traits, achievement, and expressing
emotions.

28 (iB B BiB E & igm B Sr

Relationships
Culture influences how you enter.into and maintain relationships. For example,
relationships may be seen as voluntary or as duty-based. In Western societies, it
is essential for a person to choose whom to marry while some Eastern societies still
practice arranged marriage.

Personality tra its

Culture influences whether (and how) you value traits, like humility, self-esteem,
politeness, assertiveness, and so on, as well as how you perceive hardship or how you feel
about relying on others.

Achievement
Culture influences how you define success and whether you value certain types of
individual and group achievements.
«*

Expressing emotions
Culture influences what will affect you emotionally, as well as how you express
yourself, such as showing your feelings in public or keeping it private.

29
|The Self As A Cognitive Construction

What is psychology? How can psychology help you understand yourself and know
who you really are? Psychology is the scientific study of how people behave, think, and
feel. It includes topics, such as how the brain works, how our memory is organised, how
people interact in groups, and how children learn about the world. In fact, everything
that concerns the human being is a concern of psychology. From the basic workings of
the human brain to consciousness, memory, reasoning and language, to personality and
mental health, and everything about the human experience —Psychology will scrutinize
it so that you as a human being will understand how it is to be “you.”
Online dictionaries define the term cognitive as “of, relating to, being, or involving
conscious intellectual activity, such as thinking, reasoning, or remembering” (WEB).
Self-theorists argue that it is natural for humans to form theories about themselves,
both as a single entity and as a group, to make meaning of one’s existence and experience.
Psychologist Jean Piaget was a Swiss clinical psychologist knowh for his pioneering
work in child development. He pioneered the “th eory o f cogn itive d evelop m en t,” a
comprehensive theory about the development of human intelligence. The theory
dealts with the nature of, knowledge itself; and how humans gradually come to acquire,
construct, and use it (Torres & Ash, 2007). According to Piaget, cognitive development
is a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation
and environmental experience. He believes that children construct an understanding
of the world around them, experience inconsistencies between what they already know
and what they discover in their environment, and then adjust their ideas accordingly
(McLeod, 2009). Moreover, Piaget claims that cognitive development i%at the center
of the human organism. For example, language is dependent on knowledge and
understanding, and the capacity to speak and express oneself through language can only,
be acquired through the development of intelligence, conscious thought, and problem­
solving ability that begins in infancy (Baldwin, 2005).
Piaget (1952) observed how children processed and made sense of the world around
them and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes new
information encountered.
There are three basic components to Piaget’s cognitive theory. These are:
1. Schemas/schemes. These are the building blocks of knowledge. Schemes are
mental organizations that individuals use to understand their environments and
designate action.
2. Adaptation. It involves the child’s learning processes to meet situational
demands.
3. Stages of Cognitive Development. They reflect the increasing sophistication
of the child’s thought process.

32
 According to Piaget, the knowledge children acquire is organized into sch e m as
(scheme) or groupings of similar actions or thoughts. Over time, these schemes may
change, but they provide an important baie level of information about particular events,
objects, and information.
Furthermore, he describes two processes used by the individual in his/her attempt
to adapt - a ssim ila tio n and acco m m o d ation . The individual uses both these processes to
adjust to his or her environment in an increasingly complex manner.A ss im ila tio n is the
application of previous concepts to new concepts. For example, a child who was just
learned the word “fish,” shouts “fish!” upon seeing one. Meanwhile, accom m od ation
happens when people encounter completely new information or when existing ideas
are challenged. For example, a child knows dogs and cats. At school, he/she learns the
Word “animals.” The child will then adjust her understanding that dogs and cats are both
animals. People often have to form a new schema or alter existing mental categories to
accommodate new information.
In the “S ta g e s o f C o gnitive D evelo p m en t,” Piaget theorize that children progress
through 4 stages and that they all do so in the same order. A brief summary of Piaget's
four stages of cognitive development appears below.

Table 1 piaget's stages of cognitive development

$
The child learns by doing: looking, touching, sucking, the
child also has a primitive understanding of cause-and-
Sensorimotor 0t2
effect relationships. Object permanence appears around
9 months,
*
The child uses language and symbols, including letters and
numbers. Egocentrism is also evident. Conservation marks
Preoperational 2-7
the end of the preoperational stage and the beginning of
concrete oeprations.

The child demonstrates conservation, reversiblity, serial

Concrete Operations 7-11 ordering, and a mature understanding of cause-andk-
effect relationship. Thinking at this stage is still concrete.

The individual demonstrates abstract thinking at this stage

Formal Operations 12+
is still concrete.
1 Harter’s Self-Development Concept
* ' *

Psychologist, author, and professor, Dr. Susan Harter (1999) detailed the emergence
of self-concept5and asserted that the broad developmental changes observed across
early childhood, later childhood, and adolescence could be interpreted within a
Piagetian framework. Additionally, Harter expanded her self-development concept until
adulthood. The development of self-concept according to Harter is as follows:
• Early childhood. The child describes the “self” in terms of concrete, observable
characteristics, such as physical attributes (“I’m pretty/ugly/strong”), material
possessions (“I have lots of toys”), behaviors (“I love playing with my toys”), and
preferences (“I like candies”).
• Middle to later childhood. The self is described in terms of traitlike constructs
(e.g., smart, honest, friendly, shy) that would require the type of hierarchical
organizational skills characteristic of logical thought development.
• Adolescence. According to Harter, this is the emergence of more abstract self­
definitions, such as inner thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and motives. For example,
one 15-year-old girl in a study on self- conceptions described herself as follows:
“What am I like as a person? Complicated! I’m sensitive, friendly, outgoing, popular,
and tolerant though I can also be shy, self-conscious, even obnoxious... I‘m a pretty
cheerful person, especially with my friends__ At home, I’m more likely to be anxious
around my parents” (Harter, 1990b, p. 352). The use of the abstract words sensitive,
outgoing, cheerful, and anxious as self-portrait is consistent with Piaget’s findings
on the adolescent’s ability to construct higher-order abstractions and the capacity
for introspection (Harter, 1999). *
• Emerging adults. The marked characteristic of “self” for emerging adults is having
a vision of a “possible self.” It}is the “age of possibilities” (Amett, 2004a). In one
Australian study (Whitty, 2002), early emerging adulthood (ages 17—22) was found
to be a time of “grand dreams,” of being wealthy and having a glamorous occupation,
but beyond emerging adulthood (ages 28—33) the visions of a possible-self became
more realistic, if still optimistic.

iW illiam James and The Me-Self; I-Self

‘The art of being wise is knowing what to overlook,” wrote William James in his
groundbreaking masterpiece, The P rin c ip le s o f Psychology, written in 1890. A figure
commonly known as “the father of American psychology,” philosopher, psychologist, and
university professor, William James gave one of the earliest self-theory psychological
analyses. According to James (1950), the “self” has two elements: the I-self and the Me-
self.

I
 l-se lf is the pure ego. It is the subjective self. It is the “self” that' is aware of its own
actions, The l-se lf characteristically.has four features. These are:
* .
1 . A sense of being the agent o r in itiato r of behavior. I believe my actions have
an impact; that I cause an effect in my environment.
2. A sense of being unique. This is how I am different from everything in my
environment; I perceive there is only one Me.
3. A sense of continuity. I am the same person from day to day.
4. A sense of awareness about being aw are. I understand what is going on ip me
and around me; and I know I understand it.
(James, 1950; Newman, 2017; Pomerleau, ©2017; Damon & Hart, 1982)

The m e - se lf is the self that is the object. It is the “self” that you can describe, such
as your physical characteristics, personalities, social role, or relationships, thoughts,
feelings (Newman, 2017; James, 1950; Pomerleau, ©2017). James called it the e m p irical
self. Empirical is defined as “based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or
experience rather than theory or pure logic” (WEB).
The dimensions of the m e - se lf include:
1. M aterial - physical appearance and extensions of it such as clothing, immediate
family, and home;
2. Social - social skills and significant interpersonal relationships; and
3. Spiritual - personality, character, defining values.
(James, 1950; Newman, 2017; Pomerleau, ©2017; Damon & Hart, 1982)
i ' . . :

|Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

Instructions: Answer the test below to determine whether your real Self is congruent with
your ideal self. Be honest.

A Self-Assessment Test for Congruence

The following demonstration test illustrates aversion of a “Q-sort,” a self-assessment
procedure for measuring congruence, a state of internal consistency, which Carl Rogers
saw as important to healthy personality growth. A brief discussion follows the test,
which is self-scoring (as described below). Please read the directions, and complete part
A befo re going on to part B!

P artA
Please select ten adjectives from the following list, which you feel describe What you
are like. (You may find it useful to write them down on a sheet of paper, or print this page,
and cut them out individually.) Try to be as honest and accurate as possible in making
the choices to describe yourself. (For example, don’t omit an adjective that describes
 you well if it happens to be somewhat negative, like “anxious.”) Once you have selected
the ten, which best describe you, arrange them in order,* from the most important/
significant aspects, to those that are least significant in describing your personality.
Write them down, with the rank order, on a piece of paper, then fold it, and put it aside.
Place all the words together, shuffle them, and then go on to part B.

ANXIOUS ATTRACTIVE CARELESS DEPRESSED

DISHONEST ENERGETIC FUNNY HAPPY
HONEST INTELLIGENT KIND LAZY
OPTIMISTIC ORGANIZED OUT-GOING PLAIN
RELAXED SAD SERIOUS . SHY
SLOPPY . STRONG UNHELPFUL WEAK
Part B
You are now requested to do the same task again, but this time selecting ten terms
to describe what you w ish you were like—that is, your personal ideal. (For example, you
may feel that you are shy, but would like to be extroverted.) Do not refer to the list from
part A in making your choices! Once you have.selected ten, arrange them in rank order,
from the most important/significant, to those that are relatively unimportant in your
imagined ideal. As in part A, write them down, in ranked order, on a piece of paper.

I ANXIOUS
DISHONEST
HONEST
ATTRACTIVE
ENERGETIC
INTELLIGENT
CARELESS
FUNNY
KIND
DEPRESSED
HAPPY'
LAZY

I OPTIMISTIC
RELAXED
ORGANIZED
SAD
OUT-GOING
SERIOUS
PLAIN
SHY
SLOPPY STRONG UNHELPFUL WEAK

l Scoring

Take the two lists from Parts A and B, and assign values to the ranks on each list,
with the first term = 10, the second term = 9, etc. (the last term will have a value of 1).
Now, identify any adjectives that do not appear on both lists (appearing in different
positions doesn’t matter). For any terms which do not appear on both lists, change the
value to zero. For terms that appear on both lists, give the value assigned for the term
on list A to the term on list B. Then, using the values you have assigned to the two lists
(including the zero terms), apply the following formula.:
! I "

(sum of list A + sum of list B)/(l.l) = score

d' The score range is from 0 to 100, with 100 representing a perfect match of s e l f and
/ id e a l s e l f ( i.e., complete congruence); if half the terms appear on both lists (but with
different ranks), the median score woufd be approximately 50. In general, the lower the
score, the less congruent is the relationship between one’s self and ideal self. (Por further
information on these concepts, refer to the textbook, or the links to other sites.)
Note that this demonstration is not meant to be a serious clinical device, and
no claims are made as to its validity or reliability! (Even the scoring system is an
approximation, as a co rrelation co e fficie n t would provide a more precise indicator.) It is
provided here simply as a learning tool, to better understand Rogers’ concepts p f self,
ideal self, and congruence.
Source: http-J/w w w .ryerson.ca/~glassm an/Q sort.htm l)
Another assessm ent of self-concept can be answered through th is website:
https://childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/2008-32Self-Concept.pdf
Carl Ransom Rogers was an American psychologist and among the founders of
the h u m a n istic approach to psychology (Capuzzi, 2016). Humanistic psychology is
a psychological perspective that- rose to prominence in the mid-20th century. This
approach highlighted the individual’s innate drive toward self-actualization and the
process of realizing and expressing one’s own capabilities and creativity (Hansen, 2014).
.Humanistic psychology emphasized the active role of the individual in shaping
their internal and external worlds. Rogers stressed that a person is an active, areative,
experiencing being who lives in the present and who thinks, feels, and responds to his
or her environment. He coined the term actualizing tendency, which refers to a person’s
basic instinct to succeed at his or her highest possible capacity. Through person-centered
counseling and scientific therapy research, Rogers formed his theory of personality
development, which highlighted free will and the great reservoir of human potential for
goodness (McLeod, S. A. 2014).

Personality development and the self-concept

Rogers based his theories of personality development on humanistic psychology and
theories of subjective experience. According to Rogers, all behavior is motivated by self-
actualizing tendencies and these tendencies drive you to reach your full potential. He
believes that the world a person exists in is the center of constant changes, and the person
reacts to these changes. As a result of this constant interaction with the environment
and others, an individual forms a structure of the self cfr self-concept—an organized,
fluid, conceptual pattern of concepts and values related to the self. If the person holds
a positive self-concept, he or she would tend to feel good about himself or herself> and
would generally see the world as a safe and positive place. If the pe/son holds a negative
self-concept, then he or she may feel unhappy with who he/she is (Kirschenbaum&
Henderson, 1989).

#32 37
Meal self vs. real self
Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ‘id e a l s e l f and the re a l self.
The ideal self ik the person that you would like yourself to be; it is your concept of the
“best me” who is worthy of admiration. It is an idealized image of self that the individual
has developed based on what you have has learned and experienced. For example,
your parents are medical doctors who are respected and admired in your community.
Observing your parents, you conclude that to be happy, you need to be smart and have a
high-paying job. Your ideal self may be someone who excels in science subjects, spends a
lot* of time studying, and does ndt.get queasy easily.
The id eal s e l f could include:
1. Notions influenced by your parents;
2. What you admire in others;
3. What the society sees as acceptable; and
4. What you think is in your best interest.
The re al s e l f is the person you actually are. It is how you behave right at the moment
of a situation. It is who you are in reality - how you think, feel, or act at present.
Rogers, C. 1959; Gale, C. L. 2015; Eysenck, M. W., 2004; Brouwer, I. B., 2014

The im portance of alignment

Rogers accentuated the need to achieve consistency between the id e al s e l f and the
According to Rogers, “If the way that I am (the r e a l s e l f ) is aligned with the way
re al self.
that I want to be (the id e a l s e lf), then f will feel a sense of mental Well-being or peace of
mind. In other words, when y o u r re a l s e l f a n d id e a l s e l f are very similar you experience
congruence. High congruence lead? to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy,
productive life”(Rogers, C. 1950, 2000; Ellingham, I. 2001).
When there is a great inconsistency between your id e a l and re al selves or if the way
you are is not aligned with what you want to be, then you experience a state Rogers called
incongruence. He! added that incongruence could lead to m a la d ju stm e n t. Maladjustment
is defined as the inability to react successfully and satisfactorily to the demands of one’s
environment (Rogers, C. 1950, 2000).

iM u ltip le vs Unified Selves

William James (1890) said, “Properly speaking, a man has as many social selves as
there are individuals who recognize him and carry an image of him in their head.”
On the other hand, social psychologist Roy Baumeister (2010) said, “But the concept
of the self loses its, ttieaning if a person has multiple selves...the essence of self involves
integration of diverse experiences into a unity...In short, unity is one of the defining
features of selfhood and identity.”
 These t$o statements represent one of the oldest puzzles for psychologists in their
study of the “self.” The question is not just “What is a “self?” but “Is there just one self or
there are many selves?” Most likely you would say, “of course there's just one self. There’s
just me. I’m the one reading this book ” True. This observation is justified since there is
only one physical body reading the text. However, let us reflect deeper. When you talk
about “self” you are not just talking about your physical body. There is something in you
that cannot be reduced to biology, chemistry, or physics. Thus, the question “Who am I
(really)?” remains relevant then and now,

iT h e Unity of Consciousness

The human experience is always that of unity. For example, you dropped a hot pot
because you forgot to use a potholder. The experience of feeling pain and dropping the
pot displays striking unity. It was you who experienced both the pain and the act, rather
than a string of consciousness where one part felt the pain and the other dropped the
pot. It was experienced by “you” - a single, distinct, conscious entity in the situation.
The unity of consciousness was a central topic for classical modern philosophers
(from 1600s to 1900s). This idea was pushed by Descartes, Kant, and James to name a
few. According to Rene Descartes, the mind (that is the thinking, experiencing feeing) is
not made up of parts; thus, it cannot be a physical substance because anything material
has parts (Skirry, 2005). Descartes claimed that this “feeing” is of unified consciousness
and not composed of merged fragments (Brook & Raymont, 2017).
There is also Immanuel Kant’s “u n ity o f co n sc io u sn e ss” that can be described as “I am f
conscious not only of single experiences but of a great many experiences at the same |
time. The same is true of actions; I can do and be conscious of doing a number of actions *
at the same time” (Brook, 2016).
. .• - .i

l O n e Self or M any Selves? j

Contemporary psychological studies challenged the notion of a single, distinct, “only
one” notion of self. Several major personality theorists proposed that the mind is made
up of several sub-selves. |

| Allport’s Personality Theory

Psychologist Gordon Allport (1961) proposed h is “p e rs o n a lity t r a it ” theory asserting

that every person possesses “traits.” According to Allport, a “t r a it " is your essential
characteristic that never, ever changes and sticks with you all your life. Moreover, these
traits shape who you are (how you think, feel, or behave, etc.) in any given day (Hall, Sc
Lindzey, 1957; Morris, et al., 2002).
The ego states
In 1960 psychiatrist Eric Berne began to develop his transactional analysis model
as basis for understanding behavior. Transactional analysis is anchored on two notions:
1. Every person has three parts called “ego states” in his or her personality.
2. People communicate with one another assuming roles of any of these ego states.

Berne presented the ego states as: . > .

1. Parent 2. Adult 3. Child
The p a re n t ego s t a t e is the voice of authority. It could be a comforting “nurturing
parent” voice or a “controlling/critical parent” voice that tells what you should or should
not do. The A d u lt ego s t a t e is the rational person. It is the voice that speaks reasonably
and knows how to assert himself or herself. There are T hree ch ild ego s ta te s . First is the
n a tu ra l child who loves to play but is sensitive and vulnerable. The little p ro fe sso r is the
curious child who wants to try everything. The a d a p tiv e ch ild is the oxle who reacts to the
world. He or she could be trying to fit in or is rebelling against authority (Berne, 2016
edition).

Domains of the self

University professor and author Gregg Henriques proposed that the human self has
three related, but separable, domains. These domains are:
1. Experiential self;
2. Private self-conscious; and
r
3. Public self/persona.
Henriques (2014) described the “e x p e rie n tia l s e l f ” as the theater of consciousness
because it is the first to experience its b e in g n e ss (the state or fact of existing). He added
that the experiential self is closely tied to memory. The “p riv a te self-co n scio u s" can be
described as the narrator or interpreter. It is the self that narrates the unfolding events
and at the same time tries to make sense of the experience. T h e “p u b lic s e l f o r p e rs o n a ” is
the image you project to the public. This is the image that interacts with others and will
influence how others see you.

STrue vs False Selves

Imagine that people are like onions. The center of the onion needs to be protected by
layers to be able to survive. At the center of the onion lies our true self, surrounded by
layers we have developed through our lives as protection. These layers are our false self.
Most of us need ohr false selves as protection to survive childhood, and we carry these
layers with us through our adult lives because these protective layers help us endure.
In 1960, an English pediatrician and psychoanalyst, D. W. Winnicott introduced his
concept of “ fa lse s e l f ” and "tr u e self,” According to Winnicott the “s e l f ” is simply “the

40
 *•

person who is me” (1960; 1965). Winnicott also proposed that the healthy core of a
healthy person’s self is hidden from the outside world, uninfluenced by external (harsh)
realities. The false self is put up to defend the core from these realities and prevent it
from any changes.

False self
Winnicott expressed that the fa ls e s e l f is the product of early experience. It is a
defensive organization formed by the infant because of inadequate mothering or failures
in empathy. He added that the false self is developed as the infant is repeatedly subjected
to maternal care that intrudes upon, rejects, or abandons his or her experience (Daehnert,
1998). The false self is also based, on being completely obedient to the parents’ wishes.
Winnicott asserted that when the child is constantly expected to follow rules, a false
self develops. The false self is a mask or a persona. It is a form of defense that constantly
seeks to anticipate others’ demands and complying with them, as a way of protecting the
true self from a world that is felt to be unsafe.
However, when the person has false self but can still function both as an individual
and in the society, then he or she has a h ealth y fa ls e self. The healthy false self feels that
it is still connected with the true self. Thus, it can be compliant without feeling guilty
that it abandoned its true self.
On the other hand, there is also the u n h ealth y fa ls e self. An individual who may seem
happy and comfortable in his or her environment but actually feels forced to fit in and
constantly needs to adjust his or her behavior to adapt to the social situation is said to
have an unhealthy false self.

True self
Tree s e l f flourishes in infancy if the mother is positively responsive to the child’s
spontaneous expressions (Winnicott, 1960; Jones-Smith, 2011). Winnicott described
tru e s e l f a s a sense of “self” based on “spontaneous authentic experience.” It is an
awareness that bodily functions are working, such as the heart pumping, as well as simply
breathing. Moreover, true self, according to Winnicott (1960), is part of the infant that
feels creative, spontaneous, and real. It has a sense of integrity, of connected wholeness.
True self is a sense of being alive and real in one’s mind and body, having feelings that
are spontaneous and unforced. This experience of aliveness is what allows people to be
genuinely close to others and to be creative.
Winnicott believed that people unconsciously repeat early relationships (particularly
the mother-infant relationship) in one form or another. A child whose mother is
positively responsive and supports the child’s natural process of individuation will grow
up as an adult with a stable self-image; views other people realistically; and accepts both
the positive and negative side of every person including himself/herself (Jones-Smith,
2011 ).
I the i!?ELF !N WESTERN
It
I

“PEOPLE AROUND ME”

Instructions:
1. The dass will be divided into two groups. They will decide if their group will be on
. collectivism or individualism and think a slogan or jingle for their chosen culture.
2. Statements about collectivism and individualism will be posted on the board.

If someone asked you to finish the sentence,

“I a m ______________ ___ ,” what sorts of things
would you include in your responses? .
Would you focus on your personality traits?
Your job title? Or your relationships with others?
Psychologists have found that a person’s cultural
background can affect how a person sees himself
or herself.
Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, and Nisbett (1998)
reported that people are shaped by their culture, and their culture is also shaped by
them. One of the major proponents of cultural psychology, Richard Shweder, wrote,
“Cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the human
psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic divergences in mind,
self, and emotion” (1991). An individual thinks, feels, and behaves similarly as that of
the members of his or her community. However, each community has its own standards,
expectations, and rules that shape its members. These differences are the reason people
are markedly divergent. This divergence is evident in the eastern and western concepts
of “se lf.”

1 Western Concept of Self

Ancient Greek philosophers see humans as the bearers of irreplaceable values. In
medieval times, the philosopher and saint, Thomas Aquinas, believed that the body
constitutes individuality. The individual was the focus of Renaissance thought, with.
Rene Descartes’ famous “I think, therefore I am” as the epitome of the Western idea of
self.
The western i tradition is generally acknowledged to be “imbued with a style of
thinking based on dichotomy and binary opposition” (Carr &■ Zanetti, 2000; Singhal,
2000). There is an essential distinction between the notion of the thinking subject (an
observer) that stands in natural opposition to observable reality (Singhal, 2000).

44 //' llllll)
 The osychiatrist and professor, Frank; Johnson (1985), outlined four categories on
how the term “s e l f ” is used in contemporary western discussion.
1. Analytical
2. Monotheistic
3. Individualistic
4. Materialistic/rationahstic

By analytic, Johnson meant the “tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts.”

The “self” is an observer separate and distinct from external objects (M e versus O th er).
Monotheism, according to Johnson, involved the tendency toward unitary explanations
of phenomena and a closed-system view of “s e l f ” as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent
power (“Man was created by God, in His image). In d iv id u alism on the other hand, is a
quality of western thinking where self-expression and self-actualization are important
ways of establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in the world. Finally,
m a te r ia listic /r a tio n a listic western thinking tends to discredit explanations that db not
use analytic-deductive modes of thinking (Johnson, 1985; Goldin, 2000)

lEastern Concept of Self

The earliest religious writings in the East are the V edas. It formed the^ Hindu
philosophy and d h a rm a (the principle of cosmic order). The chants and hymns in the
V edas illustrate the eastern mindset of a nondual universe but rather a creation that is
completely unified with the creator, with no distinction (Watts, 1965, Wolter, 2013).
According to these sacred Hindu texts, the true nature of humans is described as
“B ra h m a n ” which is the divine universal consciousness encompassing the universe. The
B ra h m a n is the Self that is all within us (Watts, 1965; Wolter; 2013). Thus, one of the
main points of Hinduism is “change your perception of the world to perceive the B ra h m a n
in oneself and in others” (Watts, 1965; Wolter, 2013).
Buddhism is composed of the teachings of Buddha. In Buddhist traditions, the
“self” is not an entity, a substance, or essence. Rather, the “self” is a dynamic process.
It is interdependent and ever changing. The Buddha taught a doctrine called a n a t t a ,
which is often defined as “n o -s e lf or n o-sou l.” A n n a ta is a concept that the sense of being
a permanent, autonomous “self” is an illusion. It is the teaching that there is no eternal,
unchanging “self/soul” inhabiting bur bodies or living our lives, (Collins, 1982; Garfield,
1995; Hopkins, 1983,1987; Wallace, 1989,1998).
Buddhist tradition holds that the human being’s inborn erroneous view of “self” as
an enduring entity is the cause of his/her suffering because he/she tries to hold on to
that which is in constant flux (constantly flowing or constantly changing) and has no
existence outside of shifting contexts (Galin, 2003). Thus a new corrective experience
of the “self” is needed. Buddhism takes a great interest in how people experience their
“self” rather than just their abstract idea of it because Buddhist practices are designed to
lead to a new (correct) experience of self. It takes arduous training to modify or overcome
the natural state of experiencing the “self” as persisting and Unchanging (Galin, 2003).
In Confucianism, the quest for the “self” in terms of substance, of spirit, of body, or
of essence does not exist (Klemme, 1999; Ames, 1994; Graham, 1990). The form that
Confucius wrote about the concept of “self” is that of personality. The qualities that
form a person’s character are not something that exists inherently. Rather, in Confucian
thought it is something that is formed through upbringing and the environment
(Klemme, 1999; Ames, 19i94; Graham, 1990).
Confucian philosophy presented the idea that every person is born with f o u r
b e g in n in g s . However, these do not yet comprise the concept of “self” but when perceived
together, it could be explained in Western terms as a “pre-self” or a “potential self.”
These f o u r b e g in n in g s are:
• Heart of compassion that leads to J e n ;
• Heart of righteousness that leads to Y i;
• Heart of propriety that leads to L i; and
• Heart of wisdom that leads to C h ib .
Jen, Yi, Li, and Chih are the perfection of the virtues that at the start were mere
potentials. Jen means goodwill, sympathy toward others, politeness, and generosity.
Yi means rightness and the respect of duty (you must respect your position as a guardian
toward nature and humanity). Li means having the right to practice propriety in all that
you do. Propriety involves demonstrating your inner attitude in your outer expression.
Chih means wisdom; this wisdom is expressed by putting jen, yi, and li into practice
(Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, 2007). t

Personality (in the Confucian perception) is an achieved state of moral excellence

rather than a given human condition. However, such achieved personality, or self, is
not to be understood as primarily an individual entity. The Confucian concept of self is
deeply embedded1within the family and society, and it is only in that context that the
self comes to be what it is (Quinlan, 2001; Chinavoc, 2007).
Taoism rejects a hierarchical view of the self, society, or cosmos. Unlike Confucianism,
Taoism does not regard the “self” as an extension of (or defined by) social relationships.
Rather, the “self” is but one of the countless manifestations of the Tao. It is an extension
of the cosmos (or the universe Seen as a well-ordered whole). Chuang-tzu, regarded as
a mystic of unmatched brilliance in China, gave an explicit negation of the centrality
of the “self.” According to Chuang-tzu,"The perfect man has no self; the spiritual man
has no achievement; the true sage has no name.” The ideal is, thus, selflessness. In sum,
Chuang-tzu’s conception of selfhood entails conscious self-transformation leading to
the attributes of a balanced life in harmony with both nature and society (Ho, 1995).
 The Arabic word for the word “self” is N a f s Written in the Holy Qur’an. It pertains
to the psyche (the totality of the consqious arid unconscious human mind) or the soul.
The Quran does not ascribe any property of goodness or evil to the “nafs/self.” Instead,
the “nafs/self” is something, which has to be nurtured and self-regulated, so that it can
progress into becoming “good” (or conversely, “evil”) through its thoughts and actions.
The “self” in Islamic tradition is used both in the individualistic and collective sense
(Nurdeen Deuraseh & Mansor Abu Talib, 2005).
Here is a concise presentation of the difference between eastern and western thought.

KotflnilwV irfirf A n sitjli# Blbikovi

TheWheelofLffe
Broodty, sptakbg, Inthi* Eaattm and MhnttmMiHm m Iw
W utom sothtysM m io
find an dprom 'th * truth',
■ whOt :
\
Cm tsm sochtyocctpH th* troth a s gtMiumd
tsm on to*rs*te<lln m <fao1htb9tenc9.
{f i\
V. J
W sstsrnm put m ors stock In IndhMuat rights;
£astsm m In social nsponribty.

http^/w w w . 1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_east-west-phylosophy.html

http://w w w .1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_east-west-phylosophy.html

■t
 I feurfuture \sdeterm ined b y yo u rd eed s today:
"Study the past# you would lice to divine thefuture*
" Confuoius

Tfaetniefcey b fau id e. Th e in n er w orld o f a hum an be rig and his

I o r h e r ab ility to control and develop it is o f th e highest valu e.

Th e w ay to th e to p is in side y o tw e lf, through se lf­
developm ent
’The s iq w b r man understands w b otb right; titeinferior man
unrkrstaad$whatmiHsek’ "ConfiKhii

'By d a tin g desbte you w&meet only theoutersurface.'

"Lao Ttu

| S p iritu a l practice .
"ThereIs a higher court than courts (tf)ustice and that is the court of
conscience. k supercedes all other courts.’ "Mahatma Gandhi

• I n d i v id u a li s m / C o l l e c t i v i s m A Hunan bdng is n Wegrat part o f the universe aod the society. People,
are fundarnentotiy oonaected. Duty towacdsafiotiiercb a very important
reattec
C o le cth fe m te itro n g e i

: J Improvement / Evolution C y d k development, bence hw aiw m anl b a never entfag journey that
has no Hmits.

i Radical Innovation / Revolution The fundanentafcofthe status quo Aoufd not in questfonedlfce culture

of oonslderini and Mrodudng radkei chiRfes b w eaker.

En tre rffltu ld g e a tb ty and wntorIn tb contained by the habk to Entrepreneurial venturing Is encoungad emotionaKy.. ,

I control one'* pesdow, .

'O esimarethecouieaf suffering. (f desire, which tee o ttheroute <4oil

hurM np*tttovca»bererm »«4thff ponton wf/dfeoutmufePhumio
‘Nothing Is ever achieved by reasonable f n e r u '-l Fred fluey o f J e m
*

'Nothing great was ever a^ /f*y d without i nthutiesm.- Always do what

suffering W0 be ended."“ Buddhhm | ■tmyau am afraid to d o zD o not go whenlhepati\mayfadd, 90 Instead
.....where there Jr no path and lemma t m t ' "fid|ph Waldo Emerson
Instruments

*VWi Indeed M at amwtenktg pride In the conquest even o f the entire

unlvmetfonebasoateooqoeredooe‘taw n p o ttiotu .'“ $riAuroblndo 'ffyw w a fato s iia ^ -y o a h a v e m large n m p i ^ m d a vd d bo&awed
v « * *■ "Jo hn Jte tfe fe r

I Winning is Instde yourseK » > •b JU notacb o u tsid e yw nefc

J'JIuuifaheskoiMeonquerdtitousandmeninthebattleff^alhousand
times^ethVlndttdrWhowouUconquerhitmtifbthenoiilestvktof.'"
Buddha
'Hewhoamquenietheakslnine;kewkotonquenhlnatifbmhfaty.'“
LooTiu
’ IhemostercrfenttibodhlhatfartheconQuestofsdf’
- Mohammad
y ^ ^ ^ s - ^ t o u V r not a star unttf they can speilyour name t i Karachi.!
^■n~^"ttogerMoore
s m U f c affords no higher pleasurethon (hot of surmouritinq difficulties,
zfis'pastingfrom one stop' <4success to onothegjbrrainp new wbhes and
1 seeing them gratified.’
* „ »- - “ SamuelJolwson
’It It not because things are ffffkukthatwe do not dare; k b because we
V ' ^ ' do not dare that they are difficult.’

| S p iritu a l id m hakw arvecotoich. Pragm atic a approach.

“To create and develop without anyjsetngscfownenhfa to work end *7he supreme acamphtiment k to blur the Bnebetween work andphy.%
guidewkhoutwty mpectskion and control k the bmt quality' " Lao i^u -Aim M oyibn
• ' Joeihbvetff-Utentionotitinlrvanayouneedtoperfannfourduties "Slncemost of us spend our Wes doing ordinary tosh, the most important
w tth o u tB ? e c tln g m trrt* * d fd t'‘ W o )n ,H ln d u k m thing u Id cony them out extraor dinary weH'J!-Henry D a s U lh o m u

’Acthmcmbtod>levedbylKKOoo,w henthere*dtkochl**edby‘ Hot- ■

. "Every Awrute y * i mendm planning saves 10 minutes In aecution.’
, W m r-K V

http://www.1000ventures.CQm/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.html

Goals 6 Key to Success Sp H tu al M .M .I K H C

Vrriuour lift and adherence (0 performing your duties." 'ThefeeretqfsuccessIn life, ond subsequently o f molting money, b to
“ Confudenbm eaiav vourwarir If you do, notMig b hard wor k -n o matter how many
_ * ' *-* hounyou p u tki.'"StB ig yB u ttn
"TheThree Astnlet con be deprivedc f their commanding officer, but even
e common mwi com ot be deprived o f hh purpose.9“ Confucius fx , ?5ucce* h that old ABC-'abifltiL breaks m d courage."

'Ifyaureatiy want everything then ghm up everything.’ Y / i- ' i » ,* ,- C t o fc ilid v w

quaUy that mot* 'requertfymokrs *0/ w m i ’

'He h able who thinks he b o b le .'" Buddha
udeCametie

Living P rinciples V ttu e CtM

'Bemtisfiedwtthwhateveryouhotqandvn)oythesome.Whenyou ; V ^ a "P^crtinfrom doing /U;for one offpoweijU reman, lest our children
• came to feww thotyou hoveevryfhtoR, and you are not short of ' should copy our misdeeds: we ary all to prone to M in t* whatever h bate
onythky, thenthe whole worid wffl be yoar*■'*Lao Tcu 'V ; ~ j * and depraved."

•The thoughtmontfeetsmlhe word; The ward manifests ot the deed; The s i “ Juvenal
deed develops M o habit; And hohtt hardens M o character. So watch the r 'Th e n is no real wictiletKeOiolthb world which can be separated from
thoughtondlts ways with core. And b t ft springfrom love barn out of
concernfa r a t beings.’
“ Buddha
. . *; ■
> -oJSZlL
FsU b lisH fig G m lr v l Over Your Through m editation ihnugh analyst*
rrnot'ions
Am on con separate his/her takidfrom hk/her emotions and control them.
"Utobm « * Qfn r *" *“/ *» v * ^Spinosa

SpkftU A w a kty behind people; dance it golden. H ands on* wahdng diead people ^ieech bgoideik
’ in order to guide D m Je. the b n tier must put himself behind them. Thu ' 'UB & u JtiA.b donefrom mfronL Never ask others to do what you. f
' • when b o b ahead theyfeel no h u r t '* Loo Tai / choilervect w o uldnotbew tkigtodoyounelf\
■ -* ' / «. <~‘s- '"XenophoQ

http-J/www.iOdOventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.html
 Jr

HUM tm
|v u u r future is d eto m lM d b y yo u r d u d s to d ay ?2S»fw a
‘Studythepostf you would Ike to divine thefuture.'
:#rr-
The true key tsb u id e . Th e in n er w o rld o f a hum an being and hb -TC T r ‘iT.* i 'O '

I o r h e r ab ility to control and develop it is o f the highest valu e.

Th e w ay to th e to p is in sid e yo u rself, through self-
devetopm ent
T h e superior man understands what is right; die Inferior man f
!

■ "} ■ *:
r .*32530
-j •
■:
Ufldffflta^whetwtffjea’ ^Cofyucn* |
’Bychaslogdeslmyouwitineetoidyiheoutersurface.' j
" loo Tzu |

| S p iritu a l practice
"Therekohightf court than courts o f justice and that b the court of
conscience. It supercede* ad other courts. ’ ’'Mahatma Gandhi I

] I n d i v id u a li s m / C o l l e c t i v i s m A human W n j is n Integral part o f the universe and the sodrty. People,

; j I m p r o v e m e n t / E v o lu tio n
I a n fundarnen tity connected. Doty towaidsafleth ere is a very important

Ic o le c tty fe m lsa tro n g e t

C y d k development, hence Improvement Is a never ending Journey that

I hasno Units.

i kadfcal Innovation / Revolution The fundanantals o fthe status quo d»ufd not be questioned-The culture

of considering and Introducing ra d ia l changes Is w eaker.

EntiW ffflftgM gM tfrtv and venturing Is COOtitoed by the habk to Entrepreneurial venturing Is encouraged em otional

I control one's pesdons, .

lDeelm arethec*m ofsufferifio.(fdeiln,whichtesattherouteojaSI ' *

’Nothing Is ever achieved by reasonable m a n . J Fred Bucy o f Ta m
Instruments

hum m pesstofitCenherem m iAenpm hnw VdieoiAandaltiium m ’ Nothing great s/as ever g ^ lf v f d without enthgeteem.^ Always do what
suffering w 8 be ended’ "Budtfihm ■m.you ore afraid to tfei/Do not go where die path may lead, go Instead
where thereteno path aod leave a tm tSfP a lp b Waldo Emerson
■\ ’Vain Indeed h a t averwttnktg pride In the conquest m n of the entire
unhetsetfonebetnotcoaqoertdone'sawnp<Ml<ms,'"Si1Ao(oblndo 'tf^ w d ittM M c a w e L vpuhme to forge'limy paths and a ^ b o iio w e d
‘ 4 one** "John Jbetfehir

| Winning Is Utokie yourseK » > JtflootaK h O U tald 0 you rseK.

•Though htshouV conquers thousand man In the battlefield u thousand not a sta r until they can sped your name In Karachi l
ttmm,yethvlndetiwhowouldconquerhismelfbtkenoidestvktor.’ " ’ " f ■" "PogerMoore
Buddha *m-*'Ltfeaffarib no higher pleasureA o n (hat of surmounting difficulties,
’ HewhoconqueriotheisksInnB/heishoeonquershlmsetfismfghty’ " m^pasdnQ from one stop o fsuccess to anotherforming newwbhes and
loo Tzu seeing themgrotifierL’j:
’ „ “ SamuelJohnson
T h e most BKfttentJffiodb thatfor the conquest of self’
’“ Mohammad *0 Is not because things ore difficult that we do not dare; It b because we
do not dare that they ore difficult.'

I S p irttU ll aod fflta ilB H a approach. Pragm atic and em otional approach
*70 craote and develop without anyjbefngf o f ownership, to m od and “The supreme aecamplishmenti to blur the finebetween work and ploy’,
guide without m y mpectsstion and control bthebsat qua lity'" Lao Tsu f * ~ * A f r -A m U r ^ A a
■ ' To etiilrve l i beration ondtdrvone you need to perform yourduties ’Since most of us spend our U rn dang n in e t y tosh, the most mportont
w tthou te ^ecdn gtm rr^diK df(a t’’ Vedohta,Hlndukm Hung is to cony them out eetnor&nary weft* "Henry Dowd Thomou

“Action-cart be achieved by Auction, where the result h achievedby 'Not- 'leery n w ijfr you spendm planning saves <0 muutes in emutfon.’ "
Ate— Zen

http://www.1000ventures.com /business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.html

G o a ls fi K ey to S u cc e ss Sp httual M ite tM k tk

Vfrtuour Sft and odherence to performing your dudes.’
" Confucianism
“The Th rtt Armies can be deprivodaf their commondhtg officer, but even
a commoo mm cannot be deprived o f hb purpose ’ " Confucius
’ Ifyou rtaBy wont everythkig then give i f everything.’
“7he secreto f successIn life, and subsequently o f making money. Is to
. enjoy vo ir work. If vau da. nothing b hard was-k-no matter how mom
> hours you put k i ’ "SlrBIPy Butte
'Success h that old A B C -a h m % b rto h and eoorog*'
, ^ "l "Ouxbtlockm a n

.% * qualty that mastfnquentfy mokesfar success.’

'He b obit who thinks he k able'"Buddha
1 ~ "DrdeCUmede

L i v in g P r i n c i p l e s Vfetue
'Be satisfied with whattHW you ho»o and snfoythe tamo. When you j “RffraEn/rD/n doing ^ jb r one oBpowerful reason, lest our children
come to know diet you have everything, and you ore not short of should copy a * misdeeds w e a n oil to prone to im totr whatever h bote
anything, thenthewholeworklwtltbeyaurx’ "LaaTzu am depraved"
•The thoughtmonffests asthe word; The ward manifests os the deed; The
deed develops M o habit; And habit hardens Into chorocter. So watch the ■^Therns no real oicellencelnai this world whlrii tan be seporvtedfrom
' thought and h woyswtthcore. And let ft springfrom love barn out of . V V , . riyh ffM fly1
concernfo r e l beings? ! J ‘ '-i *• f ^ •. % i* "DavidStarrJordan
"Buddha

f s i a b l i s h m g C o n l a ‘ l O v t- f Y o u r Through m editation Through a n a ly sii

f m o t .i o n s Am an a n separate bh/her mind from his/her amotion* and eontroi them. ‘la meantrolmyfxittions and emotions If Icon understand thefr nature ’ K
"Tbobm

S p iritu a l; w e l£ i| behind people; ifltn c t is golden. H andS'O n;waUngtiiead ofpeople speech kgoM an. ^ E
•fcrorder to guide people, the h a ffttm u t put himself behind them. Thu* ' ■ ’Leadwshln Is done from In front Never ask others to do what you, f f k
' • when h e b aheod theyfeel no hurt’ " loo Tsu ' ' S ' ‘J /:’Chollenf/ed, would not be wiling to do y o u n e lf ^ ^

http-J/www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cuitures_
east-west-phylosophy.html
¥ i fcu r future fc determ ined by yo u r deeds to d ay
! B eliefs a n d V alues
In div id ualism / C ollectivism
. im p r o v e m e n t / Evolution
i R adical Innovation / R ev olutio n
P assion G V enturing
A c h ie v e m e n t G W in nin g
Im p lem en tatio n
G oals G K ey to S u cc ess
Liv ing P rin ciples
1 slablisiiirig C o n lm l O v e r Your
I *Studythepostfyouwoidd!ketodMnethefiitur&*
I “ Confueku
I The tme b y b jra ld e . Th e in n er w orid o f a hum an being and his
o r h er ab ility to control and develop it b of the highest value
H ie w ay to th e to p is in side yo u rself, through self*
developm ent
I T h e superior man undastonds what Is right; the fafaior man
I undrwandiwfi0t« itfa e lt**, Coryucliis
■flyehoatogdeslfw you w H mnetonly the outer surface.*
"LooTtu
Splrttuatpractice
*Ttme Is a higher court U r n courts o f justice and that k the court of
I conscience. It supercedes ok other courts.’ " Mahotmo Gandhi
A human facing Is m Intend part o f the universe and the society. Peopfe
a n hindamentaily connected. Duty towardsaflothers isavery important
matter.
C o b cttylH n isa tro n g tt
C yclic development, hence h s a tttffllflt Isa never cndbig Journey that
I hasno 8mIts.
Tbafundm antalsofthe status quo dtotdd not be questionedThe culture
ofcowskkring and bdrodtidng ra d ia l changes bw eafcar.
Entrarynaurfal o -M tM v and venturtne Is contained by the h ab t to
controlone’spassbns. ■ 'Nothing Is eve achieved by reo»no Wemen." - J Fred Bucy of J e m
*Onkesore thecousetfsitffsrbfylf f a t e , lesottheroute of o il ' * tosiniment*
hwmonponton, am he rem om t th in p o tio n w tl die out ando¥hunm /Nothing great woe ever achieved without enthusiasm.* Alwoys do who!
suffering w 0 he ended.*" fluddhfcm v ;'0 y o u orerfrnid to d a flto n o tg ow to efa ep o thm yle od, go histeod
v ' A ttn Indeed h e l arem eathg pride h the conquest even o f the entire if^p & i-w b e ie fa e re k m p qtha rrfk m atm fa* ?,k dp h Welch G uenon
tmhene^onehasBatcooquertdom,s f m p t m lo M .','Srihurol3lndo toiargciancjutte rfawoddbomnwd
ones.* “ John ftjc tfe le r
I Wbtnlng b in rid e yourstk » * 4 W ln rin ih ou tsldeyo u n e*.
I *T/wu(^lie*bouW conqi«rotf»usondiD«tottebottlef?eW otf>owo/jd # pTYou're not a star u n til they con sped your name h Karachi. ”
I times, y e t h f lndeed, who would conquer himself b the noblest victor. * - “ Alger Move
I .. Buddha ^ d ^ l r i e affords no higher pleasurethan (ho t of surmounting tBffhdtlea,-
I ’ HeeriiQCM quayotliem festrangr'hewtoaHiquereM niM lffemiglity*'' ^ -p o s tin g from one stop o f success to anotherfarming newwbbes and
. LooTtu > ' ' seeing them gratified.’
1 "Samuel Johnson
I. t h e mostm e llentJihodisthQtforthe conquest ofsdf*
• Mohammad *kIs notbeause things are t6ffkukthatwedonotdore;lthbetamewe
................... - ‘ ‘ ’* » t * f . i t e i h r » . « « f
S p it t U ll and m b e lo n a rV acero ach. P n g m stk and m o tio n a l a p ju o a Ji
"To creott and develop without onyfeefngtrfownership, to wort and
gu&ewkhautany expectation end control, lith e best quality’ "Loo Tw
■ To orkkre i t^ hberabonondninmnerou heed to perform yourduties
' . wkhout*spectlogonyrr*rordfbrk.mVedoi>ta,Hlndukm
*Actkxtcon hem ftiew d bpbtoction, where the remit Jr echhredby *Nof-
' Me"~&»
http://www.1000ventures.com /business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.htmi
SpM tual M a te ria listic
Vrrtuou* Ife and « fle e * e t o performing your dudes.’ *The le cre tofsuccessin Ufa, and subsequentlyo f making money, is to
"C o rfu donbm "toiav v o ir work, If you do, nothing b hard w o rk -n o m otto- how many
% ho ursyouputki.*~St8ltiyB uttn
"JheThreeAm lm cen bedeprivedof their commandtagofflcecbut enn
a common man cam at be deprived rfh is purpose’ "Corfudus , *SueceeehdiatoldABC-abiUt%breaksandcouroge*
'fyo u re e B y w ont everything then ghe up everything.'
V« "OiarlesLuckm art
" LooTni ‘ Rim ing enthuilawn, hocked by horse seme andpersistence,!* the
"He Is able who thinks he b a b le " " Buddha
quotty that mostfrequently mokes f v h i w b *
“ Jtfrftm tg if
V h tu e EtM c
m8e satkfied with whatever you hovq anddnioythe same. When you H ^ "Refrainfrom doktg rf;fa r one oilpowerful reason, lest our children
come to t a w thatyou have e nyth fa g, end you are not short of should copy o ir misdeeds, w e e tvrfl to prone to kntotewhatever Is base
anything, then the whole w orld wOtbe yours. * " Lao Tw y r - .
Th e thought monlfcste ta th e w ord; The ward manifests as the deed;The
- * w
deed develdps lnto habit; to d hobit harden* Into character, So watch the -There I s no reol meaKeiNe in o l rids world which can be separated from
thought end k t ways w ltkco rt. And let It spring from love bom out r f , » v v S rightIM ng.’
concernf ir a t being** ' - J . * *• M OovhlStvrrJordon
"Buddha
Through m e d ltitltin Through B M ly sil ^ * j
A man ton seporate higher mfndfaom hb/her emotion* and control them 'Ico n con‘rol my passant and emotion* tf Icon unoerstand their ra tu re '
“ Ibobm! r >; ** ' j f i. " - l- “ </ " rL ' \ / \ t TSpinoso
S p iritu a l; waiting behind people; ifcn ceb golden. .H *nds-O ll;w eBdngtiietdirfpeoplt( q»«ch ls|o H erv v' \ ,
’ bi orderto guide people, the leader m utt puthim selfbehkd them. Thus ’Leadetehiois done from htfro n t Never ask others fa do whot you, f
' when h e b ahead theyfeelno hurt.’ "Loo Tzu y ~ } ( chateaged, w o u ld n o tb e vtlk ig to d o yo in e if* .
| U - ' - , “ Xenophoj
http y/w w w .l OOOventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
east-west-phylosophy.htmi
1 Individualistic vs Collective Self

ARE YOU SELF-ORIENTED OR FAMILY-ORIENTED?

Individualism-CoUectivisinScale
The source of this scale is: T. M. Singelis, H. C. Triandis, D. P.S. Bhawuk, and M.
J. Gelfand, “Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism: A
Theoretical and Measurement Refinement ” C ro ss-C u ltu ra l R esearch 29 (August 1995),
pp. 240-75.
Cross-cultural values have become an important part of organizational life caused
by globalization and an increasingly multicultural workforce. Organizational behavior
researchers have studied several cross-cultural values, but none has had as much
attention as the two Pleasured in this self-assessment: individualism and collectivism.
• Read each of the statements in this instrument, and select the response that you
believe best indicates how well these statements describe you.
# * * * * ■* # •* * * * * * * * ♦ * * * » * * * * # * » * * * * « * » # * • * » « • * . » > « & * * * » • « • # f «
* ' %

• 1 - Does not describe me at all 4 - Describes me well »

* *
«. 2 - Does not describe me very well 5 - Describes me very well :
*
»
• 3 - Describes me somewhat

_ 1. I often do “my own thing.”

_ 2. The well-being of my coworkers is important to me.
_ 3. One should live one’s life independently of others.
_ 4. If a coworker gets a prize, I wouhj feel proud.
_ 5. I like my privacy. i

_ 6. If a relative were in financial difficulty, I would help within my means.

_ 7. I prefer to be direct and forthright when discussing with people.
_ 8. It is important to maintain harmony within my group.
_ 9. I am a unique individual.
10. I like sharing little things with my neighbors.
11. What happens to me is my own doing.
.12. I feel good when I cooperate with others.
.13. When I succeed, it is usually because of my abilities. ,0

, 14. My happiness depends very much on the happiness of those around me.
15. I enjoy being unique and different from others in many ways.
16. To me, pleasure is spending time with others.
Source: Steven L. McShane and M ary Ann Glinow. O rganizational Behavior. Second Edition.
Retrieved a t http-J/highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073381225/student_view0/chapter2/self-
assessm ent_2 3.htm l

8 49
1 Understanding Your Score on the individualism-collectivism Scale

This self-assessment estimates your level of individualism and collectivism. At

one time, experts thought that these two cross-cultural values were opposites. Now,
we understand that they represent separate values that are generally unrelated to each
other. Each scale has a potential score ranging from 8 to 40 points. Higher scores indicate
that the person has a higher level of each cross-cultural value.
Low Moderate High
individualism individualism individualism
8-22 23-30 31-40

8 40

Your score was 2 1 . The range of possible scores is from 8 to 40.

Individualism
Individualism refers to the extent that you value independence and personal
uniqueness. Highly individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control
over their own lives, and appreciation of their unique qualities that distinguish them
from others. The following graph shows the range of individualism in general. However,
keep in mind that the average level of individualism is higher in some cultures (such as
Canada) than in others.
Low Moderate High
individualism individualism individualism
8-22 . 23-30 31-40

a v;
Your score was 25. The range of possible scores is from 8 to 40.

Collectivism
Collectivism refers to the extent that, we value our duty to groups to which we belong,
and to group harmony. Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group
membership and value harmonious relationships within those groups. The following
graph shows the range of collectivism in general. However, keep in mind that the average
level of collectivism is lower in some cultures (such as Canada) than in others.
SO URC E: http-J/highered.mheducation.com/sites/0073381225/
student_view0/chapter2/self-assessm ent_2_3.htm l

Culture plays a very significant role in the development of the self-concept. It

embodies specific values, thoughts, or ideas that play a central role in determining a
person’s sense of “self.” The two dominant self-concepts are the individualistic self and
the collective self.
Individualistic self
Americans are fond of saying “I am my own man.” They believe that they should
assert and stand up for themselves. One of their famous quotes is, “I am the master of
my fate; I am the captain of my soul” believing that it is the person who determines how
he or she lives his/her life. ■
Individualistic cultures (such as in the USA, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the
Netherlands, and New Zealand) emphasize the moral worth of the individual (Wood,
1972). Individualists encourage asserting one’s goals and desires; they highly value
independence and self-reliance. They insist that the interests of the individual should
take precedence over the state or a social group. They also strongly oppose external
interference by society or institutions (such as the government) upon one’s own interests.
Individualistic cultures are oriented around the individual: that a person should be
independent instead of having the mentality of identifying with a group. In interpersonal
relationships, Individualists see each other as only loosely linked, and they value
personal goals over group interests (Hofstede, 2001). Moreover, it is characterized with
emphasis on personal achievements and a rational assessment of both the beneficial and
detrimental aspects of relationships with others (Rothwell, 2010).
Societies that focus on the person create an individualistic self-concept wherein the
person sees the Constellation of traits and characteristics that distinguish the individual
within his or her social context (Constantine, Brewer, & Constantine, 2001). This form
of self-representation relies on interpersonal comparison processes and is associated
with the motive of protecting or enhancing the person psychologically (Constantine, et
al., 2001; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; see also Markus, 1977; Sedikides, 1993).

Collective self
A study conducted by Patricia Licuanan, a Filipino psychologist and educator,
determined that one of the strengths of the Filipino character is our deep love and
concern for the family, which includes not simply the spouses and children, parents,
and siblings, but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, godparents, and all other
ceremonial relatives. To the Filipino, one’s family is the source of personal identity, the
source of emotional and material support, and the person’s main commitment and all
responsibility.
Eastern culture practiced by countries in Asia (i.e., the Philippines) base their
values and self-concept in a collectivist view. People in collectivistic culture emphasize
the interdependence and harmonious relatedness with one another (e.g., the family,
co-workers, friends, etc.). It is of utmost importance to be part of and maintain social
networks, maintain good relationships, and fulfill obligations.
Closing the gap
Because of such difference in emphases, western self-concept has been challenged
that it did not capture the significant relationship of interdependence in eastern
collectivist cultures. Some contemporary self-concept theories attempted to close the
gap between cultural concepts. Baumeister (1986) proposed that self-concept could be
organized in three aspects:
1. Private, which refers to the mental processes that perceive one’s own traits or
* behaviors (e.g. I am honest);
2. Public, which refers to the generalized view of self, such as the perception of how
others view you (e.g., People think I’m honest); and
3. Collective, which refers to the view of self in a collective concept (e g., My family
expects me to be honest).
It is assumed that these three aspects exist in every person. However, a dominant
aspect would probably present itself depending on one’s culture (Triandis, 1986;
Mclnerney, 2003). Thus, in an individualistic culture, the person would predominantly
show the private self and will behave according to personal beliefs, feelings, .philosophy,
etc. In a collectivist culture, the person would present the “collective self” more; and is
thus more inclined to behave according to rules, norms, and custom (Triandis, 1986;
Mclnerney, 2003).

|The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual

Development in Confucian Thought
i •

The Confucian tradition as a way of thinking and lifestyle is still an inspiration to

many East Asian societies. Characteristic of Confucian selfhood is the participation of
others in the dynamic process of self and spiritual development.
The Confucian concept of Li often rendered as “proper conduct” or “propriety” was
originally denoted as court rites (rituals) performed to sustain social and cosmic order.
The current context of Li moved beyond mere politeness or convention. It has since been
central to Confucian human-centered religiousness.
In the Confucian sense, self-development is a lifelong commitment to learning.
However, Confucian learning is not only about reading books or taking exams; it is
also about ritual practice. It involves practicing discipline for the mind and body to love
life not as an isolated individual but as an active participant in the living community.
Perhaps the single most important concept of the self in Confucian thought is the view
that the “self” is the center of relationships. The idea is that it is only by continually
opening the self to others that the “self” maintains its wholeness and identity.
 Chapter 2

“Don't belittle yourself. Be BIG yourself."—Corita Kent

—Corita Kent

ilNTRObuCTiO N

We are living in a world where the material and immaterial self are both represented.
How is that possible? Thanks to advances in technology, we not only live in a physical
world, we also have virtual reality. How do you view yourself in both worlds? ,
Society shapes us in many ways, possibly more than we realize it. This involves:
• How we perceive our bodies visually; ,
• How we feel about our physical appearance;
• How we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies; and
• Our sense of how the other people view our bodies.
The current embedded idea of what is attractive, beautiful, or handsome is an
unrealistic image, which is genetically impossible for many of us to emulate. This
unrealistic image is continually driven into our minds by the media through ads, movies,
and TV shows. The media is a very powerful tool in reinforcing cultural beliefs and
values. Although it is not fully responsible for determining the standards for physical
attractiveness, it makes escaping the barrage of images and attitudes almost impossible
to escape.
A positive view of “self” involves understanding that healthy, attractive bodies
come in many shapes and sizes, and that physical appearance says very little about our
character or value as a person.
We have to strive to know ourselves beyond our preconceived ideas of who we are.
 OveSu/Ucu
In this chapter, the student will explore some of the various aspects that
make up the self, such as the biological and material to the spiritual and political,
including the more recent digital self. Moreover, the student will also reflect on a
concrete experience on a holistic point of view.

I. Objective:
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to unpack the self
in various aspects.

II. Learning Outcomes:

At tlȣ end of the course, the students will be able to;
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self
from various disciplinal perspectives;
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across
different disciplines and perspectives;
3. Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the
self; and
4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the
development of one’s self and identity by developing a theory of the
self. . '. .

[T H E PHYSICAL SELF

“Beauty is when you can appreciate yourself. When you love yourself, that's
when you’rp most beautiful.” .
—Zoe Kravitz
 By the eighteenth century, however, beauty was associated with pleasure as a
personal preference. Some philosophers who hold this view are:
• David Hume - “Beauty is no quality in things themselves: It exists merely in the
mind which contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty. One
person may even perceive deformity, where another is sensible of beauty; and every
individual ought to acquiesce in his own sentiment, without pretending to regulate
those of others” (Hume 1757,136).
* • Immanuel Kant - “The judgment of taste is therefore not a judgment of cognition,
and is consequently not logical but aesthetical, by which we understand that whose
determining ground can be no other than subjective” (Kant 1790, section 1).
• Francis Hutcheson - “The perception of beauty does depend on the external sense
of sight; however, the internal sense of beauty operates as an internal or reflex
sense. The same is the case with hearing: hearing music does not necessarily give the
perception of harmony as it is distinct from the hearing” (Inquiry 1.1. X).

TRIVIA
The term for a makeup artist in Egyptian hieroglyphic is derived from the root “sesh," which
means, “to write, to engrave."
Makeup application was taken pretty seriously back then: the same accuracy was needed to
paint lips as etching symbols into a rock.

(The Psychology of Beauty, WEB)

Research found that a person who is perceived as attractive makes more money than
a person of below-average looks. In politics, voters who are not actively engaged in social
and political issues choose candidates based on “looks” 90% of the time.
These study results can be attributed to a cognitive bias called the “ halo effect.” A
cognitive bias is an error in reasoning, evaluating, remembering, or any other mental
process that is often a result of holding on to one’s preferences and beliefs regardless
of contrary information. The halo effect (also known as th e p h ysical attractiv en ess
stereotype and the “w h at is beau tifu l is go o d ” principle) refers to the tendency of people to
rate attractive individuals more favorably for their personality traits or characteristics
as compared to those who are less attractive.
Meanwhile, evolutionary psychology found that faces hold certain fundamental and
important characteristics that could indicate a person’s quality as a romantic partner
and as a mate. Among the most important and consistent factors in facial attractiveness
are structural qualities of the face. These structural qualities are also sex-typical. For
example, in the eyes of female experimental participants, an attractive man is generally
one with relatively prominent cheekbones and eyebrow ridges and a relatively long lower
 ^CcujfJw & & c &eA/UAe,

“My Best Presentation of the Physical Self”

Make the best presentation of yourself through a moviemaker/powerpoint

presentation emphasizing what your physical body can do to enhancing and maintaning
your beauty and good health.
What is beauty? How beauty is appreciated varies through time, Culture, and the
various perceptions about the world. Beauty is defined in so many ways, but in its
simplest sense, beauty can be described as happiness.
Every person is unique. Our individual experiences and memories tie together to
form our versions of beauty. We have different sizes! shapes, colors, heritage, and roles.
Hence, our body is simply a shell that allows us to radiate our experiences where beauty
gets to shine through. No culture, company, or concept could ever truly define beauty. As
what Helen Keller said, “The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot b<?seen
or even touched - they must be felt with the heart.”

I WHAT PHILOSOPHERS THINK ABOUT BEAUTY|

(T h e S ta n fo rd E n cyclopedia P hilosophy, 2 0 1 6 )

The nature of beauty is one of the most enduring and controversial themes in
western philosophy. Beauty, traditionally, was among the ultimate values along with
goodness, truth, and justice. It was a primary theme among ancient Greek, Hellenistic,
and medieval philosophers; it was central to the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
thought. By the beginning of the twentieth century, beauty was in decline as a subject of
philosophical inquiry. However, there were signs of revived interest by the early 2000s.
The two most-debated views about beauty are:
1. Beauty is objective.
2. Beauty is subjective.
Before the 18th century, most Western philosophical views on beauty treated it as an
objective quality. For example:
• St. Augustine asked whether things were beautiful because it gave delight, or whether
it gave delight because it was beautiful. He believed it to be the latter.
• Plato connected beauty as a response to love and desire. He asserted that beauty
exists in the realm of Forms, and that objects are found beautiful because they are a
reflection of the idea of beauty that already exist in the realm of Forms.
• Aristotle asserted that the chief forms of beauty are order, symmetry, and definiteness
that can be demonstrated by,mathematical sciences.

s?
 By the eighteenth century, however, beauty was associated with pleasure as a
personal preference. Some philosophers who hold this view are:
• David Hume - "Beauty is no quality in things themselves: It exists merely in the
mind whicW contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty. One
person may even perceive deformity, where another is sensible of beauty; and every
individual ought to acquiesce in his own sentiment, without pretending to regulate
those of others” (Hume 1757,136).
* • Immanuel Kant - “The judgment of taste is therefore not a judgment of cognition,
and is consequently not logical but aesthetical, by which we understand that whose
determining ground can be no other than subjective” (Kant 1790, section 1).
• Francis Hutcheson - “The perception of beauty does depend on the external sense
of sight; however, the internal sense of beauty operates as an internal or reflex
sense. The same is the case with hearing: hearing music does not necessarily give the
perception of harmony as it is distinct from the hearing” (Inquiry 1.1. X).

TRIVIA
The term for a makeup artist in Egyptian hieroglyphic is derived from the root "sesh," which
means, “to write, to engrave."
Makeup application was taken pretty seriously back then: the same accuracy was needed to
paint lips as etching symbols into a rock.

|w i^
(The Psychology of Beauty, WEB)

Research found that a person who is perceived as attractive makes more money than
a person of below-average looks. In politics, voters who are not actively engaged in social
and political issues choose candidates based on “looks” 90% of the time.
These study results can be attributed to a cognitive bias called the “ halo effect.” A
cognitive bias is an error in reasoning, evaluating, remembering, or any other mental
process that is often a result of holding on to one’s preferences and beliefs regardless
of contrary information. The halo effect (also known as the physical attractiv en ess
stereotype and the “w h at is beau tifu l is go o d ” principle) refers to the tendency of people to
rate attractive individuals more favorably for their personality traits or characteristics
as compared to those who are less attractive.
Meanwhile, evolutionary psychology found that faces hold certain fundamental and
important characteristics that could indicate a person’s quality as a romantic partner
and as a mate. Among the most important and consistent factors in facial attractiveness
are structural qualities of the face. These structural qualities are also sex-typical. For
example, in the eyes of female experimental participants, an attractive man is generally
one with relatively prominent cheekbones and eyebrow ridges and a relatively long lower
the norm (i.e., photoshopped), and this mentality can. negatively influence a person’s
body image. A study reported that young Filipino women were dissatisfied with their
bodies that possibly stemmed from unreasonable weight concerns and extreme drive for
thinness (Torres, 2012).

|The Relationship Between Body Image and Self-esteem

Do you have high or low self-esteem? If you don’t know, then let’s take the Rosenberg
Self-esteem Scale. , . , ■

■^c£u/C&^ /

“ HOW DO I FEEL ABOUT MYSELF?”

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself.
Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement by putting a
check (*0 mark in the column of your choice.

1. On the whole, 1 am satisfied with

myself.

2. At times. 1think 1am no good at all.

3. 1feel that 1have a number of good

qualities.

4. 1 am able to do things as well as

most other people.

5. 1 feel 1 do hbt have much to be

proud of.

6. 1certainly feel useless at times.

7. 1feel that I'm a person of worth, at

least on an equal plane with others.

8. 1wish 1could have more respect for

myself.

9. All in all, 1am inclined to feel that 1

am a failure.

10. 1 take a positive attitude toward

myself.

Source: Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image.

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
face. Meanwhile, male raters generally
found women to be attractive with
prominent cheekbones, large eyes,
small nose, a taller forehead, smooth
skin, and an overall young or even
childlike appearance.
Our hormones sculpt our faces.
These sex-typical facial, features of
adult men and women are the result
of the testosterone to estrogen ratio or
estrogen to testosterone, respectively,
acting on the individual during
development. We are programmed to be
drawn to strong indicators of maleness
(for women) and femaleness (for men) partly because they reflect an individual’s health
(Fink & Penton-Voak, 2002).

TRIVIA
A full-lipped, cheek-chiseled man in Ancient Greece knew two things - that his beauty was a
blessing (a gift of the gods no less) and that his perfect exterior hid an inner perfection.
For the Greeks a beautiful body was considered direct evidence of a beaufifbl mind. They even
had a word for it -■k a lo sk a g a th o s - which meant being gorgeous to look at, and hence being a
good person.

|How Cultural traditions Shape Body Image

Culture has a significant impact on how a person feels about himself or herself, as
well as his or her body image. Cultural traditions can either be a positive or a negative
influence on body image and on self-esteem. Body image is generally defined as how one
thinks and feels toward one’s body (Yam, 2013; Cash & Smolak, 2011).
People see cultural group membership as an integral part of who they are. Hence,
they are more likely to engage in events and behaviors that are related to their culture
- choose friends, media, and even marital partners from their culture (Yam, 2013; Yeh
& Huang, 1996). When “culture” is experienced as a personally meaningful activity, it is
difficult for a person to resist the conscious arid unconscious ways that culture influences
a person’s life.
For example, ideal staridards of body sizes are culturally specific. Since the 1960s,
ideal body sizes for white American women have emphasized thinness (Yam, 2013; Fallon,
1990; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992). The Philippines is undoubtedly
influenced by Western culture, particularly American culture; a culture that generally
tends to hyper-focus oh dieting and body appearance. Digitally retouched photos are
Scoring:
Items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 are reverse scored. Give “Strongly Disagree” 1 point, “Disagree” 2 points,
“Agree” 3 points, and “Strongly Agree” 4 points. Sum scores for all ten items. Keep scores
on a continuous scale. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem.

|Does your body im age have an im pact on your self-esteem?

The term self-esteem was coined by William James in 1800. James presented
self-esteem as the number of successes a person achieves in the domains of life that
are important to him or her, divided by the number of failures that occurred in those
areas ( The C o rsin i E n cyclopedia o f P sych ology a n d B e h av io ra l Science, 2 0 0 2 ) . In the 1960s,
behavioral scientists defined self-esteem in terms of an attitude concerning one’s worth
as a person (Rosenberg, 1965). Self-esteem is about how you value yourself and how you
feel others value you. Self-esteem is important because it can affect your mental health
as well as how you behave.
Body image is how you view your physical body, whether you feel you are attractive,
and howyou feel some other people like your looks. For manypeople (especially teenagers)
body image is closely linked to self-esteem.
If you have a positive body image, you probably like and accept yourself the way you
are, even if you do not fit the popular notion of “beautiful” or “handsome.” This healthy
attitude allows you to explore some other aspects of growing up, such as developing good
friendships, becoming more independent from your parents, and challenging yourself
physically and mentally. Developing these parts of yourself can help boost your self­
esteem.
. f
(H o w important is physical beauty?

What came into your mind could be the saying, “Do not judge the book by its cover.”
You may have heard many people say this; you may have said this yourself. However,
though it is a wise thought from the conscious mind, your subconscious mind will
contradict you, and you will still find yourself judging people based on their looks on
your initial encounters.
Physical beauty is extremely im portant. You must also understand that you
need to know the correct definition of physical beauty so that your self-esteem will not
suffer. The dictionary’s definition of beauty is, “the degree to which a person’s physical
traits are considered pleasing or beautiful.” Take note that the definition did not indicate
“who” determines what type of physical traits is attractive and unattractive. Why?
Because even though physical beauty is extremely important, the good news is that
physical beauty standards differ from one person to another.
A self-image problem happens when your looks do not match your beauty standards.
For example, if you believe that being thin is sexy and attractive, yet you are not thin
(in fact you are on the heavier side) then you might believe you are unattractive (even
though there are others who find you attractive).
The problein here is with your own beauty standards and not with your looks. To
have a positive self-image and a higher self-esteem you must fix your false beliefs about
physical attractiveness first.
|Develdpment of Secondary Sex Characteristics
and the Human Reproductive System
• *

Soon after the fertilization of an egg, the development of the reproductive system
begins. For example, approximately one month after conception, primordial gonads also
begin to develop. Rapid reproductive development happens inside the mother’s womb;
but when the child is born until he/she reaches puberty, there is little change in the
reproductive system.

|Developm ent of the Sexual Organs in the Embryo and Fetus

The female sex is considered the “fundamental” sex because if a particular chemical
prompting is absent, all fertilized eggs will develop into females. For a fertilized egg to
become male, a cascade of chemical reactions must be present initiated by a single gene in
the male Y chromosome called the SRY (Sex-determining Region of the Y chromosome).
Females do not have any Y chromosome; hence, they do not have the SRY gene (Lumen
Learning Courses, WEB). *
Both the male and female embryos have the same group of cells that will potentially
develop into male or female gonads or sex glands. However, the presence of the SRY
gene initiates the development of the testes while suppressing the vital genes for female
development.

PRACTICE QUESTION
A baby’s gender is determined at conception, and the different genitalia of male
and female fetuses develop from the same tissues in the embryo.

Note: Before you allow your students to watch the short video, make sure to explain
it in a scientific way.

View this animation to see a comparison of the development of structures

of the female and male reproductive systems in a growing fetus, (https://
www.babycenter.com/2_inside-pregnancy-girl-or-boy_10313041.bc#videoplaylist)

Where are the testes located for most of the gestational time?

Show Answer
The testes are located in the abdomen.
1 Further Sexual Development Occurs at Puberty
' *

Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature.

The outcome of puberty is different for boys and girls, but the hormonal process is similar.
Moreover, though the timing of these changes varies for every individual, the sequence
of changes for boys and girls is predictable, resulting in adult physical characteristics
and the capacity to reproduce.
Puberty can be separated into five stages. The characteristics for each stage vary for
girls and boys.

1 Approximately between the ages of 8 Approximately between ages 9 and 12:

and 11:

The ovaries enlarge and hormone No visible signs of development occur;

production starts, but external but internally, male hormones become
development is not yet visible. a lot more active. Sometimes a growth
spurt begins at this time.
i !

2 Approximately between the ages of 8 Approximately between ages 9 to 15:

and 14:

The first external sign of puberty is Height increases, and the shape of the
usually breast development. body changes.

At first breast buds develop. The nipples Muscle tissue and fat develop at this
will be tender and elevated. time.

The area around the nipple (the aureole) The aureole, the dark skin around the
will increase in size. nipple, darkens and increases in size.

The first stage of pubic hair may al^o be The testicles and scrotum grow, but the
present at this time. It may be coarse penis probably does not.
and curly or fine and straight.

Height and weight increase at this time. A little bit of pubic hair begins to grow at
The body gets rounder and curvier. the base of the penis.

3 Approximately between the ages of 9 Approximately between ages 11 and 16

and 15:
i 1
Breast growth continues, and pubic hair The penis starts to grow during this
gets coarser and darker. stage. It tends to grow in length rather
than width.

During this stage, whitish discharge Pubic hair is getting darker and coarser
from the vagina may be present. and spreading to where the legs meet
the torso.
 For some girls, the first menstrual period
' begins at this time.
Approximately from ages 10 to 16:
Some girls notice that their aureoles
get even darker and separate into a
little mound rising above the rest of the
breast.
Pubic hair may begin to have a more
adult triangular pattern of growth.
If it did not happen in Stage Three,
menarche (first menstruation) should
start now.
Ovulation may start now, too. But it will
not necessarily occur on a regular basis.
(It is possible to have regular periods
even if ovulation does not occur every
month.)
Approximately between ages 12 and 19:
This is the final stage of development.
Full height is reached, and young
women are ovulating regularly.
Pubic hair is filled in, and the breasts are
developed fully for the body.
http y/www.healthofchildren.com /P/Puberty.htm l
Also, boys continue to grow in height,
and even their faces begin to appear
more mature.
The shoulders broaden, making the hips
look smaller.
Muscle tissue increases, and the voice
starts to change and deepen.
Finally, facial hair begins to develop on
the upper lip.
Approximately 11 to 17:
At this time, the penis starts to grow in
width, too.
The testicles and scrotum also continue
to grow. Hair may begin to grow on the
anus.
The texture of the penis become^more
adult-looking. Underarm and facial hair
increases as well.
The first fertile ejaculations typically
appear at approximately 15 years of
age, but this age can vary widely across
individual boys.
Skin gets oilier, and the voice continues
to deepen.
Approximately 14 to 18:
Boys reach their full adult height.
Pubic hair and the genitals look like an
adult man's do.
At this point, too, shaving is a necessity.
Some young men continue to grow past
this point, even into their twenties.
67
1 What are the erogenous zones of the body?
*

The term erogenous zones was popularized in the 1960s and 1970s to describe
areas of the body that are highly sensitive to stimuli and are often (but not always)
sexually exciting. In this context, “highly sensitive” means these areas of the body have a
high number of sensory receptors or nerve endings that react to stimuli. These are places
where a person i$ generally more sensitive to both pain and pleasure than in other areas
of the body. Professionals usually discuss sensuality in terms of the complex stimuli and
associations that give rise to an appreciative response.

The skin
The skin serves as the primary erotic stimulus. Two types of erogenous zones exist
in the skin (Winkelmann, 2004):
1. Nonspecific type
a. It is similar to any other portion of the usual haired skin.
b. The nerves supplying it are composed of the usual density of dermal-nerve
networks arid hair-follicle networks.
c. The learned and anticipated pleasurable sensations when a stimulus is
presented in these regions produce the amplified sensation.
d. The pleasurable sensation felt from these regions is simply an exaggerated
form of tickle.
e. Examples of this type of skin are the sides and back of the neck, the axilla
(armpit, underarm) and the sides of the thorax (chest).

2 . Specific type
a. It is found in the m ucocutaneou s regions of the body or those regions made
both of mucous membrane and of cutaneous skin.
b. These regions favor acute perception.
c. These specific sites of acute sensation are the genital regions, including the
prepuce, p en is, th e fe m ale e x te rn a l g e n ita lia (v u lv a),th e p e ria n a l skin , lip s, a n d
nipples.

The prepuce is the retractable fold of skin covering the tip of the penis. Nontechnical
name: foreskin. It is also a similar fold of skin covering the tip of the clitoris (C ollins
E n glish D ictio n ary ).

The penis is a male erectile organ of copulation by which urine and semen are
discharged from the body (Splendorio & Reichel, 2014).
F e m ale e x te rn a l g e n ita lia (vu lv a) include: *
• The m ons p ub is.
• The clitoris. A female sexual organ that is srriall, sensitive, and located in front of the
opening of the vagina.
 • The lab ia m ajo ra and la b ia m in ora. The lab ia m ajo ra are fleshy lips around the vagina.
These are larger outer folds of the vulva. The lab ia m inora also known as the inner
1labia, inner lips, vaginal Ups or nymphae are two flaps of skin on either side of the
human vaginal opening in the vulva situated between the labia majora.
• V agin al in tro itu s is the opening that leads to the vaginal canal.
• The hym en is a membrane that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal
opening.
(Human ReproductiveBiology, 2012)

Perianal skin refers to the area of the body surrounding the anus, and in particular,
the skin. The perianal skin is very sensitive. It is also susceptible to injury and damage.
The lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the
articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are designed to be perceived by touch, and
can be an erogenous zone when used in kissing and any other acts of intimacy.
Nipples are the raised region of tissue on the surface of the breast. A recent study
found that the sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as
sensations from the vagina, clitoris, and cervix (Pappas, 2011).
Bear in mind though that not only is individual sensitivity different (what feels great
for you or one person does not mean others will like it, too) but how your brain interprets
what is happening with the given part of the body influences your sexual response as
well. For example, even if a particular part of the body is packed with sensory nerve
receptors, stimulation of this part may feel unpleasant if you had negative experiences
or you have negative ideas about that given part of the body.

|Under$tanding the Human Sexual Response

What is the sexual response cycle? The sexual response cycle refers to the sequence
of physical and emotional occurrences when the person is participating in a sexually
stimulating activity, such as intercourse or masturbation (Cleveland Clinic, WEB).
Knowing how the body responds during each phase of the cycle can help enhance a
couple’s sexual relationship, and it can also help address the cause of sexual dysfunction.
In general, both men and women experience these phases. However, they do not
experience it at the same time. For example, it is unlikely that a couple will orgasm
simultaneously. Moreover, the intensity of the sensation and the time spent in each
phase also vary from person to person.
In the late 1950s, William Masters and Virginia Johnson pioneered research
to understand human sexual response, dysfunction, and disorders. Masters and
Johnson have been widely recognized for their contributions to sexual, psychological,
and psychiatric research, particularly for their theory of a four-stage model of sexual
response (also known as the human sexual response cycle).
 Four phases of the human sexual response cycle:
1. Excitement 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm* 4. Resolution

Phase 1: • Muscle tension increases.

Excitement • Heart rate quickens, and breathing is accelerated.
• Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness appear on the chest and
back).
• Nipples become hardened or erect.
«
• Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman's
A clitoris and labia minora (inner lips), and erection of the man's penis.
• Vaginal lubrication begins.
• The woman's breasts become fuller and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
• The man's testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a
lubricating liquid.

Phase 2: j , • The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.

Plateau ! • The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and the vaginal
walls turn a dark purple.
• The woman's clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be painful to
touch) and retracts under the clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation
from the penis.
• The man's testicles are withdrawn up into the scrotum.
• Breathing, heart rate and blood pressure continue to increase.
• Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and hands.
• Tension in the muscles increases.

Phase 3: This phase is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of
1 Orgasm the phases and generally lasts only a few seconds. General Characteristics of
this phase include the following:
• Involuntary muscle contractions begin.
• Blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are at their highest rates,
with a rapid intake of oxygen.
1
• Muscles in the feet spasm.
• There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
• In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus also
undergoes rhythmic contractions.
• In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis
1
result in the ejaculation of semen.
I1 • A rash or "sex flush" may appear over the entire body.

Phase 4: During this phase, the body slowly returns to its normal functioning
Resolution level. The swelled and erect body parts return to their previous size and
color. This phase is marked by a general sense of well-being; intimacy is
enhanced; and often, fatigue sets in.
With further sexual stimulation, some women can return to the orgasm
phase.This allows therri to experience multiple orgasms. Men, on the other
hand, need recovery time after orgasm.Thls is called the refractory period.
How long a man needs a refractory period varies among men and his age.

Source: https://my.cievelandclinic.org/health/articlesAhe-sexual-response-cycle
 |Sex ancfthe Brain. What parts are involved?

Primarily; sexis the process of combining male and female genes to form an offspring.
However, complex systems of behavior have evolved the sexual process from its primary
purpose of reproduction to motivation and rewards circuit that root sexual behaviors.
Ultimately, the largest sex organ controlling the biological urges, mental processes,
. as well as the emotional and physical responses to sex, is the brain.

Roles of the brain in sexual activity:

1. The brain is responsible for translating the nerve impulses sensed by the skin
into pleasurable sensations.
2. It controls the nerves and muscles used in sexual activities.
3. Sexual thoughts and fantasies are theorized to lie in the cereb ral cortex, the same
area used for thinking and reasoning.
4. Emotions and feelings (which are important for sexual behavior) are believed to
originate in the lim bic sy stem .
5. The brain releases the hormones considered as the physiological origin of sexual
■ desire.
# •

Roles of hormones in sexual activity:

The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning.
This small area at the base of the brain has several groups of nerve-cell bodies that
•receive input from the limbic system. One reason the hypothalamus is important in
human sexual activity is its relation to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland secretes
the hormones produced in the hypothalamus.
1. Oxytocin
It is also known as the “love hormone” and believed to be involved in our
desire to maintain close relationships. It is released during sexual intercourse
when orgasm is achieved.
2. Follicle-stim ulating hormone (FSH)
It is responsible for ovulation in females. The National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences in Durham, N.C., discovered that sexual activity
was more frequent during a woman s fertile time.
3. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
The LH is crucial in regulating the testes in men and ovaries in women.
In men, the LH stimulates the testes to produce testosteron e. In males,
testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation.
 4. Vasopressin
Vasopressin is involved in the male arousal phase! The increase of vasopressin
during; erectile response is ,believed to be directly associated with increased
motivation to engage in sexual behavior.
5. Estrogen and progesterone
Estrogen and progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual
behavior for females, with estrogen increasing motivation and progesterone
decreasing it.
(Boundless Psychology, courses.lumenlearning.com)

^Understanding the Chemistiy of Lust, Love, and Attachment

Falling in love can be a beautifully wild experience. It is a rush of longing, passion,

and euphoria. Fast forward a few years, and the excitement would have died down
(though the levels vary for every couple). For couples who remain together through the
years, the rush would have been replaced by a warm, comfortable, and nurturing feeling.
Each stage of this cycle can actually be explained by your brain chemistry—the
neurotransmitters that get stimulated to release hormones throughout your body.
Anthropologist Helen Fisher of Rutgers University proposed three stages of falling
in love; and for each stage, a different set of chemicals run the show.
The three stages of falling in love are:
1. Lust (erotic passion);
\ 2. Attraction (romantic passion); rand ' '
3. Attachment (commitment).

j Lust
This stage is marked by physical attraction. You want to seduce and be seduced by
your object of affection. Lust is driven by testosterone in men and estrogen in women.
Lust, however, will not guarantee that the couple will fall in love in any lasting way.
I .
A ttraction
At this stage, you begin to crave for your partner’s presence. You feel excitement
and energetic as you fantasize about the things you could do together as a couple. Three
chemicals trigger this feeling: n o rep in ep h rin e, d o p a m in e ,an d seroton in.
Norepinephrine - responsible for the extra surge of energy and triggers
increased heart rate, loss of appetite, as well as the desire to sleep. Your body is in a
more alert state and is ready for action.
Dopamine - associated with motivation and goal-directed behavior. It makes
you pursue your object of affection. It creates a sense of novelty, where the person
 seems exciting, special, or unique that you want to tell the world about his or her
admirable qualities.
Serotonin - thought to cause obsessive thinking. Low levels of serotonin are
said to be present in people with obsessive-compulsive behavior (GCD). Meanwhile,
a study found that those who expressed they were in love and people with OGD both
had less serotonin transporter in their blood compared to those who did not express
they were in love and do not have OCD as well.

Attachm ent
Attachment involves the desire to have lasting commitment with your significant
other. At this point, you may want to get married and/oir have children.
1 (Psychology Today, 2017)

Psychological aspect of sexual desire

Sexual desire is typically viewed as an interest in'sexual objects or activities.
More precisely, it is the subjective feeling of wanting to engage in sex. Sexual desire
is sometimes, but not always, accompanied by genital arousal (penile erection in men
and vaginal lubrication in women). Sexual desire can be triggered by a large variety of
cues and situations, including private thoughts, feelings, and fantasies, erotic materials
(such as books, movies, photographs), and a variety of erotic environments, situations,
or social interactions.
Sexual desire is often confused with sex drive,but these are fundamentally different
constructs. Sex drive represents a basic, biologically mediated motivation to seek sexual
activity or sexual gratification. In contrast, sexyal desire represents a more complex
psychological experience that is not dependent on hormonal factors.
However, developmental research suggested that the capacity to experience sexual
desire though not hormone-dependent, are probably still facilitated by hormones. For
example, because of adrenal gland development and the subsequent secretion of adrenal
hormones, some 9-year-old children may experience sexual desires. Researchers noted
that despite this development, children who experienced such desires generally are not
motivated to seek sexual gratification or activity. Such motivation typically develops
after 12 years old when puberty produces notable surges in levels of gonadal hormones.
Thus, physiological arousal is not a necessary element of sexual desire and should not be
considered a more valid marker of sexual desire than individual self-reported feelings.

Gender differences on sexual desire

Factors that influence the notable gender difference on sexual desire include:
• Culture;
• Social environment; and even
• Political situations.
 One of the most notable gender differences on sexual desire is that women place
great emphasis on interpersonal relationships as part of the experience. Males, on the
other hand, enjoy a more casual sexual behavior.
Alternatively, some researchers attributed that because of the different evolutionary
pressures men and women face through time, early human females practiced selective
mating with carefully chosen males to achieve maximum reproductive success, while
no such pressure was evident on men. This may have favored the evolution of stronger
sexual desires in men than in women.
(psychology.iresearchnet,com,©2017)

Physiological mechanisms of sexual behavior m otivation

Much of what we know about the physiological mechanisms that underlie sexual
behavior and motivation comes from animal research. The hypothalamus plays an
important role in motivated behaviors, and Sex is no exception. Laboratory rats that
were physiologically incapable of coupling were observed to nevertheless seek receptive
females. This finding suggested that the ability to engage in sexual behavior and the
motivation to do so may be mediated by different systems in the brain.
Animal research suggests that limbic
system structures, such as th e a m y g d a la and
n ucleus accu m b en s , are especially important
for sexual motivation.
■ A m y g d ala is the integrative center
for emotions, emotional behavior, and
motivation.
Hypothalamus
(also referred to as the
N u cleu s accu m b en s
Amygdala pleasure center) plays a role in motivation
Themed!*! preoptScare*,*! a.ea ofthc hypothalaniu'Us invoived in
the ability to engage in sexual behavior. bo tit doas not affect sexual and cognitive processing of aversion. It has
motivation. Intoritrast thearnygdala and nucleus accwnbensare
involved in motivation for sexual behavior, but they do nofcaffeetthe i
aMiity to engage in it.
a significant role in response to reward and
reinforcing effects, translating emotional
https://www.qpizbver.com/course/section/ stimulus into behaviors,
physiological-mechanisms-of-sexual-
behavior-and-motivation-by-openstax

74
|The Diversity of Sexual Behavior

Like food, sex is an important part*of our lives. From an evolutionary perspective,
the reason is obvious—perpetuation of the species. Sexual behavior in humans, however,
involves much more than reproduction.
Sexual orientation is defined as an individual’s general sexual disposition toward
partners of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. There has been much interest
in sexual desire as an index of sexual orientation. Historically, the most important
indicator of same-sex (i.e., gay, lesbian, or bisexual) orientation was same-sex sexual
desire. Contemporary scientific studies, however, found that same-sex desire and sexual
orientation are more complicated than'previously thought. >
Past studies thought that gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals were the only people
who ever experienced same-sex sexual desires. It was found though that completely
heterosexual persons periodically experience same-sex sexual desires, even if they
have little motivation to act on those desires. It also did not appear to indicate that
a completely heterosexual individual will eventually want to pursue same-sex sexual
behavior or will eventually consider himself or herself lesbian, gay, o r bisexual.
Thus, researchers now generally believe that lesbian, gay, and bisexual orientations
are characterized by persistent and intense experiences of same-sex desire that are
stable over time. S

| Gender Identity

Many people fuse sexual orientation with gender identity into one group because of
stereotypical attitudes that exist about homosexuality. In reality, although these two are
related, they are actually different issues. Sexual orien tation is a person’s emotional
and erotic attraction toward another individual. On the other hand, gender identity
refers to one’s sense of being male or female. Generally, our gender identities correspond
to our chromosomal and phenotypic sex, but tliis is not always the case.

|What is LGBTQ+?

LGBTQ+ is an umbrella term for a wide spectrum of gender identities, sexual

orientations, and romantic orientations.
• L stands for lesbian. These are females who are exclusively attracted to women.
• G stands for gay. This can refer to males who are exclusively attracted to any other
males. It can also refer to anyone who is attracted to his or her same gender.
• B stands for bisexual or someone who is sexually/romantically attracted to both men
and women.
• T or TransVTransgender is an umbrella term for people who do not identify with the
gender assigned to them at birth. Trails woman is an identity label adapted by male
to female trans people to signify that they identify themselves as women. A trans

75
 man is an identity label adapted by female to male trans people to signify that they
identify themselves as men. *
• Q stands for queer. It is a useful term for those who are questioning their identities
and are unsure about using more specific terms, or those who simply do not wish to
label themselves and prefer to use a broader umbrella term.
• +The plus is there to signify that many identities are not explicitly represented by
the letters. This includes fi>ut is not limited to) intersex or people who are born
with a mix of male and female biological traits that can make it hard for doctors to
assign them a male or female sex; and asexual or a person who is not interested in
or does not desire sexual activity.

Regardless of how sexual orientation is determined, there is preliminary empirical

research that strongly suggests sexual orientation is not a choice. Rather, it is a relatively
stable characteristic of a person that cannot be changed. Just as the majority of the
heterosexual people do not choose to be attracted to the opposite sex, the large majority
of the LGBTQ+ people also do not choose theirs. The only real choice that the LGBTQ+
community has to deal with is whether to be open about their orientation.

|Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity issues

There’s a lot more to being male, female, or any gender than the sex assigned at
birth. Your biological or assigned sex does not always tell your complete story.
Sex is a label — male or female — that you’re assigned by a doctor at birth based
on the genitals you’re born with and the chromosomes you have. It goes on your birth
certificate.
Gender is defined by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as
“the relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not
determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men,
but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and often
governs the processes of production and reproduction, .consumption and distribution”
(FAO, 1997).
According to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, gender identity
is one’s innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both or neither - how
individuals perceive themselves and what they call themselves. One’s gender identity
can be the same pr different from their sex assigned at birth. On the other hand, sexual
orientation is an inherent or immutable enduring emotional, romantic or sexual
attraction to sortie other people. This attraction can be for someone from the same sex
or someone from the opposite sex.

76
ISociocultural Factors
Sociocultural factors influence the various issues related to sexual orientation and
*

gender identity. For example, the Philippines and most of its Southeast Asian neighbors
view heterosexuality as the norm. However, there are countries that are culturally not
as restrictive with their human sexual/romantic relationship attitudes. For example, in
New Guinea, young boys are expected to engage in sexual behavior with any other boys
for a given period because it is believed that doing so is necessary for these boys to become
men (Baldwin & Baldwin, 1989). In the Philippines, an individual is classified as either
male or female only. However, Thailand recognizes more than two categories - male,
female, and k c ith o e y .A k ath o ey is an individual who would be described as transgender in
western cultures (Tangmunkongvorakul, Banwell, Carmichael, Utomo, & Sleigh, 2010).

| Family Influences
There are also studies that asserted how children’s upbringing and social
environment influences their developing gender identities. In summary, this work found
that children’s interests, preferences, behaviors, and overall self-concept are strongly
influenced by parental and authority figure teachings regarding sexual stereotypes.
Thus, children whose parents adhere to strict gender-stereotyped roles are, in general,
more likely to take on those roles themselves as adults than are pe^jrs whose parents
provided less stereotyped, more neutral models for behaving.

iU rb a n Setting
Another research also discovered that homosexuality positively correlated with
urbanization. The correlation though was more substantial in men than in women. The
study surmised that large cities seem to provide a friendlier environment for same-
gender interest to develop and be expressed (Laumann, et al., 1994) than in rural areas.
These cities host venues or areas where people with specific sexual orientations socialize
and become a support group. The number of gays and lesbiaiis residing in large cities
may function protectively to generate resiliency among the LGBTQ+ community in the
face of stigmatization, discrimination, and harassment, thus, potentially resulting in
positive consequences for their well-being.
On the other hand, existing literature highlighted that the challenges of rural living
for LGBTQ+ people are: «
• High levels of intolerance;
• Limited social and institutional supports; and
• Higher incidence of social isolation.
There are studies that also countered the popular notion of urban versus rural living
for the LGBTQ+ —that is, rural life is actually more beneficial to their well-being than
urban life. However, these studies are newer and less supported than existing literature
oh LGBTQ+ life, challenges, and issues.
i History of Sexual Abuse
*

Previous, published studies claimed that abused adolescents, particularly those

victimized by males, are more likely to become homosexual or bisexual in adulthood.
These studies were criticized for being non-dinical and unreliable. Some other findings
suggested no significant relationship that child abuse is a cause of same-sex sexual
orientation in adulthood (Wilson and Wisdom, 2009).

|Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD’s)

What are STD’s? STD stands for sexually transmitted diseases. It is also known as
STI or sexually transmitted infection. In general, STD is a disease or infection acquired
through sexual contact where the organisms that cause STD are passed on from person
to person in blood, semen, and vaginal or any other bodily fluids.
STD can also be transmitted non-sexually such as:
• Mother to infant during pregnancy;
• Blood transfusion; and
• People sharing needles for injection.
It is possible to contract sexually transmitted diseases from people who seem per fectly
healthy, and who may not even be aware of the infection. STDs do not always cause
symptoms, which is one of the reasons experts prefer the term “sexually transmitted
infections” to “sexually transmitted diseases.”

iT h e Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012

RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACT

OF 2012-

An Act providing for a national policy on Responsible Parenthood

and Reproductive Health

Citation Republic Act No. 10354

Enacted by House of Representatives of the Philippines

Date enacted December 19,2012

Enacted by Senate of the Philippines

Date enacted December 19,2012

Date signed December 21,2012

Signed by Miriam Defensor Santiago

Date commenced January 17,2013

 The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 (Republic Act No.
10354), informally known as the Reproductive Health Law or RH Law, is a law in the
Philippines that guarantees access to contraceptive methods, such as fertility control,
sexual education, and maternal care. Passage of the legislation was controversial and
highly divisive. Experts, academics, religious institutions, and major political figures
declared support or opposition while it was just a bill. After the (then) RH Bill was passed
into law, the Supreme Court delayed its implementation in response to challenges. On
April 8, 2014, the Court ruled that the law was “not unconstitutional” but struck down
eight provisions partially or in full.

■ Goals, Objectives, and Strategies of Reproductive Health Law

Specific objectives:
• Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio.
• Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate.
• To have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Regional objectives:
• Improve access to the full range of affordable, equitable, and high-quality family planning
and reproductive health services to increase contraceptive use rate and reduce unwanted
pregnancies and abortions.
• Make pregnancy safer.
• Support countries and areas in developing evidence-based policies and strategies for the
reduction of maternal and newborn mortality.
• Improve access to the full range of affordable, equitable, and high-quality family planning
and reproductive health services to increase contraceptive use rate and reduce unwanted
pregnancies.
• Improve the health and nutrition status of women of all ages, especially pregnant and
nursing women.
• Gender, women and health: '
• Integrate gender and rights considerations into health policy and programs, especially
into reproductive health and maternal health care.
• Improve the health and nutrition status of women of all ages,
(WHO Western Pacific Region, WPRO, 2017)

■ Advantages and Disadvantages of Family Planning

Family planning allows both men and women to make informed choices on when
and if they decide to have children. Knowing both the advantages and disadvantages of
family planning methods may help you decide what option is right for you.
Methods of contraception:
*

• Long-acting reversible contraception, such as the implant or intra uterine device (IUD)
• Hormonal contraception, such as the birth control pill and the birth control injection
• Barrier methods, such as condoms
• Emergency contraception
• Fertility awareness
• Permanent contraception, such as vasectomy and tubal ligation

Benefits of family planning / contraception according to the WHO

• Prevent pregnancy-related health risks in women
• Reduce infant mortality
• Help prevent HIV/AIDS
• Empower people and enhance education
• Reduce adolescent pregnancies
• Slow population growth
1 (WHO Western Pacific Region, WPRO©2017)

|Benefits of Using Family Planning According to DOH

Family planning provides many benefits to mother, children, father, and the family.

Mother
• Enables her to regain her health after delivery
• Gives enough time and opportunity to love and provide attention to her husband and
children
• Gives more time for her family and own personal advancement
• When suffering from an illness, gives enough time for treatment and recovery

Children
• Healthy mothers produce healthy children
• Will get all the attention, security, love, and care they deserve

Father
• Lightens the burden and responsibility in supporting his family
• Enables him to give his children their basic needs (food, shelter, education, and better
future)
• Gives him time for his family and own personal advancement
• When suffering from an illness, gives enough time for treatment and recovery

80
Disadvantages
• Birth control health risks
Some forms of birth control pose health concerns for women and men, such as
allergies to spermicides or latex. For some women, oral contraceptives can lead to hair
loss and weight gain, and the use of diaphragms can lead to urinary tract infections.
• Possibility of pregnancy
Family planning methods are not one hundred percent reliable. Other than
abstinence, there is no birth control method (including the natural rhythm method)
that is completely effective. Couples who are engaging in sexual activity should always
consider the possibility of an unexpected pregnancy.
• Pregnancy after birth control
All bodies are different. There is no way to know how long it will take a woman
to conceive, and that is true whether you havev been using birth control or not. It is
possible to get pregnant almost right away after stopping hormonal contraceptives,
such as birth control pills or after having the IUD removed. On the other hand, i f
might take months for ovulation and the menstrual period to return to normal. How
long the menstrual period takes to return to its normal cycle is entirely individual,
and has nothing to do with how long the woman has been using birth control. The
most important thing to know about stopping your preferred method of birth control
is that ovulation can return immediately. Hence, a woman can get pregnant right
away.

■ The Natural Family Planning Method

-i ■ , - - ■

Naturalfamilyplanning (NFP) is the method thatuses the body’s natural physiological

changes and symptoms to identify the fertile and infertile phases of the menstrual cycle.
Such methods are also known as fertility-based awareness methods.
Once a month an egg is released from one of a woman’s ovaries (ovulation). It can stay
alive in the uterus for about 24 hours. Men can always produce sperm cells, and these
can stay alive in the female reproductive system for about two to five days after being
deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse. This means women have certain time
during their cycle when they are unlikely to conceive, whereas men have no “safe period.”
Natural family planning methods are generally the preferred contraceptive method
for women who do not wish to use artificial methods of contraception for reasons of
religion, or who, due to rumors and myths, fear other methods.
However, natural family planning methods are unreliable in preventing unwanted
pregnancy. It also takes time to practice and use NFP properly; and this adds to its
unreliability. Moreover, natural family planning methods do not protect a person
against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV).
 The effectiveness of any method of natural family planning varies from couple to
couple. All these methods become less effective if couples do not follow the method
carefully.

Types of natural family planning methods

1. Periodic abstinence (fertility awareness) method
2. Use of breastfeeding or lactationalamenorrhoea method (LAM)
3. Coitus interruptus (withdrawal or pulling out) method •

fiPeriodic Abstinence (Fertility Awareness) Methods

During the menstrual cycle, the female hormones estrogen and progesterone cause
some observable effects. Observation of these changes provides a basis for periodic
abstinence methods. There are three common techniques used in periodic abstinence
methods, namely:
a. Rhythm (calendar) method;
b. Basal body temperature (BBT) monitoring; and
c. Cervical mucus (ovulation) method.
With rhythm (calendar) method, the couple tracks the woman’s menstrual history
to predict when she will ovulate. This helps the couple determine when they will most
likely conceive. Basal body tem perature m onitoring is a contraceptive method that
relies on monitoring a woman’s basal bddy temperature on a daily basis. A woman’s body
temperature changes throughout the menstrual cycle, and changes in body temperature
coincide with hormonal changes. This indicates fertile and non-fertile stages of the
cycle. By monitoring temperature every day, a woman can determine the periods of her
menstrual cycle when she is,or is not, fertile. The cervical mucus (ovulation) method,
also called the Billing’s m ethod as this was devised by John and Evelyn Billings in the
1960s, involves examining the color and viscosity of the cervical mucus to discover when
ovulation is occurring. .4 . i
•’ V

I Lactation Amenorrhea Method

Through exclusive breastfeeding, the woman is able to suppress ovulation. This

method is called lactation amenorrhea method. However, if the infant were not
exclusively breastfed, this method would not be an effective birth control method.
Generally, after three months of exclusive breastfeeding, a woman must choose another
method of contraception.
|CoItus Interrupts

This is one of the oldest methods *of contraception. The couple proceeds with
coitus; however, the man must release his sperm outside of the vagina. Hence, he must
withdraw his penis the moment he ejaculates. This method is only 75% effective because
pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a few spermatozoa may cause fertilization.

lH orm onal Contraception/Artificial Family Planning

Hormonal contraceptives are an effective family planning method that manipulates

the hormones that directly affect the normal menstrual cycle so that ovulation will not
occur. . ■■ > -

.■ Owl Contraceptives

It is also known as the pill. Oral contraceptives contain synthetic e stro g en

and p ro gestero n e. Estrogen suppresses ovulation while progesterone decreases -the
permeability of the cervical mucus to limit the sperm’s access to the ova.

|Transdermal Contraceptive Patch

A transdermal patch is a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver
a specific dose of medication through the skin and into the bloodstream. In this case, a
transdermal contraceptive patch has a combination of both estrogen and progesterone
released into the bloodstream to prevent pregnancy.

IV a g in a l Ring v

It is a birth control ring inserted into the vagina and slowly releases hormones
through the vaginal wall into the bloodstream to prevent pregnancy.

|Subdermal Implants

Subdermal contraceptive implants involve the delivery of a steroid progestin from

polymer capsules or rods placed under the skin. The hormone diffuses out slowly at a
stable fate, providing contraceptive effectiveness for 1-5 years.

lH orm onal Injections

It is a contraceptive injection given once every three months. It typically suppresses

ovulation, keeping the ovaries from releasing an egg. Hormonal Injections also thickens
cervical mucus to keep the sperm from reaching the egg.

83
 1 Intrauterine Device
*

An IUD is a small, T-shaped plastic device wrapped in copper or contains hormones. A

doctor inserts the IUD into the uterus. IUD prevents fertilization of the egg by damaging
or killing sperm. It makes the mucus in the cervix thick and sticky, so sperm cannot get
through to the uterus. It also keeps the lining of the uterus (endometrium) from growing
very thick making the lining a poor place for a fertilized egg to implant and grow.
i i

•|C hem ical Barriers

Chemical barriers, such as spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin
films are also used to cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix. It
lowers the pH level of the vagina, so it will not become conducive for the sperm. However,
these chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infections.

iD iap hrag m

Diaphragms are dome-shaped barrier methods of contraception that block sperms

from entering the uterus. They are made of latex (rubber) and formed like a shallow cup.
It is filled with spermicide and fitted over the uterine cervix.

|Cervical C a p

A cervical cap is a silicone cup inserted in the vagina to cover the cervix and keep
sperm out of the uterus. Spermicide is added to the cervical cap to kill any sperm that
may get inside the protective barrier. However, this is not a widely uSed method and few
health'care providers recommend this type of contraception. The most common side
effect from using a cervical cap is vaginal irritation. Some women also experience an
increase in the number of bladder infections.

|M ale Condoms

The male condom is a latex or synthetic rubber sheath placed on the erect penis
before vaginal penetration to trap the sperm during ejaculation. Condoms can prevent
STDs.

1 Female Condoms

It is a thin pouch inserted into the vagina before sex serving as protective barrier to
prevent pregnancy and protection from sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV.
Female condoms create a barrier that prevents bodily fluids and semen from entering
the vagina.
(Surgical Methods

One of the most effective birth control.methods is the surgical method. This method
ensures conception is inhibited permanently after the surgery.
Two kinds of surgical methods:
• Vasectomy
A surgical operation wherein the tube that carries the sperm to a man’s penis
is cut. It is a permanent male contraception method. This procedure preserves
ejaculation and does not cause impotence or erectile dysfunction since, the
vasectomy does not involve anything in the production of testosterone.
• Tubal Ligation
It is a surgical procedure for female sterilization involving severing and tying
the fallopian tubes. A tubal ligation disrupts the movement of the egg to the
uterus for fertilization and blocks sperm from traveling up the fallopian tubes
to the egg. A tubal ligation does not affect a womans menstrual cycle. A tubal
ligation can be done at any time, including after normal childbirth or a C-section.
It is possible to reverse a tubal ligation — but reversal requires major surgery and
is not always effective.
 .» • • i

In this age of digital technology, everything in our society is based upon the idea
that consumption should be as easy as possible. We say, “Money makes the world go
*

round.” We take instantaneous loans using our cellphones, and not many minutes of our
lives pass by without some kind of commercial message barraging our consciousness.
These ads carry the message that we become happy by buying, buying, buying. Often we
even consume just for the sake of consuming. Shopping has become leisure and a way to
pass time. Our homes and our lives are more than full of things, stuff, gadgets, widgets,
devices, etcetera. Consequently, our consumption also contributes to our garbage
problems, pollution, and the depletion of our natural resources. ,

| l Shop Therefore 1Am: I hove, Therefore I am?

In the “I shop therefore I am” trend report we are looking into the world of consumer
culture. Shopping has turned into a lifestyle. At what point does the accumulation of
material goods become less fulfilling and more stressful and overwhelming? People are
slowly realizing that the power of consumption is stopping us from finding true and
sincere happiness, and that shopping often works as a substitute for something that we
are missing in life. As a primary consumer, the issue is about what we buy and what we
choose to invest in.

IConsum ption and Production •

“Consume” is defined as “use up, to spend wastefully, to destroy” (Gusdorf, 1978).

The definition shows that consumption has a negative connotation. There is, however, a
positive side to consumption that is often neglected.
Behind consumption, there is production. Consumers keep companies alive. These
companies pay people whose earnings put food on the table. Such is the pattern of
consumption. Thus, it cannot be denied that consumption is important.

IC onscious Consumption

Consumers are often portrayed as “victims,” exploited by greedy companies.

However, you should take note that every person has “free will.” Therefore, choices are
important. As a consumer, free will comes with responsibility and obligation. Conscious
consumption is about practicing responsible buying habits.

IPsychological/Sociological Consumption

As mentioned earlier, for many people these days (with the younger generation as
the vulnerable group) happiness seems attached to buying something. Consumption has
become an addiction. Many people have forgotten there are things in life that can bring
true and lasting happiness, such as spending time with family and/or friends; to have
“me” time; enjoy nature; to read, etcetera.
iidentity and Consumer Culture
itmukiim, mum Mach (1993, p.7) argued that identity
r-
Dec 24, 2015 - Pope Francis returned is a symbolic idea. It is an image we build
to one of his favoured themes in his for ourselves through social interaction.
homily at midnight mass on Christmas
Thus, a person’s identity is dynamic and
Eve at the Vatican, castigating a
hedonistic and consumerist society context-dependent. It is improved through
and a culture of indifference. communication with others and through
different ways that a person interacts within
the cultural atmosphere and social relations.
Factors that affect identity:
• Social relations of power, and
• Symbolic image of the world.

“Identity” as we know it is now mainly derived from the work of psychologist Erik
Erikson in the ,1950s. Identity may refer to:
a. A social category defined by membership rules, characteristic attributes, or
expected behaviors.
b. Socially distinguishing features that an individual takes pride in having.
(Fearon, 1999)
Meanwhile, studies have observed that every waking moment in a modern lifestyle
has become a cycle of “alternating time-space for work and time-space for consumption”
(Sassatelli, R, 2007, p.3). Slater (1997) outlined some main features and characters in
consumer culture:
1. Consumer culture is a culture of consumption.
2. Consumer culture is the culture of market society.
3. Consume^ culture is universal and impersonal.
4. Consumer culture identifies freedom with "private choice and life.
, 5. Consumer needs are insatiable and unlimited.
6. Consumer culture is a privileged medium for building personal identity and
status.
As previously mentioned, consumerism is one of the strongest forces affecting
modern people’s lives. The term consumerism does not simply mean the constant barrage
and intrusion of ads in our lives, but everything that is connected to the modern society’s
idea that to be happier and more successful, we have to buy, buy, and buy. We slip into a
cycle of wanting more things - to get that new iPhone model, get the latest gadget, wear
the trendiest clothes, hang out in places where “cool” people go, etcetera. The pursuit
of these things take up our time, energy, and the money we do not have. We also tend
to compare ourselves with some other people. Social media reinforces this tendency.

90
Comparing ourselves with others (wanting to be like them or be in their position) will
lead us to constantly feeling dissatisfied and never happy with what we have. This is also
what consumerism wants because it makes people active consumers on a regular basis.
Thus, consumerism not only affects our behavior; it also affects our thinking process.

|The Problem with Consumerism

1. It is intrusive.
2. It is manipulative.
3. It cannot provide many of the things
that are important to us.
4. It restricts our choices and lives.
5. It affects our worldviews and characters.
6. It is unsustainable.

|A vold the Trap

Consumerism is intrinsically woven into the fabric of modern society. Society needs
a cultural shift to move away from the culture of consumerism. Social changes do not
happen overnight, therefore, it is best to take immediate steps in your own life to release
yourself from the grip of consumerism. »
1. Exercise intellectual independence. Be aware of how consumerism controls
your life. Try" to defend yourself from unwanted external pressures. Ignore
advertising. Think for yourself. Question all information given to you, and start
looking for information yourself. >
2. Consume less, live more. Stop and think about the influences of consumerism
in your life. Then, think about what really matters to you and how you want to
live it. Strive to live the life you want, not how others think you ought to live.
I thF spiritualself
*

“Quiet the mind, and the soul will speak.”

. —Ma Jaya Safi Bhagavati

<ytd&/c6f4
“ ME AND MY FAITH”

"NAME GAME”
Mechanics:
1. The class is divided into five groups to enact the different practices of Filipinos
with regard to religious beliefs.
2. Let each group make a guess of the particular belief the other groups will act out.
O bjective:
To give the students the chance to familiarize themselves with how and why
Filipinos practice those religious beliefs

Philosophy started the moment humans started to wonder (with just about
anything). For the longest time, humans have pondered on questions, like “Why do we
die? Why bad things happen to good people? Do we really have free will? Is the future
determined? Does God exist?”
As a college student, it is vital that you develop a healthy sense of wonder. Part of
this curiosity should be about the range of human beliefs. It is important, too, that you
keep an open mind as you seek to understand belief systems that may not be the same
as yours.

|SpirituarVersus Religious
Spiritual is defined as “relating to or affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed
to material or physical things.” Religion and spirituality are both paths to God; however,
they are different in their approaches. A religious person is someone who believes in a
god or group of gods and consciously adheres to the beliefs of his/her religion. A spiritual
person, on the other hand, places little importance on beliefs and traditions and is more
concerned with growing and experiencing the Divine.
Quite often, religion takes the approach of fear. It emphasizes sin, guilt, and the
concept of a punishing God. The spiritual approach to God is through the path of love:
This is a love where there is no condemnation and judgment, but where there is mercy
and acceptance.
 Often, religion talks of God who is high up in the heavens. At times, God is depicted
as separate from humanity, who is impartial but impersonal. Spirituality believes in God
who is omnipresent and omniscient, someone who is. a living presence in our hearts.
Many religions feel their path is the only way to salvation and that other religions
are wrong. Religious people strongly feel the need to convert others to their faith. On
the other hand, like the analogy, “different paths that lead to the same destination,"
spirituality feels all faiths are valid. Spirituality embraces all the world’s religions, but
at the same time it is not constrained by any religious dogmas or forms.

Why is spirituality important?

Sense of meaninglessness and lack of purpose in life can be significant factors in
causing anxiety, depression, and phobias; however, there is a growing body of evidence
indicating that spiritual practices are associated with better health and well-being.
Many spiritual traditions encourage participation in a community. Spiritual
fellowship (such as attending church or a meditation group) can be a source of social
support that may provide a sense of belonging, security, and community. Strong
relationships have been proven to increase well-being and bolster life expectancy, which
is perhaps why one study found a strong association between church attendance and
improved health, mood, and well-being.
Contemplative practice is-good for students like you. Contemplative practice*can be
broadly understood as a method to develop concentration, deepen understanding and
insight, and cultivate awareness and compassion. These practices can have a profound
impact on students’ experiences both in college and beyond.
Examples of contemplative practices: ?
1. Meditation - mental exercise (such as focusing on one’s breathing or repeating
a mantra) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness.
It can induce feelings of calm and clear-headedness, as well as improved
concentration and attention.
2. Prayer - a spiritual communion with God (or an object of worship) as in
supplication, thanksgiving, adoration, or confession. Prayers may elicit a
relaxation response, along with feelings of hope, gratitude, and compassion —
all of which have a positive effect on overall well-being. There are several types of
prayers. Many of which are rooted in the belief that there i s h i g h e r power that
has some level of influence over life. This belief can provide a sense of Comfort
and support in difficult times. A recent study found out that clinically depressed
adults who believed their prayers were heard by God (or a concerned presence)
responded much better to treatment than those who did not believe.
 3. Y o g a - a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline. In Hindu theistic philosophy, it
teaches the suppression of all mind and body activity so that the self may realize
its distinction from the material world and attain liberation. In western culture,
yoga is a system of physical postures, breathing techniques, and sometimes
meditation to promote physical and emotional well-being.
4. Journaling is another (but often overlooked) contemplative practice that can
help you become more aware of your inner life and feel more connected to your
experience and the world around you. Studies show that writing during difficult
times may help you find meaning in life’s, challenges and help you become more
resilient in the face of obstacles.
(Lin, Oxford, & Brantmeier, 2013)

|The Practice of Religion: Belief in Supernatural Being and Power

The vast majority of the earth’s more than 7 billion people practice some form of
religion. The number of religions and spiritual traditions that the human population
practices is estimated at a little over 4,000. The reasons and theories of humans’ having
religion are just as many (if not more).
Religion is defined as
“the belief in and worship of a
superhuman controlling power,
especially a personal God or
gods” (Oxford University Press,
2017). It is also a “particular
system of faith and worship.”
(University of Minnesota
Human Rights Center, 2003,
2016). More than its belief
and practices, religion is an
experience. Religion, however,
may best be understood as a
systematic “attribution of human
characteristics or behavior to
a god, animal, or object” (read:
F ig u re 2 . Pope Francis was named Tim e magazine's
"Person o f the Year” in 2013, where he was identified as Anthropomorphism). One
"poised to transform a place [i.e., the Vatican] th a t mea­ reason humans attribute human
sures change by the century" (Chua-Eoan & Dias 2013). characteristics to some other
Photo courtesy o f Edgar Jimenez/Flickr.
“entities” is that the world is
huge, ambiguous, and we need to
interpret it the best possible way
we can.
The psychology behind religions belief
A 1990 research conducted by Steveh Reiss, professor emeritus of psychology at the
Ohio State University, posited a theory on why people are attracted to religion. Religion,
he said, attracts so many followers because it satisfies all 16 basic desires that humans
share (The 16 Strivings for God, 2016).
According to Reiss, the 16 basic desires that humans share are:
1. Acceptance 7. Independence 13. Social contact
2. Curiosity 8. Order 14. Status
3. Eating 9. Physical activity 1.5. Tranquility
4. Family 10. Power 16. Vengeance
5. Honor 11. Romance
6. Idealism 12. Saving

Reiss claimed that we all share the' same 16 goals, but what makes us different
is how much we value each one. For example, in social contact, religion attracts both
the introvert and extrovert. For extroverts, religion offers fellowship with others. Tor
introverts, religion encourages meditation, private retreats, and solitude.
Another example is that religion also finds ways to deal with vengeance. According
to Reiss, while some other religions preach a God of peace, there are also religions that
preach holy wars. .
Reiss added that all religious beliefs and practices are designed to meet these 16
desires. Religious beliefs provide people with certain ways of thinking to help them cope
with ultimate questions that cannot be explained in any other way.

The four dimensions of religion

The incredible amount of variation between different religions makes it challenging
to decide upon a concrete definition of religion that applies to all of them. Sociologists
noted four dimensions that seem to be present in varying forms and intensities in all
types of religion (Dawson & Thiessen, 2014). These are:
1. Belief;
2. Ritual;
3. Spiritual experience; and
4. Unique social forms of community.

Religious beliefs are a generalized system of ideas and values that shape how
members of a religious group come to understand the world around them. These beliefs
are taught to followers by religious authorities, such as priests, imams, or shamen,
through formal creeds and doctrines, as well as more informal lessons learned through
stories, songs, and myths.

97
 Rituals are the repeated physical gestures or activities, such as prayers and mantras,
used to reinforce religious teachings, elicit spiritual feelingte, and connect worshippers
with a higher power (Little, 2016). A common type of ritual is a rite of passage, which
marks a person’s transition from one stage of life to another. Examples of rites of
passage include baptisms and weddings. From a psychological perspective, rituals play
an important role in providing practitioners with access to spiritual “powers” of various
sorts. In relieving anxieties, religious rituals provide a basis of psychological stability
when people face uncertainty or chance.
* i

A third common dimension of various religions is the promise of access to some

form of unique spiritual experience or feeling of immediate connection with a higher
power. From this point of view, religion is not so much about thinking a certain way (i.e.,
a formal belief system) as about feeling a certain way. Saint Thomas Aquinas is often
quoted to have said, ‘To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one without
faith, no explanation is possible”—summing up the experiential dimension of religion.
The fourth common dimension of religion is creating unique social forms of
community. Emile Durkheim (1915-1964) emphasized that religious beliefs and
practices “unite in one single community called a Church, all those who adhere to them.”
Social dimensions that religions share according to Dawson and Thiessen (2014):
• Religion gains credibility when agreed and shared by a group. It is easier to be­
lieve in something if others around you (whom you respect) believe it as well.
Religion provides an authority that deals specifically with social or moral is­
sues, such as determining the best way to live life. It provides a basis for ethics
and proper behaviors, which establishes the normative basis qf the community.
• Religion' acts as a form of social control, and it supports the development of
self-control, which are vital elements of a functional society.
Places of religious worship function as social hubs within communities, provid­
ing a source of entertainment, socialization, and support.

TABLE 15.1
One way scholars have categorized religions is by classifying what or who they hold to be divine.

Polytheism Mutiple gods Hinduism, Ancient Greeks and Romans

Monotheism Single god Judaism, Islam, Christianity

Antheism No deities Atheism, Buddhism, Taoism

Animism Nonhuman beings Indigenous nature worship, Shinto

(animals, plants, natural world)

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapter/chapter-15-religion/
The Major Religions
1. Judaism 3. Islam 5. Buddhism
2. Christianity 4. Hinduism

Judaism encompasses the religion,

philosophy, and culture of the Jewish
people. It is characterized by belief in
one transcendent God who has revealed
himself to Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew
prophets and by a religious life in accordance
with the scriptures and rabbinic traditions.
Their sacred text is the Torah.
Christianity is an Abrahamic
monotheistic religion based on the life and
teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as
the focal point of the Christian faith. For
Christians, the word of God is written in the
Bible.

Interesting Islam Facts: '

• The word “Islam” means submission or surrender.
• The root word of Islam is “Salam,” which means “peace.”
• The word “Islam” in religious terms means “surrender one’s will to the true will of
God to achieve peace.” . . * .
• A Muslim is one who surrenders himself to God’s true will.

Islam is the religious faith of Muslims who worship Allah as the sole deity and
believes Muhammad is His prophet. The holy scriptures of Islam is the Koran.
http://www.softschools.com/facts/religion/islam_facts/996/

99
 tmmtA
Interesting Hinduism Facts: »
• The word Hindu originates from the Indian Indus River.
• There are more than one billion followers of Hinduism in the world today.
• Hinduism is not a single religion; rather, it is practiced by many different religious
groups from India.
• Most of Hinduism’s sacred texts were written in Sanskrit in ancient times.
• The oldest ancient sacred texts of Hinduism are called the V edas. Vedah means
knowledge.
• The V edas include Rigveda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.
V.
Hinduism, considered the world’s oldest religion, is still commonly practiced.
Hinduism combines the beliefs, philosophy, and cultural practices of India. Hindu
practitioners are guided by Vedic scriptures and believe in righteousness, the laws of
cause and effect,1knd the cycle of birth and death. Central to the faith is a belief in
reincarnation and one supreme god called Brahman who has multiple manifestations
as either a god or goddess. Gods andjgoddesses can be spirits, trees, animals, and even
planets.

Interesting Buddhism Facts: r

• Buddha is also known as “the enlightened one” or “the awakened one.”
• When Buddha was 35 he meditated under a fig tree, the Bodhi tree, for several days
until he attained enlightenment. f
< • Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching his followers (in the northeastern Indian
subcontinent) the path of awakening.
Buddha lived to the age of 80. He died in Kushinagar, India in 483 BC.
............................................................................................................................ ............................ J
Buddhism refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha. Buddha, (originally a follower
of the Hindu faith) experienced enlightenment, or B o h d i, while sitting under a tree. It
was in this moment that Buddha was said to be awakened to the truth of the world,
or the D h a rm a . Buddha, an ordinary man, taught his followers how to follow the path
to Enlightenment, iThus, Buddhism does not believe in a divine realm or God as a
supernatural being, but instead follows the wisdom of their founder.
http://www.softschoqls.com/facts/religion/buddhism_facts/992/

The concept of “Dumgan,” Spirit, and Soul

In pre-colonial Philippines, our ancestors looked up to a “b a b a y la n .” Described as
a priestess or shaman, a babaylan acted as healer, spiritual leader, and medium. The
babaylan perform rituals through chants or prayers for spiritual intervention to drive
spirits that cause illness or misfortune.
 A babaylan is usually a woman, but there were some men who were babaylans, too.
Male babaylans, however, were said to have feminine traits.
*

The babaylans explore the world of anim ism . Animism is the attribution of a soul
to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena. Our ancestors believed that souls
are quasi-physical and can exist outside the body (such as in dreams attd in visions) and
that they can transfer from one body to another. They also believed that souls persist
after death and become ghosts, in the same way that niodern Filipinos believe in “m ulto.”
Prior to being converted to a religion (Islam or Catholicism), our ancestors already
believed in spirit beings that dwell in the environment, oUr deceased ancestral.souls,
and forces in nature (wind, moon, stars). Central to the traditions of our ancestors was
the belief that animate and inanimate creatures have a “life force.”

How do “dungan” and “ginhawa” differ?

Alicia P. Magos, an anthropologist and a professor emerita of University of the
Philippines Visayas made a pioneering study on the primeval Visayan concept of “d u n g an .”
According to Magos, “dungan” was “a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal entity,
,>a spirit with a will of,its own that resides in the human body and provides the essence
of life.” (Magos, 1992, pp. 47-50). Under this concept, everyone has a “dungan.” This
is similar to the western concept of “soul,” however, unlike the soul, the “dungan” can
temporarily leave the body when the person is asleep. Once “dungan” returns Jto the
person’s body, he or she becomes fully conscious again. If any other spirits harm the
“dungan” while it is outside the body and cannot return, the person dies.
Meanwhile, our pre-colonial ancestors also believed that aside from a “dungan,”
a vital force also occupies the body. This vital force was called “g in h a w a ” (translation:
breath of life). “Ginhawa” was said to be responsible for the heart’s ability to beat. It was
believed that if “ginhawa” left the body, the person also dies.
“Ginhawa” and “dungan” both exist in every person. G in h aw a was the breath of life
while dungan was the Conscious intellectual and emotional aspects.

W hat is the difference between the soul and th e spirit of man?

The soul and the spirit are the two primary immaterial aspects ascribed to humanity.
There are different shades of meaning between the idea of the soul and the idea of the
spirit from culture to culture and religion to religion.
Here is a brief and general overview of the difference between a soul and a spirit:
E tym olo gy

Old English for “soul” was “sawol” that meant the “spiritual and emotional part
of a person’s, animate existence.” Spirit is directly from Latin spiritus “a breathing
(respiration, and of the wind), breath, breath of a god,” hence,- “inspiration, breath
of life.”
 B ib lical beliefs

Soul refers to the conscious, the moral, and thinking part of a person. The soul is
immortal; it will go to hell, purgatory, or heaven after the person dies.
Spirit refers to the Holy Spirit, the third part of the Trinity. It is the force of God
through tyhich blessings are bestowed upon His people. As one develops in the faith,
he or she is said to be growing spiritually.
In W estern C u lture

Soul can often be taken to mean someone’s moral consciousness. For example, a
cruel killer could be said to have no soul.
Spirit may also refer to ghosts or any other supernatural beings. It is believed
that the souls of people who died with unfinished business wander the. earth until
their task is fulfilled.
In E a ste r n C u lture

Soul is the part of the person that has dharma. In Hinduism dharma is one’s
obligation with respect to caste, social custom, civil law, and sacred law. Dharma
incurs karma. In Hinduism and Buddhism, karma is the sum of a person’s actions in
this and previous states of existence. The fate of one’s future existences depends on
one’s karma.
Nature and ancestor spirits are common in Taoism. Shinto, an animistic folk
religion from Japan, places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination,

t. spirit possession, and faith healing. Confucianism tolerates the Chinese folk
recognitioti of the existence of animistic spirits, ghosts, and deities.

The Soul According to some Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines

• L in n aw a or “soul of the dead” by the Ifu g ao.
• K ad u w aof the Isn e g (an Igorot tribe native to Apayao Province in the Philippines’

Iji
Cordillera Administrative Region). The Isneg believes that the dead exists in a realm
called the a g la la n a w a n . The k ad u w a (soul) is believed to cross a pond in a ferry piloted by
a ku taw (spirit).
• The K a n k a m e y (another member of the Igorot people) believes that the human person is
composed of the physical body and the ab -a b iik (soul). When spirits summon a person’s
ab-ab iik he or she becomes sick. A ritual will be performed to appease the spirit who
summoned the ab -ab iik s o that it will allow the ab-ab iik to return to its body, and the
person recovers from the illness.
• K alu lu w a is the Tagalog people’s concept of soul. However, it refers more to the soul of
the deceased. The soul of a living person is called a “k a k a m b a l .” The “kakambal” leaves the
physical body at night to roam, and any bad encounter causes b an g u n g o t (nightmare).
 * _
• The Ilokano has a four-soul system. •
o The k a ra ru a , or the soul proper. It is the equivalent of a soul in the Christian concept.
o K a rk a rm a stands for natural vigor, mind, and reason. It can leave the physical body
when one is frightened. A k a k a rm a can also be stolen. If this soul fails to return to
the body, the person becomes insane. Sacrificial ceremonies may be performed to
lure back a lost k ark arm a.
o A n iw a a s can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body. If one
wakes up while the a n iw a a s is visiting these places, he or she may lose the a n iw a a s
and become insane. .
o A ra ria is the liberated soul of the dead. It visits relatives and friends in the physical
world to ask for prayers. It can also perform a duty it failed to do in life. The howling
of dogs means a r a r ia is present. This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical
objects usually relating to what it did. in life.
• The Ib a n a g /Y b a n a g (who inhabits the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya)
has a distinction between b a g g i (b o d y ) and ik aru ru w a (soul). The I b a n a g b e lie v e s that the
soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color, and the souls of dead babies
can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The role of the soul is to give direction and
wholeness to the man, but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the
body the soul experiences material wants and needs.
• The H an u n oo M an g y a n (of Mindoro) believes in the plurality of souls. For instance, they
have k arad u w a ta w u /taw o (human soul), k arad u w a m an ok (chicken soul), k arad u w a baboy
(pig soul) k arad u w a k u ti (cat soul) and k arad u w a hipon (shrimp, soul). A soul can also
separate itself from the physical body. When a person sleeps, the k arad u w a roams the
world. What the person dreams of are actually the experiences of the k aru d aw a while
roaming around. 1
• The T agban w a of central and northern Palawan believes that people have one ‘true
soul’ or kiyaraluw a and five secondary souls. The kiyaralu w a is given at birth by the god l
M ag in d u sa . The secondary souls are located in both hands and feet, while there is also
one in the head just below the air whorl (alim puyo).
• The ethnic tribes of Bukidnon believe in the gim ukod. According to their custom, there
are two types of gim ukod: the one in the right hand and the one in the left hand. The
gim u k od in the right hand is the good soul, and the one in the left hand is the bad soul.
The right hand soul is associated with life, health, activity, and joy. The left-hand soul is
the cause of lethargy, pain, and illness.

Rituals and Ceremonies

A ritual is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way. Rituals may be
prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals
include not only the worship rites and sacraments of organized religions and cults, but
also rites of passage, atonement and purification rites, oaths of allegiance, dedication

103
 ceremonies, coronations, presidential inaugurations, marriages, funerals—perhaps all
kinds of human activity.
A ceremony is a formal act or ritual (often set by custom or tradition) performed in
observation of an event or anniversary, i.e., a Japanese tea ceremony.

Where does ritual originate?

The general approaches to theories about the nature and origin of rituals are:
. 1. Origin approach;
2. Functional approach; and
3. History of religions approach.
The origin approach was the earliest form to explain ritual. The basic premise of this
! I
approach is that ritual behavior was part of the human evolution. Scholars believed that
locating the oldest cultures and cults could explain the universal nature of rituals; that
if they could discover the origin, then contemporary human rituals can be explained.
Some other scholars turned away from the origin approach claiming such approach
cannot adequately explain human behavior because no one can verify these ideas. Instead,
these scholars focused on empirical evidence gathered through actual observation. The
nature of rituals was believed to be defined by its function in society. The aim of the
functional approach was to explain ritual behavior in terms of individual and social

I.
needs.
The history of religions approach holds the view that ritual behavior is an expression
of the sacred; it is how the material human connects with the transcendent realm or the
ultimate reality. The basic problem with this approach, however, is that scholars need
to agree first that such a transcendent realm really exists before the theories can be
confirmed (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

Classification o f Rituals
1. Imitative 3. Sacrificial
4 i t

2. Positive1and Negative 4. Life crisis

'

The meaning of every ritual is based on some belief system. These are called
im itative ritu als because these are patterned after myths, and the ritual repeats the
myths or aspects of the myth. For example, Filipinos make noises at the strike of twelve
every New Year. This practice is actually based on a Chinese myth. As the story goes,
there was once a monster called nidn. Every spring, at midnight on New Year’s Day, nidn
would arrive to eat villagers and destroy homes and farms. One new year, nidn came while
the villagers were burning bamboo to keep themselves warm. The monster, frightened
by the cracking noise of the burning bamboo, fled. The villagers realized this was how
they could defeat the monster. As time passed by, firecrackers replaced bamboo burning.
 Avoidance is the best description for a negative ritual. The word taboo has
been applied to those rituals that concern something should be avoided because it is
•a

forbidden. Thus, negative .rituals focus on rules of prohibition, which cover an almost
infinite variety of rites and behavior. One characteristic they all share, however, is that
if the person breaks the ritu al, it will result in a dramatic change that usually brings
some misfortune. On the other hand, positive rituals are mostly concerned with giving
blessings to an object or to an individual.
Sacrificial rituals are seen as the earliest form of religion. TJie significance of
sacrifice in the history of religion is well documented. The distinct feature of this type
of ritual is the total destruction of the sacrifice as an offering to a “higher being.” The
sacrifice can be a human being, an animal, food crops, or objects. The destruction could
be by burning, dismembering, cutting the sacrifice into small pieces, eating, or burying
it.
The basic characteristic of a life crisis ritual is the transition of one mode or stage
of life into another. This ritual usually defines the life of an individual. For example,
it is a Filipino, tradition to bury the placenta right after birth, and it is the father who
is tasked to do this. Moreover, for the succeeding children, it is important to bury the
placenta of the siblings together so that they will always love and care for one another
the rest of their lives (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

TRIVIA
YAKAN HONEYMOON RITUALS
The Yakans of Basilan Island observe interesting rituals during the honeymoon period.
In the afternoon, just before the first night the new couple spend together, each of them will be
given a separate bath so that children will not only be born clean but also stay clean throughout
life. -
In their first sexual intercourse, the girl makes sure that she is accepted as a wife and not as
harlot by asking questions about her status. The groom has to answer adequately that she is his
wife.
Just before the sexual act, the boy should first step on the right foot as heavily as he can. This
symbolizes strength. The first hand to touch his wife should be the right one, for strength and long
life. The first kiss should be planted on the forehead for oneness of mind, with eyes opened so that
his children will not be born blind. He should breathe lightly so that later in life he will have fewer
problems.
The girl wants to be assured that her marriage is accepted spiritually and that she will be his
wife even after life. For this reason, the bedding items have to be sanctified and be named in a
liturgical language. Permission is also granted to the groom to own the body of his wife and also
name her anatomical parts in liturgical speech,
Any sexual intercourse that is not done according to the natural way is considered abominable j

in the eyes of the Yakan and will bring punishment from God on the culprit and his family. j
______________ ;______________ ________ - _________________:— -____________ ______________________ ~J
Source: Sherfan, Andrew D. The Yakans of BasiSan island:
Another Unknown and Exotic Tribe of the Philippines. P. 76,82
 “SHOW US A TRICK/MAGIC”
1. The class is divided into five groups.
2. Let each group present or perform a trick or magic.
3. Ask comments/feedback from the groups if they were convinced/persuaded of the
trick/magic presented/performed in class by each group.
It ' .

fi^iTouTicArsiLF

"I SPEAK FOR TRUTH”

* “Y Speak” :
; Mechanics: ;
• The class is divided into five groups to have a debate on the current issue (e.g., j
; Does decriminalizing drugs minimize crimes?). *
• Objective: .«
; To let the students be socially and politically aware of what is happening now :
; in our country so that they also have their voice to participate in how to resolve ;
* such issues. t

In general, when discussing national identity, the focus tends to be on being a

citizen of a country. The role of culture on identity should never be underestimated.
“The Filipino identity is not static. A Filipino’s self-image can be as varied as his or her
background. It goes without saying that all Filipinos are alike regardless of all these. His
consciousness of being a Filipino psychologically defines him as one, no matter how he
sees and defines the Filipino” (Enriquez, 1977).

1 Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community

and Institutional Factors

The Filipino culture is a mix of both eastern and western cultures. The beliefs
and traditions of pre-colonial Philippines were mainly an indigenous Malay heritage
(Baringer, 2006). The Malays made a large contribution to Philippine history. The Malay
temperament is a basic factor of a Filipino personality. It can best be described as “being
nice and pleasant to others.” Additionally, the important role of family in Filipino culture
stemmed from the strength of the Malay family dan that served as a strong security
unit.
 When the Spaniards colonized the islands, the Hispanic culture influenced the
natives. Christianity became the dominant religion, and a western-based social and
political organization was established in the Philippines.
The Americans shaped the modern Filipino culture, and this is primarily manifested
by the widespread use of the English language in the Philippines today. It was from
these influences, that formed the Filipino character. The brief occupation of the British
(1762-1764) and the Japanese (1942-1945), however, had no cultural influence in the
Philippines at all.
Psychologist, educator, and (former) chairperson of the Commission on Higher
Education, Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan, wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the
Filipino character are rooted in factors, such as:
1. The home environment; 6. Religion;
2. The social environment; 7. The economic environment;
3. Culture and language; 8. The political environment;
4. History; 9. Mass media; and
5. The educational system; 10. Leadership and role models.

Licuanan said that in the hom e enviro n m en t, Filipino children are taught to value
family and give it primary importance. The Filipino s o c ia l e n v iro n m e n t is characterized
by depending on one another to survive. This dependence on relationships and the
struggle for survival make Filipinos group-oriented (1994).
Meanwhile, Filipino cu ltu re a n d la n g u a g e depict openness to foreign elements with
no basic consciousness of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994). The Filipino colonial
mentality, such as the importance o f the English language in our educational system, the
wider following of Hollywood movies, foreign soap operas/TV shows, and foreign songs/
singers over Filipino movies, shows, and music, is a manifestation of our attachment to
foreign elements.
Licuanan added that our colonial h isto ry is regarded as the culprit behind our colonial
mentality. Unfortunately, most Filipino elites are of no help in setting an example of
overcoming colonial mentality because they are even more westernized in their ways.
Present-day media, on the other hand, reinforced these colonial influences (1994).
The Philippine e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m is also instrumental in molding the strengths and
weaknesses of the Filipino character. Schools are highly authoritarian. Early on, children
learn that well-behaved and obedient students are praised and rewarded. This teaches
passivity and conformity. The Filipino is also religious. R eligion taught us optimism and
resilience; however, it also instilled in us a fatalistic attitude. Since religious communities
are also highly authoritarian, this further reinforced out being passive and a conformist
(Licuanan, 1994).
 Several Filipino traits are rooted in our econom ic environment. The hard life drove
Filipinos to work hard and take risks,’such as leaving our families to work abroad. This
further developed our ability to survive. Unfortunately, our p o litic a l en v iro n m en t and
government structures and systems are fraught with problems. For instance, the fact
that political power is mainly in the hands of the elite, arid the absence of a strong
government presence enhances the Filipino’s already extreme family centeredness
(Licuanan, 1994). The economic and political environments are among the elements
that have developed the culture of corruption in the Philippines.
Meanwhile, how did m a ss m ed ia reinforce our colonial mentality? What did you
notice about the ads, music, movies, fashion, etc. shown on TV, aired over the radio;
printed in the newspapers/magazines, or gone viral online? These were greatly based on
American pop culture. The emphasis on the superiority of an imported brand or product
through mass media is, in fact, part of a Filipino’s daily, life.
Since Filipinos highly respect authority, we lean on our le a d e rs a n d role m odels. Any
person with authority is looked up to. Thus, when our leaders violate the law and when
there is lack of accountability for leaders who break the law, the Filipino mindset is
hugely affected in a negative way (Licuanan, 1994).

IStrengths of the Filipino Character

The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but these are mostly what
we have in common. The strong aspects of the Filipino character are:
1. P a k ik ip a g k a p w a -tao ;

2. Family orientation;
3. Joy and humor;
4. Flexibility, adaptability, and creativity;
5. Hard work and industry;
6. Faith and religiosity; and
7. Ability to survive.
is demonstrated in the Filipino’s openness, helpfulness, and
P a k ik ip a g k a p w a -tao
generosity; in the practice of b a y a n ih a n or mutual assistance; an d the famous Filipino
hospitality (Licuanan, 1994; Guevara & Gripaldo, 2005). Filipinos also possess a genuine
love for family. This love is not just for one’s spouse and children but also for parents,
grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins (even very distant ones), and even ceremonial
relatives. This love is shown through giving honor and respect to parents and elders,
care for the children, generosity toward kin, and the personal sacrifices that a Filipino
endures for the welfare of the family (Manauat & Gripaldo, 2005). This strong family
orientation has given Filipinos a sense of belonging and security.
 Filipinos are also cheerful and fun-loving. Our various fiestas and social gatherings
demonstrate the Filipino joy and humor. We can laugh at those we love and hate, and we
*

can make jokes about our good or bad fortune. Even in the most trying time’s, Filipinos
will always find a reason to smile or laugh. This pleasant disposition has contributed to
our ability to overcome life’s challenges. Filipinos are also tremendous in adjusting and
adapting to any circumstances. We can improvise and make use of whatever is at hand
to create and produce. Our flexibility, adaptability, and creativity are reasons many
Filipinos thrive in various parts of the world (Licuanan, 1994);
Filipinos also value hard work and
industry. This trait is most noticeable in our
willingness to take risks and work in other
countries. Filipinos also value faith and
religiosity. This can be related to our b a h a la
n a mindset. There is actually a positive side
to this fatalistic trait. For Filipinos the b a h a la
n a attitude could serve as a “kickstarter” or
a “p a m p a la k a s b o b ” to move him or her into
action (Gripaldo, 2005).
All these positive Filipino traits mentioned
contribute to our ability to survive. The
sa la w ik a in or proverb “m a tu to n g m am a lu k to t
http://w w w M piknow .net/interesting-facts-
h a b a n g m aik li a n g k u m o t” aptly depicts our about-the^phiiippines/
survival instinct. We can endure, make do,
and get by on so little while looking forward to the coming of better days. This trait
is the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even through our harsh economic and
social circumstances (Tianco & Gripaldo, 2005; Licuanan, 1994).

Weaknesses o f the Filipino character

Aside from identifying the roots and strengths of the Filipino character, Dr. Patricia
B. Licuanan also pointed out our weaknesses. This is important because this enables the
Filipino to identify the areas that need improvement to grow and develop as a person.
An informed and improved Filipino will also result in a stronger and more progressive
nation.
Generally, these weaknesses are:
1. Extreme personalism; 5. Colonial mentality;
2. Extreme family-centeredness; 6. Kanya-kanya syndrome; and
3. Lack of discipline; 7. Lack of self-analysis and self-
4. Passivity and lack of initiative; reflection.

\
 I

Licuanan noted that Filipinos function in the world by personally relating to things,
events, and people. We find it difficult to separate objective tasks from emotional
involvement. This is where the p a la k a s a n sy ste m springs from. Filipinos want to get
special treatment and will always look for "inside connections” in most (if not all) of his
or her transactions. For example, family and friends are given preference in hiring, in
the delivery of services, and even in voting (Licuanan, 1994). Since personal contacts
are involved, requests of this nature also become difficult to turn down. Extreme
. personalism is another element that has led to the prevalence of graft and corruption in
the country.
The family may be a source of strength for Filipinos, but extreme family-centeredness
is also its flaw. Family is valued above anything and everyone else. Thus, concern for the
rest of the community and for the common good is less important. Extreme family-
centeredness is manifested in our political system where political dynasties lord over
our elected government posts starting from the barangay level to the national positions
(McCoy, 1994; Licuanan, 1994).
The Filipino’s lack of discipline is characterized by our idiomatic expression “n in g as
cogon.” Projects start out with full enthusiasm and interest, but no sooner has it started
that the enthusiasm and interest just as soon dies down (Licuanan, 1994). Another
related characteristic is “Filipin o tim e.” Filipinos are known to be always late—we arrive
late or we start late. Since global trends strictly follow schedules, this trait that disregards
the importance of time is adversely affecting Filipino productivity (Tan, 2016).
Filipinos have a very high respect for authority. Unfortunately, this has also led to
general passivity and lacking initiative. For instance, there is a strong reliance on leaders
and the government to solve the nation’s problems, but ordinarily, Filipinos also do not
feel the need to initiate or contribute to the solution. This trait is also related to our
I lack of discipline. Look at our traffic problem. We expect the government to solve the
monstrous traffic jam; yet, traffic rules and regulations are also blatantly ignored every
day.
Generally, Filipinos love anything foreign. Foreign elements are adapted and incorporat­
I ed into our image, and in the process, we are also losing our cultural identity. Licuanan
noted that this colonial mentality is connected to our general feelings of inferiority,
where we think foreigners—especially Westerners, are superior (1994).
The k a n y a-k an y a syn d rom e is related to the Filipino traits of extreme personalism
and extreme family-centeredness. Personal and in-group interests are supreme, and the
drive to fulfill these interests is completely insensitive to the common good. The kan ya-
k an y a syn d rom e has dampened our sense of community and cooperation, and we trample
on one another’s rights as a result. The expression c ra b m en tality , where we tend to pull
others down to climb up, exemplifies the k a n y a-k an y a syndrom e.
Licuanan further observed that the joyful arid fun-loving Filipino also has the
tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty. This means that in times of crisis,
i t
either personal or social, there is a general lack of analysis and reflection (1994). A
manifestation of this lack of self-analysis and self-reflection is the expression that
*

Filipinos are “m odelling m ak a lim o t” or have a short memory. This means, as a nation, we
easily forget the mistakes we have made; hence, we make the same mistakes again. This
is one reason traditional politicians or “tr a p o s ” are always reelected into office.
The Filipino character is a contradiction. For example, our b a y a n ih a n culture coexists
comfortably with our k an y a-k an y a sy n d rom e. Many of our strong points, in fact, are
linked to our weaknesses. Despite these weaknesses, however, there is still much good in
the Filipino character. What is important is that we know our values as a nation because
these help us grow and develop. We need to understand our character as a Filipino
because this is the first step toward creating the future we want as an individual and as
a nation.

Establishing a democratic culture

Democracy is a government in which the supreme power is vested in and exercised,
by the people directly or indirectly through a system of representation, usually involving
periodically held free elections. Although democracy has several flaws, it also uniquely
possesses a number of features that most people—whatever their basic political beliefs—
would consider desirable. For example:
1. Democracy helps prevent cruel and vicious autocrats from ruling. *
2. It fosters human development (i.e., health, education, personal income, and any
other indicators) more fully than do other forms of government.
'•% ■

3. Democracy helps protect fundamental individual rights and interests.

4. Democratic societies provide people the maximum opportunity to take moral
responsibility for their choices and decisions.
5. Democratic societies offer a relatively high chance of political equality.
The adjustment of individual awareness to the collective awareness is achieved
through formal and informal ways. The formal way refers to a system of ideas and models
that are officially established (i^e., policies and laws) whereas the informal way refers to
the acceptance of behaviors and thoughts that are not established as the formal way
of interpersonal relations. Culture is an informal way of shaping collective awareness.
Other than culture, there are also religion, science, morality, and ideology that shape
and structure individual awareness.
 Establishing democratic institutions, however, is not enough for democracy to
flourish. Democracy cannot be sustained if political attitudes and political culture of
the citizens do not have a participative attitude. Attitudes, such as having a sense of
responsibility for society and becoming concerned about human rights and human
development, are important in establishing a democratic culture. A study showed
that personality traits factor in internalizing political attitudes (Marcovic, 2009). For
example, openness to experience and extroversion influence attraction to democratic
attitudes about family, education, and freedom of speech (Marcovic, 2009).

I TRIVIA I
S ■ ■ i
The idea of democracy (rule of the people) originated in Ancient Greece over two thousand 1

I years ago. Theoretically, it designated a government where the people shared in directing the
activities of the state, as distinct from governments controlled by a single class, select group, or
autocrat; hence, Greece has always been labeled as the C ra d le o f D e m o c ra c y .
i
I
|
| THE DIGITAL SELF

/‘There will .be time, there will be time, to prepare a face to meet the faces
that you meet.”
• —T.S. Eliot, The Lovesong of J. Alfred Prufrock

“ ME AND MY DIGITAL IDENTITY”

“Show and Tell’’

Mechanics:
1. Students will be divided into small groups of 4-5.
2. Students will choose pictures from their mobile devices.
3. They explain the meaning behind the pictures.

Objective:
To let the students be updated of their digital selves

The feeling of an inner self and an outer self generated the impulse, to reveal oneself
to others in a believable manner. University professor and author Lionel Trilling’s (1997)
analysis of literature about the “self” and its relationship with others distinguished
sincerity and authenticity. Sincerity refers to the exposure in public of what one feels
privately. On the other hand, an authentic person is one who takes action based on some
• • ^ »
internal standard and takes responsibility for this freely chosen action.
The social world of a western-influenced society, like the Philippines, typically
consists of three domains:
• Family,
• School, and
• Neighborhood.

People in these social domains exert different impacts on the formation of self,
depending on the stage of development of the child. Research has shown that parents
have a dominant influence on their children’s sense of self prior to adolescence. As a
child grows older, the influence of peers increases (Rosenberg, 1986).
The emergence of the Internet, however, adds a fourth domain—the online life
—to the social world. The online life has definitely altered the dynamics of self-identity,
especially for adolescents.

117
I, Me, Myself, and my user ID online identity
The self that is constructed online is generally called the‘digital self. Analyses of
the experiences of online users (especially teenagers) have shown that the characteristics
of the digital self are (Zhao, 2005):
• Oriented inward; • Retractable; and
• Narrative in nature; • Multipliable.

The digital self is oriented inward toward the world of thoughts and feelings because
others cannot see the online user’s overt attributes. It is narrative in nature because
online users will only come to know the person primarily through what that person
tells them. It is retractable because others are unable to link the online self-claims to
the offline identities. Finally, it is multiplicable because people can interact with one
another in different dorriains of the online world at relatively the same time.
i ’

People are able to present themselves online in the manner that they want to. This
process is called self-presentation. Research suggests that self-presentation tends to
be superficial. A study found that students and nonstudents between 18 to 39 years
old were more likely to disclose their interests online rather than their beliefs and
feelings (Attrill 8t Jalil, 2011). This constrains the feedback that one receives, and thus,
influences the self.
The basic kinds of people you interact with online are:
1. People you do not know at all;
2. People you know both online and offline; and
3. People you know only online.
■ , ■ ■ '>

In the online social domain, it is entirely acceptable to contact and to be contacted

by complete strangers. For example, you need not be introduced to talk to a stranger in
a chat room, or to read and comment on a blog, an FB post, or a tweet of someone you
are not personally acquainted with. However, many of the people you interact with in
the digital world are those you know both online and offline although your familiarity
with these people vary considerably. Finally, there are persons you interact with only
online. Through frequent interactions, you get to know one another without meeting
in person. Regardless of how much you have
known them online, their offline identity
largely remains unrevealed or unverified.
People you have become familiar with only
online are strangers and acquaintances at
the same time. They are strangers because
.......Intaypur digital s e r .
jW-y-v
you have never seen them in person; you
t'PM Nictanson-.r.
Aretoid£enfoiV- V
do not know what they really look like; and
probably you will not even recognize them
when you meet face to face. Through online
communication, however you have come to know a lot about them, including the personal
secrets they reveal to you, making you feel, a certain level of intimate acquaintance with
them.

■ Selective Self-Presentation and Impression Managem ent

Self-presentation behavior is any behavior

intended to create, modify, or maintain an
impression of ourselves in the minds of others.
Whenever we are attempting to lead people to
think of us in a particular way, we are engaging
in self-presentation.

Why do people engage in self-presentation?

S e lf-p re se n ta tio n :

• Helps facilitate social interaction;

• Enables individuals to attain material and social rewards; and
• Helps people privately construct desired identities.

Generally, social media platforms are used for:

• Social browsing; .
• Social searching;
• Communication; and
• Impression management.
i-

Im pression m anagem ent is the attempt to control or influence any other people’s
perceptions. This could be their perception of a certain person (including you), a
material possession, or ,an event. There are two main motives of attempting to manage
the impressions of others;
• Instrum ental. This motive is to basically gain rewards and increase one’s self­
esteem.
• Expressive. This motivation is about attempting to be in control of one’s personal
behavior and identity. It is a response to moral norms, expectations, or restrictions,
seeking to show others that he or she, as a person, is different.

Impression-management Strategies
• Self-Promotion • Exemplification • Supplication
• Ingratiation • Intimidation
Self-prom otion is a proactive process in which a person actively says things or takes
action to show his or her competence to an audience (Rosenfeld et al.>1995, p.51). Self-
promotion often increases whenever there is an opportunity to openly impress someone
of higher status (Giacalone & Rosenfeld, 1986). Ingratiation is the process by which
someone tries to jvyin the approval or acceptance of another. For example, if a woman wants
to get her mother-in-law to like her, she may “kiss up” to her by giving her compliments
or gifts. She may also try to make herself appear more similar to her mother-in-law in
behavior and opinion, since people tend to like others with similar values and interests.
Exem plification involves a strategic self-sacrifice so that observers may recognize
the dedication. An exemplifier often wants other people to know how hard he/she has
been working because of the need to advertise his/her behavior (Rosenfeld et al., 1995).
Intim idation is a strategy that involves showing off authority, power, or the potential
to punish in order to be seen by observers as someone who could be or is dangerous. This
is designed to increase the credibility of one’s threats and in turn enhance the probability
that the target Will comply with the demands for agreement (Tedeschi & Riess, 1981,
p .ll). Supplication is an approach where the individual exploits his/her weaknesses or
shortcomings to receive help or benefits.

Impact of online interactions on the self

.... ,
Growing up digital: How the Internet affects teen identity
When British 14-year-old Hannah Smith turned to popular social networking
site Ask.fm in July 2013, she wanted reassurance.
Stressed out from studying for exams and anxious about the return of eczema
that made her feel ugly, Smith opened up about her feelings on the site, which
allows users to pose questions others can respond to anonymously. *
The responses came in rapid succession. Anonymous posters urged Smith to cut
herself and drink bleach. One even said, “Do us all a favour n kill ur self.”
When Smith did just that a month later, her father blamed the anonymity
of Ask.fm’s commenters for his daughter’s death. The family demanded action
against the site, and Smith’s death made international headlines about the effects
of cyberbullying.
What detectives found was arguably much more tragic — that Smith sent the
hateful messages to herself, hoping her friends would rally in her defense.
While cases like Smith’s are rare, Smith was doing what most teenagers do:
seeking identity validation from friends and strangers, often via social media. As a
new generation comes of age online, the Internet could be affecting how they form
their identity.
Catherine' Steiner-Adair, a psychologist and author of “The Big Disconnect:
Protecting Childhood and Family Relationships in the Digital Age,” says the kind of
outside affirmation Smith sought online is a vital part of how teens form identity.
 “The need for validation and confirmation that you’re OK is so huge,” Steiner-
Adair said. “Parents often say, ‘How could you go on a site where people can
anonymously respond to whatever your question is: Am I cute? Am I fat?’ But we’re
forgetting what it means to be a teenager when we say things like that.”
Social media allow kids to broadcast everything while connecting them to
experiences they might not have encountered a generation ago. But it also opens
teens up to exponential ridicule or an amplified feeling of invisibility that pan
influence the perceptions they have of themselves.
According to market research data released this year from GFK, a German
market research institute, the amount of time teens spend online has grown 37
percent since 2012, to about four hours a day. In a 2010 survey from the Girl Scout
Research Institute, 74 percent of girls said they felt their peers used social media to
“make themselves look cooler than they are,” and 41 percent said that also describes
them.
A 2010 study from York University found that people with lower self-esteem
spent more time online and posted more “self-promotional” content to sites like
Facebook.
Steiner-Adair says that while technolpgy changed how teens seek and get
feedback about identity, teen behavior is much the same.
“Kids are always looking at each other, comparing themselves to each other.
The same thing that’s going on in the halls is going on online,” Steiner-Adair said.
“The difference for teenagers today is that there’s an endless supply of people to
whom they can compare themselves.”

By: Chandra Johnson, published May 28^2014 at http://www.deseretnews.com/

artide/865603981/Growing-up-digital-How-the-lnternet-affects-teen-identity.html

In 1998, one of the first studies of Internet use found that Internet use in general
significantly affected social relationships and participation in offline community life
(Kraut et al., 1998). The study indicated that the more time spent online caused a decline
in communicating with family members. A 2013 data also indicated that the use of social
networking sites (SNS) may possibly undermine subjective perception of well-being and
life satisfaction.
One of the reasons time spent on SNS may be associated with depressive symptoms
is the fact that computer-mediated communication may lead to the altered (and often
wrong) impression of the physical and personality traits of the other users. This may lead
to incorrect conclusions regarding physical appearance, educational level, intelligence,
moral integrity, as well as many other characteristics of Online friends (Chou, 2012).
However, it should be stressed that so far there is still no conclusive evidence that the
use of SNS causes depression or even a single symptom of depression. In fact, there is
an indication that online communication with friends and family (today mostly done on
SNS) is actually associated with a decline in depression (Bessiere et al., 2010).
In a more specific study, recent research presented conflicting results regarding the
potential influence of Facebook and any other SNS on self-esteem. One possible indication
of the negative relationship between self-esteem and the use of Facebook is that all
social networking platforms (where self-presentation is the principal user activity) cause
or at least promote narcissistic behavior (Mehdizadeh, 2010). However, another study
suggested that Fapebook use may actually enhance self-esteem. This study supported
the interpersonal communication theory called the hyperpersonal model. This theory
suggested that the advantage of computer-mediated communication is that a person can
edit his or her self-presentation, which in turn positively impacts impressions on the
self; thus, greater intimacy is possible (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011).
Social networking was also found to be addictive. The addictive nature of SNS is
supported primarily by the mental preoccupation of chronic SNS users who, as a result,
tend to neglect some other aspects of their social functioning such as family and offline
friends. In addition, some chronic users who have suddenly stopped online social
networking (i.e., lack of Internet connection) have been observed to display signs and
symptoms that at least partially resemble the ones seen during drug/alcohol/nicotine
abstinence syndrome (La Barbera et al., 2009). Examples of these symptoms are:
• Anxiety • Insomnia • Depression
• Restlessness • Headaches • Social isolation
, • Irritability • Poor concentration

W hat makes us so addicted?

Communicatipn occurs during interaction, and
our need to be connected and interact with others is
universal and unavoidable. Communication is necessary
in our unending search for sense and meaning to our
world. “One cannot not communicate” (Watzlawick &
the Palo Alto School, 1967).
The social world is socially constructed
through interactions between people: roles, rules,
categorizations, stereptypes, and so on. Social networks
have the power to amplify this human nature. They have
broken the barriers of distance and time; of presence
and visibility. They expand the possibilities of sharing
and playing identities. They fulfill the most deeply felt
human need of finding a psychological distinctiveness
and self-definition in a social context.

122
 Social validation is an important part of being human. Hence, a Facebook “Like” or a
Twitter “Favorite” is a social signal that makes us feel good and makes us want to crave
for more.

Boundaries of the self online: Private vs. public; personal/individual vs. social
identity online
How are identities constructed in the age of the Internet? Is the distinction between
“private identity” and “public identity” relevant, especially for this generation? An
important characteristic of the Internet age is the phenomenon of “public identity”
It can be said that for millennials and for the future generation, the notion of
“privacy” as an individual would probably be lost. After all, these are young people who
have been subjected to security measures in various forms and in numerous settings
(schools, airports, malls). In many settings, the words, “This Area Is Under Constant
Surveillance,” are posted. Even parents and the youth use “webcams” to capture everyday
behaviors. Millennials have been socialized to do things in groups.

Private vs. public self

Social scientists have given very different definitions of the concept of “private” and
“public.” Understanding the difference between these concepts will help in your study of
the “self” (Baumeister, 2012): »
• Private. The prevalent definition among social psychologists is “private” refers to
mental events in a person that are inherently unobservable by others.
• Public. What social psychologists consider as “public” are behaviors that are open to
the observations of other people. y

SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS USES OF THE TERMS "PRIVATE" AND "PUBLIC"

Phenomenological experience Observable behavior

Acting only for self Acting as agent for others

Actor controls access to Information about self not

information regarding self controlled by actor

Acting in the interest of a limited Acting in the interest of the

number of people community

Social profiles are a description of individuals’ social characteristics that identify

them on social media sites, such as Linkedln and Facebook. When it comes to online
personal or business branding, the creation of social media profiles is absolutely
essential. Before the advent of the Internet, only companies had to worry about their
brands. Now individuals do as well, especially individuals who are open to or actively
seeking new job opportunities.

123
 Possible advantages of making your online profile public:
• It facilitates open communication that could lead to better and faster information
discovery and delivery.
• It allows open discussion on ideas and the posting of news, asking of questions, and
sharing of links.
• It provides an opportunity to widen business contacts.
• It targets a wide audience, making it a useful and effective tool to increase your
network of friends.
• If you are an entrepreneur, it improves business reputation and client base with
minimal use of advertising.
• It helps expand market research, implement marketing campaigns, deliver
communications, and direct interested people to specific websites.

Possible risks:
• It opens up the possibility for hackers to commit fraud and launch spam and virus
attacks.
• It increases the risk of people falling prey to online scams that seem genuine,
resulting in data or identity theft.
• It potentially results in negative comments and bashing.

Some advantages of making your online profile private:

• You have control over viewers. You only connect with those you want to communicate
with.
• Your online profile is protected from scammers and bashers. f

Disadvantages of a private profile:

• Your network is very limited, thus, you close your doors to opportunities that social
networking bring.
• Your engagement is very low.
• You do not get to meet interesting people with whom you can exchange ideas or
learn from. t
• If you are an entrepreneur, a private profile will not help grow your business.

Individual vs. social identity

How do you know you are the same person you were as a child? Is it because you
remember yourseli: growing within the same body you have now? Or is it because you
perceive that you have the same mind? What criteria can be used to confirm you are,
in fact, a “person?” Personal (individual) identity is the concept you develop about
yourself that evolves over the course of your life. This may include aspects of your life
that you have no control over, such as where you grew up or the color of your skin, as well
as choices you make in life, such as how you spend your time and what you believe in.
 Characteristics of personal identity:
*
• The emphasis is on the individual.
• It is created through differences in personal characteristics when comparing the self
with others.
Social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner (1979) theorized that social
identity is a person’s sense of who he/she is based on group membership(s). They
asserted that the groups (e.g., social class, family, basketball team, and so on), to which
people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem.

Characteristics of social identity:

• The emphasis is on what the person has in common with the members of his or her
group.
• It is created based on similarities with others.
.
Gender and sexuality online
Does the Internet influence stereotyping? The Internet plays an essential role in
shaping our conception of the world, our opinions, and our values. Children and young
people who are in the process of forming their opinions and attitudes about norms and
acceptable behavior, and also about sexuality are most susceptible to the Internet’s
influence. The attitudes, conduct, and roles toward women, men, and the LGBTQ+
community are being strongly influenced by Internet content. By creating a certain
type of message, internet users can manipulate people’s attitudes and opinions. Gender
stereotypes existing in the offline environment (which are the root of inequality between
men, women, and the. LGBTQ+, and the origin of gender violence) are also present in the
online world.
A stereotype is “...a fixed, overgeneralized belief about a particular group or class of
people” (Cardwell, 2014). The use of stereotypes is a manner in which people simplify the
social world. Stereotyping is assuming that the characteristics and abilities of one person
is also present in all members of the group. Stereotyping leads to social categorization,
which is one of the reasons for prejudice attitudes (i.e., “them” and “us” mentality).
What factors affect adolescent sexuality? Sexuality as a developmental issue is
present throughout the life cycle, but it becomes especially salient during adolescence.
Adolescents have to adjust to their developing sexuality, in particular their increased
sexual drive, interest in sex, and the task of constructing their sexual selves.
The development of sexuality is an important bio-psycho-isdcial development.
During adolescence, major biological, as well as psychological developments take place.
The myriad of changes that occur in adolescents put them under enormous stress, which
may have adverse physical, and psychological consequences.
 Factors that affect an adolescent’s sexuality:
1. Hormones;
2. Personality or temperament;
3. Social or environmental factors; and
4. Media and, the Internet.

An adolescent’s sexual interest has a lot to do with his or her hormones. The brain
controls puberty by producing hormones that travel in the bloodstream to various
organs. The sex organs (gonads) are stimulated to make sex hormones. A girl’s ovaries
are stimulated to make the female hormone estrogen. A boy’s testicles are stimulated to
make the male hormone testosterone.
Meanwhile, personality or temperament is an important psychological factor that
also decides the attitude toward sexuality. For example, there are introvert adolescents
who face difficulty in approaching and responding sexually (Kar et al., 2015).
Social or environmental factors that facilitate sexual learning and decide the sexual
attitude of the adolescent include:
• Attitude of parents toward sexuality;
• Parenting style;
• Peer'relationship; and
• Cultural influences.

In the recent decades, media coverage and the Internet have grown worldwide
exponentially. Adolescents’ access to them can easily literature related to sexuality,
sexual crimes, and violence that affect their perception and attitudes toward sexuality.
 Chapter 3

i i

|lN TRO PUC Tioi7

Are you stressed right now? What are your stressors? Family? Boyfriend/Girlfriend?
Studies? How do you cope with stress? Life as a college student is not easy. You need to
learn how to manage your responsibilities. Learning, however, is not just about lectures
and homework. In fact, we use the term “learning” all the time in everyday life.
Before going into trying to understand the relevant science behind the learning
process, let’s consider the nature of learning that is drawn from research.
The Lawrence Hall of Science/UC Berkeley NSF-WIDER Grant, outlined five points
on the “learning” process:
1. Learning is active.
2. It builds on prior knowledge.
3. It occurs in a complex social environment.
4. Learning is situated in an authentic context.
5. It requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement.

Learning is an active process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and

conversations to build mental models of the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky,
1986). It builds on prior knowledge and involves enriching, building on, and changing
existing\understanding, where “one’s knowledge-base is a scaffold that supports the
construction of all future learning” (Alexander, 1996, p. 89). You study ideas and use
them in your real-life setting so that you can build your own idea to share with others
and improve upon it. After which your improved idea can then be passed on to others.
Learning occurs in a complex social environment; thus, it should not be limited
to being examined or perceived as something that happens on an individual level. It
is necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people, the things they
use, the words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and the actions they take
(Bransford et aL, 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is built by members in the
activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).
 Learning is situated in an authentic context, and this provides learners the
opportunity to engage with specific idea? and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-
knowbasis (Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006). It requires learners’ motivation and cognitive
engagement to be sustained when learning complex ideas because considerable mental
effort and persistence are necessary. This shows learning does not come easy. You as a
learner need to take an active part in the process.
Students grapple with so many issues in life. Many thihgs compete for your
attention. Thus, you need to have an effective strategy in dealing with stress and fulfill
your responsibilities at the same time. But to do so, you need to know yourself first.
Understand how the human brain works during learning. Once you understand the
biological processes, work on a mental strategy that will suit you best. Learning is a
lifelong process, and your college years are just a part of this process. How you approach
learning matters because it will definitely have an impact on the quality of your life in
the future.

(F&ajjtfeA, Qve/u/ieu/
In this chapter, the student will identify three areas of concerns such as
learning, goal setting, and managing stress. It also provides for the more practical
application of the concepts discussed in this course and enables them to get tfie
hands-on experience of developing self-help plans for self-regulated learning, goal
setting, and self care.
I. Objective:
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to demonstrate various
ways of managing and caring for themselves.
II. Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss how to be better students using different study strategies;
2. Understand how the human brain works during learning;
3. Identify short- and long-term goals;
4. Discuss various sources of stress;
5. Compare and contrast the different coping strategies; and
6. Apply positive coping strategies.

131
 Learning is situated in an authentic context, and this provides learners the
opportunity to engage with specific ideas^ and concepts bn a need-to-know or want-to-
know basis (Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006). It requires learners’ motivation and cognitive
engagement to be sustained when learning complex ideas because considerable mental
effort and persistence are necessary. This shows learning does not come easy. You as a
learner need to take an active part in the process.
Students grapple with so many issues in life. Many thitigs compete for your
attention. Thus, you need to have an effective strategy in dealing with stress and fulfill
your responsibilities at the same time. But to do so, you need to know yourself first.
Understand how the human brain works during learning. Once you understand the
biological processes, work on a mental strategy that will suit you best. Learning is a
lifelong process, and your college years are just a part of this process. How you approach
learning matters because it will definitely have an impact on the quality of your life in
the future.

Ove/u/ceoc/

In this chapter, the student will identify three areas of concerns such as
learning, goal setting, and managing stress. It also provides for the more practical
application of the concepts discussed in this course and enables them to get the
hands-on experience of developing self-help plans for self-regulated learning, goal
setting, and self care.
I. Objective:
At the end of the chapter, the students Will be able to demonstrate various
ways of managing and caring for themselves.
II. Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
1. Discuss how to be better students using different study strategies;
2. Understand how the human brain works during learning;
3. Identify short- and long-term goals;
4. Discuss various sources of stress;
5. Compare and contrast the different coping strategies; and
6. Apply positive coping strategies.
 ^Dca^io^&o <Sxe?uU&e, *

1List dow n the strategies that you p e rso n a lly use w hen
fyou sfiid yfoiF^

I Learning to Be a Better Student

“Instead of asking what you want to be when you grow up, ask what
problems you want to solve."
—Lauren Hurt-Ashwin

D o you cram when you take the exam? Are your strategies effective when you study
for your exam? Do you get high scores in your exam using your strategies? If yes, that is
good! But if not, then let’s find out some of the techniques that may help you get better
if not high scores in your quizzes and exams.
Do you know the parts and functions of your brain? Let’s journey together to explore
the intricacies and mysteries of our brain for a better understanding and meaningful
learning.

IW hat Happens During Learning? Brain and Behavior Changes

The nervous system is one of the most important systems in our body because it is
the main control and coordinating system of the body. It manages the voluntary and
involuntary body processes, especially during learning. It is divided into two major
systems, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Both systems
are responsible for transmitting and receiving information throughout our body.

I
Here’s the diagram of the major divisions and p arts of the nervous system:

Nervous
System

X 1_
Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
Systems System

' -- ---------

Brain : Spinal Cord Somatic Autonomic

-- -» »______ *
_n
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain Sympathetic Parasympathetic
L

Cerebrum Thalamus Hypothalamus Medulla Pons Cerebellum

Tectum Tegmentum

Are you right-brain or left-brain oriented? Try to follow the activity that wfll be
facilitated by your instructor. Listen carefully.
PW

|Leff Brain/Right Brain Activity .

For this activity, have students line up one behind the other in a large area, like the
cafeteria or the gym. Tell them you are going to read two statements, and they should
listen to both before moving. If they agree with the first statement, they will take a step
to the left, and if they agree with the second statement, they will take a step to the right.
As statements are read, some students will move farther and farther from that point
where they started. Others may remain close to the origin. After you have read several
pairs of statements (always read the odd first, then the even), you may choose to skip
some of them. When you stop, point out that students who have moved to their left are
left-brained. Students will show varying degrees of this. Students who are to the right
of where they started are right-brained. Read each sentence and have students decide if
they fit the description.
1. I remember names best.
2. I remember faces best.
3. I prefer to have things explained to me with words.
4. I prefer to have things explained by showing them to me.
5. I prefer classes with one assignment at a time.

133
 6. I prefer classes where I work on many things at once.
7. I prefer multiple-choice tests.
8. I prefer essay tests.
9. I am not good at body language; I prefer to listen to what people say.
10. I am good at body language.
15. I decide what I think about things by looking at the facts.
1 6 . 1 decide what I think about things based on my experience.
. 17. I like my classes to be planned, so I know exactly what to do.
18. I like my classes to be open with opportunities for changes as I go along.
19. I am neither imaginative nor inventive.
20. I am very imaginative and inventive.
21. I would rather not guess or play hunches.
22. I like to play hunches and guess.
23. I like to express feelings and ideas in plain language.
24. I like to express feelings and ideas in poetry, song, dance, and/or art.
25. I rarely get insights from poetry or symbols.
26. I usually get insights from poetry or symbols.
27. I prefer solving one problem at a time.
28. I prefer solving more than one problem at a time.
29. I respond more to people when they appeal to my logical side or my intellect.
30. I respond more to people when they appeal to my emotional side or my feelings.
31. I prefer to use logic in solving problems. ? .
i
32. I prefer to use intuition in solving problems.
33. I prefer to analyze problems by reading and listening to experts.
34.. I prefer to see and imagine things when I solve problems.
I 35. I am very good at explaining things with words.
36. I am very good at explaining things with hand movements and actions.
37. I learn best from teachers who explain with words.
38. I learn best from teachers who explain with movements and actions.
I
39. When I remember or think about things, I do best with words.
40. When I remember or think about things, I do best with pictures and images.
41. I enjoy talking and writing.
42. I enjoy drawing and manipulating things.
43. I am easily lost in finding directions.
44. I am good at finding directions.
45. I prefer to learn details and specific facts.
46. I prefer to learn from a general overview and look at the whole picture.
47. I like to read realistic stories.
48. I like to read fantasy stories.

t
 49. It is more fun to plan realistically.
50. It is more fun to dream.
51. I prefer total quiet when reading and studying.
52. I prefer music while reading and studying.
53. I would like to write nonfiction books.
54. I would like to write fiction books.
55. I prefer individual counseling.
56. I prefer group counseling.
57. I prefer to leam by examining.
58. I prefer to leam by exploring.
59. I prefer dogs.
60. I prefer cats.

Let’s examine the m ajor parts and functions of the human brain.

HUMAN BRAIN

www.shutterstoclt.com 216QQ451&
Here are the characteristics and functions of the left and the right brain:

C o q tr ^ r i^ ^ o fb ^ y C ofstraU eit d d s o f b a # .

,34>s|£?£g

bfusk/Art awamwssss

Subjcclivtty

yrif'iiffw
• Characteristics and
Rational
Functions
. ii Evaluative thinking
• Logical/critical Abstract math
thinking/analytical Computation
• Solves problems by breaking Reading/phonics
them apart Reality
Improving known
• Thinks concretely
Intellectual
• Talks to think and learn Controls feelings
• Serious ideas/logical ideas Time-oriented
• Structured/planned/sequential Follows verbal
• Prefers to write and talk instructions
• Auditory/visual learner Remembers names
Prefers objective tests
• Prefers to draw and handle • Musical abilities Dreftming
objects Singing
• Lets feelings go Assuming
• Imaginations - Emotional
• More likely to act on emotions fantasy
• Holistic Affective
• Inventing
• Intuitive interaction
• Visual/spatial/kinesthetic thinking Spontaneous
• Pictures things to think and • Abstract Remembers
leam' faces
• Responsive
• Playful Takes risks
• Humorous ideas
• Follows written or Prefers
. demonstrated directions • Subjective essay tests
• Creative thinking/synthesizing Processing of
Ideas

You can a|so take Left Brain/Right Brain Testonline athttp://Testyourself.psychtests.com

*
 !METACOGNITION A N D STUDY STRATEGIES

iMetacognitive Teaching Strategies (Helping Students Learn How to Learn)

M etacognition:
(meta = “about” and cognition = thinking)
Purposefully thinking about one’s own**
thinking strategies - when people are able
to “learn to think” and “think to learn”
M etacognition is a learning strategy that
you use to understand and control your own
performance.

It is a system wherein you:

• Are totally involved and aware of how you learn
and what learning techniques or strategies
meet your needs
• Evaluate how effective these strategies are for you
• Implement the best plan of action for optimal learning

Learners with strong m etacognitive skills

• Effectively plan for their learning
• Know their limits and seek help when needed
• Frequently assess their knowledge to test their comprehension of the topi,c
• Monitor their own learning and use various learning strategies
• Carefully practice a skill to gain confidence and competence

There is a need to teach for metacognitive knowledge explicitly....we are

continually surprised at the number of students who come to [university] having
very little metacognitive knowledge; knowledge about different strategies, different
cognitive tasks, and particularly accurate knowledge about themselves. (Pintrich,
2002)

The following metacognitive teaching strategies come from a few sources that were
used including:
• Promoting student metacognition(K. Tanner, 2012)
• Creating self-regulated learners: Strategies to strengthen students’ self-awareness
and learning skills (L. Nilson, 2013),
• Metacognition (Putting Metacognition into Practice) by Nancy Chick
• Centre for Teaching Assistant Director (Vanderbilt University),
• Classroom Assessment Techniques (by T. Angelo and P Cross, 1993),
 Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction (University of Edinburgh) — -
Peter Arthur, Director, Centre for Reaching and Learning, University of British
Columbia Okanagan.

|Metacognitive Awareness Inventory

Two processes of metacognition:

1. Knowledge of cognition (declarative, procedural, and conditional)
This involves: / •
a. Being aware of the factors that involve learning;
b. Identifying the strategies you can use to effectively learn; and
c. Choosing the appropriate learning strategy.
2. Regulation of cognition involves:
a. Setting goals and planning;
b. M onitoring and controlling learning; and
c. Evaluating own regulation (assessing if the strategy you are using is working
or not; making adjustments and trying something new).

In 1994, Schraw and Dennison created the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI).
This was developed to bring awareness of metacognitive knowledge and metacoghitive
regulation, specifically for adult learners. The MAI consists of 52 questions that cover
the two components of cognition, “knowledge of cognition facto r” and “regulation
of cognition facto r.”

Using the M etacognitive Awareness Inventory

1. Copy the 52-statement handout and give it to the students.
2. After they have completed checking off “true” or “false” give them the second handout
(Scoring Guide).
3. Discuss with students. Discuss how they can improve their knowledge and regulation
of cognition.
Schraw, G. & Dennison, R.S. (1994).
Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19,460-475.
24. I sum m arize w hat |’ve learned a fte r I fin ish .

25. I ask othe rs fo r help when I d on't understand som ething.

26. I can m otivate m yself to learn when I need to

27. I am aware o f w hat strategies I use when I study.

28. I fin d m yself analyzinjg the usefulness o f strategies w hile I study.

29. I use my intellectual stre n g th s to compensate fo r my weaknesses.

30. I focus on the meaning and significance o f new info rm a tio n.

3 1 .. I create my own examples to make in fo rm a tio n more m eaningful.

32. I am a good judge o f how w ell I understand som ething.

33. I fin d m yself using h e lp fu l learning strategies automatically.

34. I fin d m yself pausing regularly to check my comprehension.

35. I know when each strategy I use w ill be m o st effective.

36. I ask m yself how w ell I accomplish my goals once I ’m fin ishe d .

37. I draw pictures o r diagrams to help me undierstand w hile learning.

38. I ask m yself i f I have considered a ll options a fte r I solve a problem.

39. I try to translate new in fo rm a tio n in to my own words.

40. I change strategies when I fa il to understand.

41. I use the organizational stru c ture o f the te x t to help me learn.

42. I read in stru c tio n s carefully before I begin a task.

43. I ask m yself i f w hat I ’m reading is related to w ha t I already know.

44. I reevaluate my assum ptions when I get confused. !

45. I organize my tim e to best accomplish my goals.

46. I learn more when I am interested in the topic.

47. I try to break studying down in to sm aller steps.

48. I focus on overall meaning ra the r th a t specifics.

49. I ask m yself questions about how w ell I am doing w hile I am learning
som ething new. '

50. I ask m yself i f I learned as much as I could have once I fin is h a task.

51. I stop and go back over new in fo rm a tio n th a t is n o t clear.

52. I stop and reread when I get confused.

iM etacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) Scoring Guide
Directions
For each True, give yourself 1point in the Score column.
For each False, give yourself 0 point in the Score column.
Total the score of each category and place in box. Readthe descriptions in relation to each section.

Knowledge about Cognition

D e c la ra tiv e K n o w le d g e Declarative Know ledge Score
• T h e factual kn ow ledge th e learner needs before
5. 1understand m y intellectual
being able to process o r use critical thinking
strengths and weaknesses.
related to the topic
• K now ing about, what, or that 10. 1kn o w w h a t kind o f inform atipn is
• K now le dge o f one's skills, intellectual resources, m ost im po rtant to learn.
and abilities as a learner 12. I am g o o d at organizing
• Students can obtain kn ow ledge th ro u g h inform ation.
presentations, dem onstrations, discussions.
; i 16. 1kn o w w h a t th e teacher expects
m e to learn.
P ro c e d u ra l K n o w le d g e
• T h e application o f kn ow ledg e for th e purposes 17. la m g o o d at rem em bering
o f com ple ting a procedure or process inform ation.
• K now le dge a bo ut how to im plem ent learning 20. I have control over h o w well 1learn.
procedures (e.g., strategies)
32. 1am g o o d ju d g e o f h o w well 1
• Requires students to kn o w th e process as w ell as
understand som ething.
w h e n to apply process in various situations
• Students can obtain kn ow ledg e th ro u g h 46. 1learn m ore w h e n 1am interested in
discovery, cooperative learning, and pro blem th e topic.
solving.
Total

C o n d it io n a l K n o w le d g e 8
• T h e determ ina tion u n d e r w h a t circumstances
specific process o r skills should transfer
• K now le dge a b o u t when and why to use learning
procedures
• Application of declarative and procedural
kn ow ledge w ith certain conditions presented
• Students can obtain kn ow ledge th ro u g h
simulation.

Procedural Know le dge Score C onditional K now ledge Score

3. 1try to use strategies that have 15. I learn best w h e n I kn o w som ething 5
w orked in the past. a b o u t the topic.

14. 1have a specific purpose fo r each 18. I use different learning strategies
strategy 1use. d e p e n d in g on th e situation.

27. l am aware o f w h a t strategies 1use 26. 1can m otivate m yself to learn w h en

w h e n 1study. 1need to.

33. 1find myself using helpful learning 29. 1use m y intellectual strengths to
strategies automatically. com pensate for m y weaknesses.

35. 1 kn o w w h en each strategy 1use will

be m ost effective.

Total Total

4 5

142
 CONTENT
* - * .
A simple activity, such as finding out what you alreiady know about a topic can help
you begin to think about how learning works. :
Here are a few ways to conduct a pre-assessment (or a student self-assessment) of
new content.
»
1. Create a few key questions about the content/topic a week prior to the class.
Questions should ask students what they know already about the topic, possible
identification of any misconceptions they hold on the topic, challenges or
successes they have had with the topic, exploration into past experiences, or
applications of the content/topic.
These questions may be in the form of a homework assignment, a set of clicker
questions for in-class voting, a short reflective writing piece done in class and
handed in.
2. Haye the students individually hand in their responses anonymously. Skim
through the answers after class. Possibly categorize/summarize all responses by
themes. ■
3. Share responses with students the next class either verbally or a summary of
themes. *
4. Have a discussion with students about how asking these questions can help them
in thoughtful planning of how they might approach a new idea or topic or how
they will approach course content and associated studying/leaming strategies.

j f^— LEARNI NG skills

Students are not going to learn how to be. good learners unless we engage them in
activities and discussions about how they perceive themselves as learners - and to see
what approaches are working and not working for their learning.
Here are 21 statements you could pose to students to start them thinking about how
they think and think about how they learn. Ideally, we hope to have students utilizing
deep approaches to learn rather than surface approaches. Strategic approaches are
somewhere in between the two but don’t really result in longer term and meaningful
learning.

{Surface Approach to Learning Questions

1. I find I have to concentrate on just memorizing a good deal of what I have to learn.
2. I am not really sure what’s important in lectures, so I try to get down all I can.
3. I tend to read very little beyond what is actually required to pass.

143
4. I concentrate on learning just those bits of information that I have to know to pass.
*

5. I like to be told precisely what to do in essays or other assignments.

6 . I often seem tp panic if I get behind in my work.
7 . Often I find myself wondering whether the work I am doing here is really worthwhile.

BSfrategic Approach to Learning Questions

1. I think I am quite systematic and organized when it comes to studying for exams.
2. f am pretty good at getting down to work whenever I need to.
3. I organize my study time carefully to make the best use of it.
4. Before starting work on an assignment or exam question, I think first how best to
tackle it.
5. I look carefully at my instructor’s comments on coursework to see how to get higher
marks the next time.
6. I put a lot of effort into studying because I am determined to do well.
7. When I have finished a piece of work, I check it through to see if it really meets
requirements.

$ Deep Approach to Learning Questions

1. When I am reading, I stop from time to time to reflect on what I am trying to learn from
it. ' i i .
2. When I am working on a new topic, I try to see in my own mind how all the ideas fit
together.
3. Often I find myself questioning things I hear in lectures or read in booki.
4. Some of the ideas I come across on the course I find really gripping.
5. I usually set out to understand for myself the meaning of what we have to learn.
6. I like to play around with ideas of my own even if they don’t get me far.
7. It is important for me to be able to follow the argument, or to see the reason behind
things.

All items are to be responded by choosing from “strongly agree,” “somewhat agree,”
“somewhat disagree” or “strongly disagree.”
These items come from ASSIST (Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students)
designed to evaluate university students’ conceptualizations of learning, approaches
to studying, and preferences for different instructional methods (Centre for Research
on Learning and Instruction, University of Edinburgh). The ASSIST tool identifies
three main approaches to studying: deep, strategic, and surface. Deep and strategic
approaches usually result in greater success where surface approach may result in poorer
performance by students.
1 1.

You may put a few of these statements on a slide or on the whiteboard and ask
if anyone uses that technique, or you may have a discussion around a collection of
statements.
 Anytime you can talk out loud (“think aloud”) about how you view a document or a
picture or think about a book, or share your thinking processes with students, you are
helping them become more metacognitivfe in their own approaches to the subject.
Once you have modelled for them how you would solve a problem or interpret a piece
of writing* have students work in pairs to talk out loud as to how they are thinking about
an assignment piece of homework or an assignment.
1. One student talks out loud while the partner records what they are saying (the
strategy is going to be used to complete the homework or do the assignment).
The partner also guides them to think through all the steps.
2. Students switch roles and do the same for each other.
3. Now students have thought out the process for completing the assignment or
homework, received some feedback from their partner and possibly have a plan
written down as to how they are going to undertake the task. Debrief briefly with
class as to lessons learned etc.

fcbj^cEiri^
Concept maps were originally developed to enhance meaningful learning in the
sciences. A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or
words. Concept maps are a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by revealing
connections to the big ideas or the key concepts you are trying to teach. Concept maps
will also help students see how individual ideas relate to the larger whole or the bigger
picture. . f

Learning benefits can be derived from instruCtor-led or student-constructed concept

maps of the connections and key ideas from a course or class. It is best that the instructor
demonstrate how to design a concept map of a class or course before students are asked
to do the same. Show students how the readings, videos, assignments, and activities are
connected to the course learning outcomes and other courses.
Design a brief or detailed concept map of the course or subcomponents of the course
and share it with students..Then later on in course students can form small groups and
build a concept map as a review activity before a midterm or as a review of a portion of
the course. Students can do for homework or they can do in class and share with each
other explaining the interrelationships between each component. Ask the students to
draw all the “cross-links” and label them as they see the components connecting fully or
partially.

147

fete
IT h o w t o IIS^ a c o n c e p t m a p
U .
I

Every concept map responds to a focus question, and a good focus question can lead
to a much richer concept map. When learning to construct concept maps, learners tend
to deviate from the focus question and build a concept map that may be related to the
domain but which does not answer the question. It is often stated that the first step to
learning about something is to ask the right questions.
Step s to create a concept m ap:

1. Construct a focus question.

2. Identify the key concepts.
• Somepeopleranktheconceptsbyimportanceasitmayhelpwiththeconstruction
of the map.
• This also helps the map makers sort the ideas, and if they see no relevant
connection they do not have to include: the concept.
3. Construct a Map.
• If this is the first time you are doing one - do it as a group first

You can use a partially completed version with students to help them initially build one.
Example Concept M ap:Based on Novak’s concept map o f meaningful learning

148 c
 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TOOLS
■ in m » n i m m m m m win i i u m i w w i i w i w i iii iiiiim w ■ » .................. ..

There are many short activities you can do during class time that will help promote
metacognitive thinking in your students.
Sometimes these little activities are called “Classroom Assessment Tools - CATS”
(term coined by Angelo, and Cross).
Here is a sampling of a few tools to consider. They often take a few minutes to do and are
easy to implement.
CATs give students and faculty immediate feedback on learning.

Durihg last few minutes of class, students
Ticket-Out-The-
write response to a question or two about
Door
class concepts. Hand in as exit class.
Review/read all before next
class and use to clarify, correct,
or elaborate more for students.

During the last few minute of class, students Review/read all before ne*t
One-Minute write response to "Most important thing 1 class and use to clarify, correct,
Paper learned today" and "What 1understood the or elaborate more for students.
least today."

Similar to One-Minute Paper - but only Same as One-Minute Paper but

ask students to describe what they didn't if many students have same
Muddiest Point
understand during class and what they problem, reteach concept
think might help them. another way.

Divide the class into groups and assign Use as many of the questions
Student-
each group a topic on which they are to as possible on next test.
Generated Test
each write a question and answer foj- next
Questions
test.

Students fill in cells of a two-dimensional Tally the number of correct

diagram with instructor-provided labels and incorrect responses.
such as a comparison chart outlining Look for patterns among the
Memory Matrix
similarities and differences in two columns incorrect responses. Address
against a variety of concepts in the in class.
discipline.

Label three charts K (What 1 KNOW Discuss with students

Already), W (What 1WANT to Know) and L perceptions of what they
K-W-L Chart (What 1have LEARNED). Complete the first thought they knew, what they
two before a unit/topic and the last one at have come to know, etc.
end. ‘

Ask students to write a layperson's Categorize student responses

"translation" of something they have just according to characteristics
Directed
learned (geared for a non-expert audience) you feej are important.
Paraphrasing
to assess, their ability to comprehend/ Address in class.
transfer concepts.
1 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TOOLS

There are many short activities you can do during class time that will help promote
metacognitive thinking in your students.
Sometimes these little activities are called “Classroom Assessment Tools - CATS”
(term coined by Angelo and Cross).
Here is a sampling of a few tools to consider. They often take a few minutes to do and are
easy to implement.
CATs give students and faculty immediate feedback on learning.

During last few minutes of class, students
Ticket-Out-The-
write response to a question or two about
Door
class concepts. Hand in as exit class.
Review/read all before next
class and use to clarify, correct,
orelaborate more for students.

During the last fewminuteof class, students Review/read all before ne*t
One-Minute write response to "Most important thing 1 class and use to clarify, correct,
Paper learned today"and "What 1understood the or elaborate more for students.
least today."

Similar to One-Minute Paper - but only Same as One-Minute Paper but

ask students to describe what they didn't if many students have same
Muddiest Point
understand during class and what they problem, reteach concept
think might help them. another way.

Divide the class into groups and assign Use as many of the questions
Student-
each group a topic on which they are to as possible on next test.
Generated Test
each write a question and answer for next
Questions
test.

Students fill in cells of a two-dimensional Tally the number of correct

diagram with instructor-provided labels and incorrect responses.
such as a comparison chart outlining Look for patterns among the
Memory Matrix
similarities and differences in two columns incorrect responses. Address
against a variety of concepts in the in class.
discipline.

Label three charts K (What 1 KNOW Discuss with students

Already), W (What 1WANT to Know) and L perceptions of what they
K-W-L Chart (What 1have LEARNED). Complete the first thought they knew, what they
two before a unit/topic and the last one at have come to know, etc.
end. ‘

Ask students to write a layperson's Categorize student responses

"translation" of something they have just according to characteristics
Directed
learned (geared for a non-expert audience) you feel are important.
Paraphrasing
to assess^, their ability to comprehend/ Address in class.
transfer concepts.

149
 Students summarize knowledge of a
topic by constructing a single sentence to
One-Sentence
cover the core concept. The purpose is to
Summary
require students to select only the defining
features of an idea.
Give the class a question. Allow everyone
to think on own for a few minutes jotting
idown some thoughts. Then ask students to
Think-Pair-
pair up with a peer and discuss thoughts
Share
for another few minutes. Can do groups of
4 as well. Ask to share with whole class.
After teaching a theory, principle or
procedure, ask students to write down at
Application
least one real-world application for what
Cards
they have just learned to determine if they
can see the transfer of their recent learning.
Using "clickers,"or online polling questions,
Classroom ask students a variety of questions about
Opinion Polls a topic and seek their anonymous opinion,
Written by students each week in which Read at end of each week,
they address three questions: What did 1 categorize responses, and
learn this week? What questions remain share with dasj. Follow up on
Weekly Report
unclear? And What questions would you unclear questions with class or
ask your students if you were the instructor small group of students.
: to find out if they understood the material?
instructor presents one or more questions
during class involving key concepts, along
with several possible answers (multiple
choice). Students indicate (by show of
hands, or poll/clicker voting) which answer
Concept Tests they think is correct. If most of the class
has not identified correct answer, students
are given a short time to persuade their
neighbor(s) that their answer is correct.
The question is asked a second time to
gauge class mastery.
Instructor meets informally with students
either in class or after class to answer
Instructor
questions, inquire about conceptual
Meetings
understanding or provide feedback on
student learning.
150
Evaluate the quality of each
summary in brief fashion. Note
if students have identified the
core concepts of the class
topic. Share with students.
Use when you want to have a
better discussion by a greater
number of students. By
thinking alone first and with
small groups of peers, shared
responses should be richer
and more varied.
Quickly read through once and
categorize them according to
quality. Pick out a broad range
of examples to share with the
class the next day.
Often polling devices can
present immediate results
back to the class to provide
discussion and next steps.
Often lasts a few minutes but
uncovers misunderstandings,
and great conversation
amongst students. Share
answers after second voting
session to see how the class
responses changed or didn't
change.
Design specific questions
to help guide the meeting
and address concepts and
understandings you want to
know more about.
I ' m eta c o

' *

Provide students with guidance and models for how to take good notes during a
class. Here is a suggestion for a format you can replicate or draw on the board and discuss
with students.

|Beginning of Class (Plan + Connect)

In this section, encourage students to prepare their notes in an organized fashion.

Stop the class and have them complete the connection questions in their notes. This will
help them start thinking about how this class fits in with what they already know or
want to know more about.
Date: Course Name: Class Learning Outcomes:
Connections:
• What do I already know about this topic?
'4ft

• How do I feel about this topic? (excited, anxious, curious, nervous)

• How does this topic relate to something I already know?
• What questions do I have already about this topic?

Middle of Class (M onitoring Learning)

In this section, encourage students to create 2 columns in their notes. In the left
column ask students to record insights, “ah-ha” moments, questions students have about
the content, connections they are making to other dasses/topics, and also any feelings
or thoughts they have on the class. In the right column they take traditional notes on
what is being presented. Encourage students to refrain from writing everything. Write
key concepts and headings cm the board and indicate to students when you are shifting
to a new section or concept. '

le n d of Class (Reflecting on Learning)

Near the end of class, ask students to draw a line below their notes and write a
summary of the whole class. Just a few sentences is enough to get students thinking
about the key learning that has just happened and what the whole class was about.
 1

You can also write a few prompts on the board to help students with their summary
note (e.g,, what were the most important ideas from today’s cla&s? what did I find most
interesting in class today? how did today’s content relate to another class?

Reflective writing helps students make connections between what they are learning
in their homework/class content and with how they are integrating the content into their
current learning structures. Writing helps students observe themselves before, during,
and after their reading, watching and listening experience. Reflective writing can also
take the form of jotting down their affective and other personal reactions to learning
the material. The most popular reflective writing activity is the “minute paper” whereby
you have students respond to prompts that ask them to think about their experiences
with the homework, class activities, or recent learning experiences in your class. Here
are some sample prompts to use for your reflective writing activities:
• The most important part of the reading, video, or class is....
• The most useful or valuable thing(s) I learned today was....
• The most surprising or unexpected idea I encountered was...
• The ideas that stand out the most in my mind are....
• This helped or hindered my understanding of the reading, video, or class ....
• Two ideas that I have found confusing are....
• “I learned a lot doing this assignment”. I agree (or disagree) because....
• The advice I’d give myself based on what I know now and if I weri starting this
assignment over again would be....
• If I were to paraphrase what we have learned today for a high school student it would
look like this....
• What I have learned today, I am able to connect to other courses in this way...

|M anaging your Own teaming: Self-Regulated Learning

"Self-regulation will always be a challenge, but if somebody’s.going to be in

charge, it might as well be me."
V —Daniel Akst

What are the factors that you consider important in your learning? Is it the educator’s
teaching style? The learning materials? The classroom?
Although it is true that the teacher, books, and classroom help facilitate learning,
it is actually not the most important consideration to learning. Your primary concern
in learning should be “you.” Yes, “your” are the most important factor in your learning

152

J.
process. Are you motivated to do your learning tasks? Are you confident in your ability
to learn? Are you open to learn, about ideas that challenge your preconceptions?

C a rto o n c h a ra c te rs c o u r te s y o f P ix to n

Self-regulated learning is how students regulate their own emotions, cognition,

behavior, and aspects of the context during a learning experience. While motivation is
your general desire or willingness to do something, self-regulation is the process wherein
you activate, take control of, and evaluate your own learning. Motivation and self­
regulation are not the same although these two qualities share some common elements.
One critical.difference is “choice” (specifically referring to autonomy and control over
the situation). In motivation, choice does not have to be central to the construct. Self­
regulation, however, requires some degree of choice or intentional selection of strategies
to help you achieve a goal or behavior.

SSelf-Regulated Learners:

• Are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses

• Utilize metacognitive strategies (for example, you question your learning and you
monitor your own learning as well as your approach to academic tasks)
• Attribute any success or failure to factors within personal control

SSelf-Regulation as a Process

Self-regulation is a cyclical process. It promotes learning that will lead to a perception

of greater competence, which sustains motivation to reach a particular goal or goals.
Examples of good self-regulation skills include good time management; the ability to
rapidly select the most efficient problem-solving strategies; and the ability to actively
monitor emotional states, such as frustration.
Self-regulated learning is not a one-size-fits-all exercise. It is a process that should
be tailored to suit your individual need for a specific learning task (Zimmerman, 2002).
As a cyclic process, a student who practices self-regulated learning plans for a task,
monitors the performance, and then reflects on the outcome. The cycle then repeats as
the student uses the reflection to adjust and prepare for the next task.
 The figure below illustrates the key steps of the process. You as student will performs
these steps while the instructor’s vital role is to guide and coach you through each step.

The Cycle of Sell-Regulated Learning

S h o w in g s te p s s tu d e n ts t a n ta k e t h r o u g h o u t t h « p ro ce ss

The bullet points below provide additional information. It is adapted from the SAGE

Education and are drawn from Zimmerman (2002) and Zumbrunn et ,al. (2011).
1. Plan, set goals, and lay out strategies.
Many students may overlook this first step of the cycle as they dive headlong
into a task. It is important that you plan your actions before you start working
on a task. This will help you strategize right from the start.
! i

Guide on planning, setting goals and strategies

Analyze the learning task. Ask:

Is this a task I've done before or something new?

0 \
Does it build off a task I've done before?

How much time will it take?

How much focus will 1need?

Set goals. Ask:

How will 1structure this task?

What are the intermediate checkpoints and sub­

goals?

Can 1complete an outline with two weeks to go, and

then a rough draft one week prior to the due date?

154
 Plan strategies. Ask:

Wilf 1need resources from the library, a color printer,

help from my lab partners, or an appointment for
office hours?

Given my needs, when should 1get started on this

task?

Set expectations for the Ask:

outcome.
Given how much time 1have available, my strengths
and weaknesses, and my current standing in the
course, what type of outcome would 1like?
r. Do 1need to "ace" this, or is it OK if 1can just complete
it successfully?

Adapted from SAGE 2YC project

2. Use strategies and monitor performance. „
In th is phase, you carry out your outlined plan. Ideally, you should proceed
w ith confidence because you have already established a detailed plan of action.

Here are som e key points for th is phase:

a. Use self-observation to reflect on your actions and the effectiveness of

the results. For example, “W hen I studied in a quiet location in the library, I
com pleted the reading m ore quickly than when I read a t hom e.”
b. Since things do n o t always go smoothly, make a plan on what to do when
obstacles arise (Flanagan, 2 0 1 4 ).For exam ple, “My teacher’s consultation
hour is every Wednesday; I will go and clarify som e of the topics here th at I
don’t understand.”
c. Stick with these strategies, even though it m ay be tem pting to revert
to known (but ineffective) learning styles. Unfamiliar approaches may feel
inefficient a t first, but learning the m ethod can be as im portant as learning
the m aterial.
d. Monitor your progress and the strategies you are using on the interm ediate
goals. E xpect and accept feedback from your teacher regarding your progress.

3. Reflect on your performance

M any students focus solely on the extrin sic outcom e of th eir grade. W hile
grades are im portant, you should reflect on your own perform ance on a
p articu lar assignm ent, and why you perform ed as such. This self-reflection can
help you understand why you earned a certain grade and how to improve your
perform ance.
T ip s on how to re fle c t on y o u r p erfo rm an c e:

a. Compare your performance with your original goal and your result. Do not
compare yourself with others.
b. Was your strategy effective? Did you use the appropriate strategy? Did you
follow your strategy?
c. Do not blame your failure by saying you lack the ability.
d. Reflect on the effort you made and the strategy you used that may have
caused poor performance.
e. Manage your emotions. Accept help from your teacher and significant people
around you. Direct your emotions toward productive lines of thinking about
how you can improve your performance. Even if the outcome is not what you
had hoped, you can still learn from the experience.
f. A key part of this process is that students use this reflection to plan for the
next task. How will you adapt your planning, strategy, time management,
and self-monitoring?
lA lb e rt Bandura’s Self-efficacy

“l am only one, but I am one. I cannot do everything,

but I can do something.

And because I cannot do everything,

I will not refuse to do the something that I can do."
—Edward Everett Hale

Read each of the statements in this instrument and select the response that you
believe best indicates how well these statements describe you. Put a check (/) mark in
the blank of your Choice.

4 - Exactly True 2 - Hardly True

3 - Moderately True . 1 - Not at all True

The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

1. I can always manage to

solve difficult problems if I
try hard enough.

2. If someone opposes me,

I can find the means and
ways to get what I want.

3. It is easy for me to stick to f

my aims and accomplish
my goals.

4. 1 am confident that 1
could deal efficiently with
unexpected events.

5. Thanks to my
resourcefulness, 1 know
how to handle unforeseen
situations.

6. 1can solve most problems

if 1 invest the "necessary
effort.

160
 7. 1 can remain calm when
facing difficulties because
1 can rely on my coping
abilities.

8. When 1am confrontecTwith

a problem, 1 can usually
find several solutions.

9. If 1 am in trouble, 1 can
usually think of a solution.

10.1 can usually handle

. ■
whatever comes my way.

Adapted from Ralf Schwarzer& Matthias Jerusalem, 1995

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, &
M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user's portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37).
Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

In order to succeed, people need a

sense of self-efficacy, to struggle
together with resilience to meet the
inevitable obstacles and inequities

A C iU O T FS

Self-efficacy refers to your belief in your capacity to perform necessary actions

to produce specific performance goals (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy is the
reflection of your confidence in the ability to exert control over your own motivation,
behavior, and social environment.
A strong sense of self-efficacy adds to your sense of well-being that helps you perform
your tasks well. Those with a high sense of self-efficacy see a difficult task as a challenge
that must be conquered rather than a problem that must be avoided. This outlook fosters
deep interest in performing any activity. It sustains them to continue with their efforts
in times of adversity.
 Social cognitive psychologist and professor Albert Bandura is best-known for his
social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy. Social learning theory
stressed the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling. According
to Bandura (1977), “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous,
if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.”
The theory of self-efficacy, as presented by Bandura (1977:193) was “for analyzing
changes achieved in fearful and avoidant behavior.” He asserted that even though you
believe an activity may lead to a certain outcome, you might not be motivated to perform
the action; hence, you doubt your ability to perform.
Bandura presented four principal sources of self-efficacy beliefs:
1. Enactive mastery experiences
• It is the most influential source of efficacy information.
• It provides the most authentic evidence of whether one can muster what it takes
to succeed.
• Success increases sense of self-efficacy; failure undermines it.
• A strong sense of self-efficacy is achieved through experience and perseverance
in overcoming obstacles.

2. Vicarious experiences (comparisons)

Bandura believed that most human behavior is learned by observation
through modeling. Additionally, people tend to approach tasks that they have
seen others perform. Through observation, you can build your self-efficacy by
watching others perform a task. ' .
F a c to rs m igh t fa c ilita te reten tio n p ro c esse s:

• Participant modeling. Observer watches and performs.:

• Timing. The learner is internally motivated and the environment is conducive to
learning ■ ,
• Learning strategy. The lessons are appropriate for the learner’s level. Learning is
built on what the learner already knows.
• Variation and consistency. Variation in learning techniques to suit personal
learning needs; consistency in assessing performance and in giving feedback
• Mental practice. It enhances vividness and stability of learning.

3. Verbal persuasions and allied types of social influences

There are people who can help motivate you and strengthen your beliefs in
your capacity to succeed. These significant people (i.e., parents, teachers, friends,
and so on) can persuade you to believe that you possess the capability to master
your tasks. Their moral support will make you more likely to put in effort even
when problems arise.

162
 4. Emotional and physiological states
Your emotions and physical Jiealth affect your self-efficacy judgment with
respect to specific tasks. For example, you feel depressed or ypu have a fever, yet
you need to study for a test; you are not motivated to study because you feel you
will not understand any of the topics anyway.
F a c to rs th a t could a lte r se n se o f self-e fficac y :

• Preconception of capability - your personal assessment of your capacity

• Perceived task difficulty - your assessment whether the task is at par with
your preconceived capability
• E ffo rt -how hard you will work at your task
• Amount of external support - the resources and support system that will
help you accomplish your task
• Circumstances under which they perform - your physical, mental, and
emotional states
• Pattern of successes and failures - how many times you have succeeded or
failed in the exact or similar task in the past
• How the experiences are cognized and reconstructed in memory - Your
assessment whether the experience was pleasurable or painful

J W h a t is a SELF-CONCEPT?

Self-concept is your idea of who you are (self) based on your personal beliefs and
your perceived notion of how other people see you. This personal beliefs could be your
body image (“I’m sexy”), your notions about yourself (“I am hardworking”), and how you
tend to label yourself in different situations (“I can be nasty if you push me too far”).

163
 Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to “Who am I?”
Self-knowledge

S e lf -k n o w le d g e is p h ilo s o p h ic a lly v ie w e d as y o u r k n o w le d g e o f
y o u r o w n se n sa tio n s, th o u g h t s , beliefs, a n d o th e r m e n ta l states.
(S ta n fo rd E n c y c lo p e d ia o f P h ilo s o p h y )

Self-awareness

W h e n y o u a re s e lf-a w a re , y o u u n d e rs ta n d th a t y o u s ta n d a p a rt
f ro m o th e rs a n d f ro m y o u r e n v ir o n m e n t , a n d th a t y o u are a
Seif- concept versus s u b je c t t h a t acts, in te ra c ts , a n d e x p e rie n c e s y o u r e n v ir o n m e n t .
l
S e lf-a w a re n e s s assists t h e p e rs o n to re fle ct o n his o r h er"self."

Self-esteem

It is y o u r g e n e ra l a ttitu d e t o w a r d yo u rse lf.

It a n s w e rs t h e q u e s tio n s :
D o 1 like m yself?
D o 1 a c c e p t h ie fo r w h o 1a m ?
A m 1 a p e rs o n o f v a lu e ?

What is SELF-ESTEEM?

"Everything that happens to you is a reflection of what you believe about

yourself. We cannot outperform our level of self-esteem. We cannot draw to
ourselves more than we think we are worth." ?
—lyanlaVamant

Self-esteem always involves a degree of self-evaluation. It is used to describe a

person’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value. Generally, children who have warm
and secure relationships with their parents/carers are more likely to have positive self-
concepts and high self-esteem. Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait, which
means it tends to be enduring. It also affects your trust in others, yoUr relationships,
your work - nearly every part of your life.
Having positive/high self-esteem helps you to try new things, like approaching
people and building your social network while having low self-esteem makes you unsure
of yourself. Your lack of confidence and your self-doubt will affect your motivation to
work toward your goals.
.. C om p on en ts o f S elf-E ste em (B ran d en , 1 9 6 9 ) :

1. It is an essential human need that is vital for survival, as well as for normal,
healthy development.
2. It arises automatically from within, based on aperson’s beliefs and consciousness.
However, external factors can affect it, too.
3. It occurs along with a person’s thoughts, behaviors, feelings, and actions.

P e rso n s w ith p o sitiv e self-e stee m :

*r

• Feel good about themselves

• Feel proud of what they can do
• Believe in themselves, even when they don’t succeed at first
• See their own good qualities, such as being kind or capable
• Feel liked, loved, and respected •
• Accept themselves even when they make mistakes
• Take care of their overall well-being
• Trust others
• Independent but are cooperative - t ■
• Have the ability to accept mistakes, either their own or those of others
• Are able to say “No” appropriately

. P e rso n s w ith low self-e stee m :

• Lack confidence
• Wish to be/look like someone else
• Always worry about what others may think
• Are pessimistic
• Have a negative view of life <
• Have a perfectionist attitude
• Mistrust others - even those who show signs of affection
• Have a blaming behavior ,
• Are afraid of taking risks
• Have feelings of being unloved and unlovable
• Show dependence - letting others make decisions
• Are afraid of being ridiculed
I l O C K E ’S GOAL-SETTING THEORY

His this scene familiar?

Cartoon characters courtesy of Pixton

You know the importance of having a ‘goal. But, are your daily actions bringing you
closer to your goal/goals? Are you p l a n n i n g your goals correctly? Wait, “plan my goal”?
What’s that? *
As defined by professors Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (2006:332), a goal is “a level
of performance proficiency that one wishes to attain within a specific time period” (as
cited in Shields et al., 2015). Locke and Latham stated, “Goal setting theory was based on
the premise that much human action is purposeful, and it is directed by conscious goals”
(O’Neil & Drillings, 1994, p.14). Goal-setting theory predicts that people will channel
effort toward accomplishing their goals, which will in turn affect performance (Locke &
Latham, 1990).
Locke, who primarily developed the goal-setting theory, proposed three factors that
will make individuals highly motivated:
1. Goals are challenging and specific.
2. They are strongly committed to the goal/goals.
3. They strongly believe in their ability to accomplish their goal.
 According to Locke, those factors will occur if:
a. _ People know what is required o f them.
b. They know how they are expected to perform.
c. They can identify with the goals.
d. Feedback is precise and frequent. *

Five Principles of Goal Setting

Goals must have:
1. Clarity. When a goal is clear and specific there is less misunderstanding about
what behaviors will be rewarded. You know what is expected, and you can use the
specific result as a source of motivation. •
2. Challenge. People are often motivated by achievement. It is important to strike
an appropriate balance between a challenging goal and a realistic goal. A goal that
is too easy or too difficult will not motivate the person to work hard on a task.
3. Commitment. A personally relevant goal,will motivate a person to work on
accomplishing it. Interestingly, goal commitment and difficulty often work
together. The harder the goal, the more commitment is required. If you have an
easy goal, you do not need a lot of motivation to get it done. '
4. Feedback. Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal
difficulty, and gain recognition. It is an assessment to help you know where you
are toward achieving your goal, how effective your strategies are how your best
practices are recognized, and how your areas for improvement are determined.
. 5. Task com plexity. Ju st like setting a challenging goal, task complexity involves
appropriate balance. With complicated tasks, make sure to learn or practice what
is expected of you and give yourself sufficient time to meet your goal.
(Mind Tools Ltd, 1996-2017)

■ SMART Goals

The conditions given by Locke gave way to a goal-setting technique called SMART
goals developed by management experts and authors, Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer
Johnson.
When originally introduced by Blanchard, SMART goals were denoted as: Specific
and Measurable, Motivating, Attainable, Relevant and Track-able (Blanchard, Zigarmi,
& Zigarmi, 1985, p. 89-90). Over time, the SMART acronym for goals has evolved into
what they are today: Sp ecific, M e a su rab le , A ssig n a b le , R e a listic , a n d T im e-R elated and the
modern definitions are represented in the figure on the next page:
 Adapted from https://wikispaces.psu.edu/display/PSYCH484/6.+Goal+Setting+Theory

Specific
For you to be motivated to perform, you need to have a specific goal. “Increase my
grade” is too vague. A specific goal would be" “Get a grade of 95 in Psychology.”

Measurable
A measurable goal is important so that you can monitor your progress and receive
feedback. Thus, a specific and measurable goal would be, “Increase my grade in Psychology
from 88 to 95.”

Assignable
You should be able to relate to your own goal. Make your goal a personal commitment .
For example, “I will increase my grade in Psychology from 88 to 95.”

Realistic
You cannot just say, “I will increase my grade in Psychology from 88 to 100.”
Likewise, you should not set very low goals, such as “I will increase my grade from 88 to
89.” Goals that are too difficult or too easy to achieve will not positively motivate your
performance. Set goals that are difficult enough to be realistically attained.

Time-related
A “habit” implies something that happens regularly. Since “habits” are occur
regularly, these are also relatively quick to develop—provided you stick to them! Setting
a time frame for your goal will require you to develop a habit or routine. Once you have
established your routine, working toward your goal will come naturally (as opposed to
forced effort).

168
 According to Locke, those factors will occur if:
a. People know what is required of them.
b. They know how they are expected to perform.
c. They can identify with the goals.
d. Feedback is precise and frequent. '

Five Principles of Goal Setting

Goals must have:
1. Clarity. When a goal is clear and specific there is less misunderstanding about
what behaviors will be rewarded. You know what is expected, and you can use the
specific result as a source of motivation.
2. Challenge. People are often motivated by achievement. It is important to strike
an appropriate balance between a challenging goal and a realistic goal. A goal that
is too easy or too difficult will not motivate the person to work hard on a task;
3. Commitment. A personally relevant goal ;will motivate a person to work on
accomplishing it. Interestingly, goal commitment and difficulty often work
together. The harder the goal, the more commitment is required. If you have an
easy goal, you do not need a lot of motivation to get it done. *
4. Feedback. Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal
difficulty, and gain recognition; It is an assessment to help you know where you
are toward achieving your goal, how effective your strategies are how your best
practices are recognized, and how your areas for improvement are determined.
- 5. Task complexity. Just like setting a challenging goal, task complexity involves
appropriate balance. With complicated tasks, make sure to learn or practice what
is expected of you and give yourself sufficient time to meet your goal.
(Mind Tools Ltd, 1996-2017)

■ SMART Goals

The conditions given by Locke gave way to a goal-setting technique called SMART
goals developed by management experts and authors, Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer
Johnson.
When originally introduced by Blanchard, SMART goals were denoted as: Specific
and Measurable, Motivating, Attainable, Relevant and Track-able (Blanchard, Zigarmi,
& Zigarmi, 1985, p. 89-90). Over time, the SMART acronym for goals has evolved into
what they are today: Sp ecific, M e a su rab le , A ssig n a b le , R e a listic , a n d T im e-R elated and the
modern definitions are represented in the figure on the next page:
1 STRESSORS A N D RESPONSES

|What is stress?

In general, stress is a state of mental or emotional

strain or tension resulting from adverse or very demanding
circumstances. It is a mental and physical response to the
demands of your environment (i.e., at home, school, work,
etc.). It is normal to feel stressed. It is a universal, human
t about thirigs. experience. What is more important is how you respond to
»• -7^,* I cannot stress.
control
Not all stress is bad for you. In fact, stress is good for
V s)v . > : V .0 % ? •
human beings (to some degree) to maintain an overall good
» :/ ,> < • ' -■
health. The human body may tend toward a relatively stable
equilibrium, especially those maintained by physiological processes, yet it also requires
stimulation to ensure optimal functioning of the organs and tissues, such as the heart
and muscles. How can stress be good? When stress serves as a motivation for positive
activities, then it is considered beneficial. Beyond its optimal point, stress of any kind
does more harm than good.
Three kinds of stress:
• Eustress
• Neustress
• Distress

I Eustress ?

Considered as good stress

A result from a situation or activity that you find motivating or inspiring
Enjoyable and not threatening activity
Example: Finding the nerve to talk to your crush

| Neustress

“Neutral” stress
A sensory stimulus that has no direct consequence or effect on the person
A situation or activity that you do not find threatening yet not enjoyable
Example: Incidents you hear in the news
| Distress
*

Situations or activities that you consider negative, harmful, threatening

It could happen for just a short span of time or it could linger for prolonged
periods (hours, days, months, years).
Example: Being mugged on the streets or a long-standing family quarrel

W hat are stressors?

Any situation, activity, or individual that gives you mental or emotional strain is a
stressor. The list of stressors is not only endless; it also varies from person to person.
Good stressors can make you feel both nervous and excited at the same time (the so-called
“butterflies in your stomach”). It can make you worry about being liked or accepted. On
the other hand, bad stress can cause you to feel angry, petrified, or depressed. It can
make you feel constantly on the edge. Other than the mental and emotional strain, you
also suffer pain, such as headache or you actually get sick, such as going down with a
fever. High levels of stress when unattended contribute to mental health problems.

W hat are signs and symptoms of stress?

Stress is the body’s reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response.
The body reacts to these changes with physical, mental, and emotional responses. People
handle stress differently. Symptoms of stress can vary.
In general, signs and symptoms of stress fall under any of these three categories:
SYMPTOMS OF STRESS INCLUDE

Low energy
Headaches
Upset stomach, including diarrhea, constipation, and nausea
Aches, pains, and tense muscles
Chest pain and rapid heartbeat
PHYSICAL Insomnia
Frequent colds and infections
Loss of sexual desire and/or ability
i i
Nervousness and shaking, ringing in the ear
Cold or sweaty hands and feet
Excess sweating
Dry mouth and difficulty in swallowing
Clenched jaw and grinding teeth

174
 .SYMPTOMS OF STRESS'

Forgetfulness *
Preoccupation
Blocking
Errors in judging distance
COGNITIVE/ Reduced creativity
PERCEPTUAL Lack of concentration
Lack of attention to detail
Orientation to the past
Attention deficit
Disorganization of thought
Negative self-statements and negative evaluation Of experiences

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

Depression or general unhappiness.

Anxiety and agitation.
EMOTIONAL Moodiness, irritability, or anger
Feeling overwhelmed "
Loneliness and isolation
Any other mental or emotional health problems

8 SOURCES OF COPING A^^

IC o p in g With Stress
Types of Coping
What is coping? Coping refers to the strategies ypu use to deal with real or imagined
problems to protect yourself against negative emotions. It refers to adaptive strategies
you employ in an attempt to reduce stress. It helps you control your reactions and continue
with your daily activities. Coping involves putting-in conscious effort to minimize or
tolerate stress, .
1. Problem-focused coping
• It targets on controlling or changing the source of stress
• It tackles the source in a practical manner.
• Strategies include employing problem-solving techniques; time management;
getting relevant social support.

2. Emotion-focused Coping
• It involves lowering, if not eliminating, negative emotional responses
(i.e., embarrassment).
• It is an option when the source of stress is external and beyond the person’s
control
• Strategies include distraction, talking out or verbalizing your problem, prayer,
and meditation.
175
 3. Cognitive coping
*

• It involVes a conscious intellectual activity of managing stressful situations

• You use your mind to combat stress-inducing thoughts.

Strategies for cognitive coping include:

i. Reframing-changingthewayyou view experiences or events, ideas, concepts, and
emotions to find alternatives that are more positive.
ii.* Challenging negative thinking - questioning the rationality of your negative
thoughts. You take control of your thoughts and stop negative thinking. You
replace negative thoughts with positive affirmations.
iii. Positive self-talk - sometimes referred to as “positive affirmations,*” you talk to
yourself in a positive manner. This is useful for confidence building.
iv. Count to ten - giving you time to gain control of your emotions. It allows you to
rethink the situation a nd find a better coping strategy.
v. Cost-benefit analysis - asking howyourself beneficial your thoughts, emotions,
or actions are. “Is it worth it?”
vi. Smell th e roses - a way of telling yourself to relax. It is about taking a conscious
effort to appreciate the usually neglected aspects of life.
vii. Keeping s perspective - breaking down your problems into little tasks and
knowing which the problems need to be addressed right away as compared to
those that do not need much attention.
viii. Reducing un certainty - as the saying goes, “lamang ang may alam,” gathering
as much information as you can about your problem. It helps' if you gather
positive information rather than negative ones.
ix. Usingimagery/visualization-imageryasarelaxationtool. Youfindthatplacein
your mind where you feel happy. Remember your pleasurable experiences. This
is more effective when combined with breathing exercises.
Visualization is also a powerful rehearsal strategy. For example, you are about to
present your report in class. Practice in your mind. Picture yourself giving the report.
Imagine the possible question that will be asked, and how you will answer it.

Behavioral coping strategies

These are ways of dealing with stress by taking action to modify behavior. Some
behavioral coping strategies include:
• Physical exercise • Time management
• Relaxation • Social support/friends
• Breathing • Seeking professional help
• Smile and laughter

176
■ 24 Positive Coping Strategies for Stress

Physical and Lifestyle Strategies ‘

1. Abdominal breathing and relaxation
2. Low-stress diet (limit fast foods/firied foods)
3. Regular exercise
4. Downtime (balance fun and work)
5. Mini-breaks (5- to 10-minute periods to relax during the day)
6. Time management
7. Sleep hygiene (at least 6 hours)
8. Choosing a nontoxic (nonsmoking/conflict-free) environment
9. Material security (the basics; do you really need that, designer shirt?)

Emotional Strategies
10. Social support and relatedness
11. Self-nurturing (yes, you are worth it)
12. Good communication
13. Assertiveness
14. Recreational activities (“playtime”)
15. Emotional release
16. Sense of humor (ability to see things in perspective)

Cognitive Strategies
17. Constructive thinking (ability to counter negative thinking)
18. Distraction (ability to distract yourself from negative preoccupations)
1-9. Task-oriented (vs. reactive) approach to problems
20. Acceptance (ability to accept/cope with setbacks)
21. Tolerance for ambiguity (ability to see shades of gray)

Philosophical/Spiritual Strategies
22. Consistent goals or purpose to work toward
23. Positive philosophy of life
24. Religious/spiritual life and commitment

■ Stress and Filipinos

The effect of culture on stress and coping is so pervading that the people within
the cultural group does not notice it. But when cultural contexts are compared, the
differences between how people deal with stress become striking.
American anthropologist and professor, Mary Catherine Bateson (1968), told an
anecdote about her experience of losing a premature infant while she was here in the
Philippines. She noted the differences on how Americans and Filipinos express sympathy
over the loss of a loved one. Bateson described that while Americans will shake hands,
nod the head sadly and say, “We are so sorry for your loss”—they will make a hasty
retreat and leave the family to mourn in private. Bateson observed that Filipinos—
other than expressing sympathy for the loss - would ask questions and will get you to
talk about your beloved departed at length. She added that the primary assumption in
Filipino culture is that those who suffered a loss should not be left mourning alone (as
cited_in Aldwin, 2007).
Americans, who are unaware of this Filipino cultural value, would see this behavior
as an intrusion. A Filipino, on the other hand, would think that Americans do not grieve
for their dead. While some societies show their recognition of bereavement around an
effort to help the bereaved control himself/herself and forget the sorrow, other societies
are more inclined to help the bereaved express his or her loss and live out the grief (as
cited in Levine, 1973, pp. 17-18; Aldwin, 2007).
Culture can affect stress and coping process in four ways (Aldwin, 2007):
1. Cultural context shapes the kind of stressor that an individual is likely to
experience. For example, Europeans find crowded places stressful because they
crave privacy, while Filipinos are delighted to see a crowd (U y ! M a y k asiy ah an !)-
2. Culture may also affect the appraisal of a certain event. For instance, “noise” is
stressful. But, what kind of noise? Some people find the Philippine streets—
with all the honking, peddling, and shouting—noisy. Yet, they have no problem
listening to their songs on high volume.
" t

3. Culture affects an individual’s coping strategies (as was displayed by the Mary
Catherine Bateson’s story).
4. Culture provides different time-honored tools/mechanisms by which an
individual £an cope with stress.

|Filipino Traits and Values

Philosopher, professor, and author, Emerita Quito, proposed to take a second-look

at the supposed negative Filipino traits and values. Quito wrote that Filipinos are fond
of comparing themselves “unfavorably with Westerners by using Western standards
(1994).” Thus, she discussed some Filipino traits within the Oriental cultural context.
According to Quito, if the ideal personality and activity is based on western ideas (such
as being a “workaholic” as a positive trait) then the Filipino stress-free mentality will fare
poorly. In contrast to western culture, Orientals “emphasize conformity with nature”
(Quito, 1994, as cited in Dy, 1994, p. 60) and are not inclined to exaggerate or overreact.
Moreover, if the basis for achievement by western culture is to amass earthly wealth
then Filipinos will again be ranked “low” because we look at some other considerations
aside from material wealth when pursuing our goals. As pointed out by Quinto, setting

178
a goal is not wrong in any culture. The difference between cultures lies in what people
consider important, as well as the manner of pursuing these goals.
Western culture thrives on individuality and any threat to one’s independence is
a source of stress, hence, it must be removed. Filipinos, on the other hand, thrive on
maintaining a harmonious relationship. Any disruption to this harmony is a stressor;
hence, it must be avoided.
The table below shows some Filipino traits and how they are evaluated based on
western and Oriental cultures as discussed by Quinto (1994).

Hiya It stops one from taking action. It contributes to peace of mind

It makes the person weak, timid, Not trying to achieve rriakes for
i
and meek. a less harried and stressful life.

Ningas cogon It makes a person an underachiever This trait makes for a peaceful
because he/she cannot persevere and tranquil life because one
in seeing things (i.e., projects, is unruffled should things go
tasks, or goals) to its fruition. wrong.

Being detached allows the

person to move on to sqpie
other activities without feeling
like arvabsolute failure.

Pakikisama Filipinos are said to turn a blind eye In the Filipino context,
to the wrongdoing of others for pakikisama means keeping
the sake of personal relationships a polite distance from other
(i.e., family, friendship, coworker) people's lives with whom we
share the same space with to
maintain peace and harmony.

Patigasan It is about being stubborn and A trait that makes us stand

resisting reconciliation. for what is right and refuse to
be intimidated or forced to
One stands his or her ground (on submission.
issues) and wait for the other
party to take the first step at
reconciliation.

Bahala na It leaves everything to chance with Putting faith on a Higher

the help of a divine power. Being develops humility and
gratefulness.

The idea that he or she is

not alone in the struggle
strengthens the Filipino psyche

179
 IT IS NEGATIVE
hH H vester n c o n c e p t
Kasi Disowns responsibility
Puts blame on others (people,
things, circumstance)
Saving face This is closely related to “hiya"
and it encourages shirking from
responsibility.
Sakop Never learns to be independent
Relies on family and relatives
Prevents personal growth
l i
1 Encourages partisanship
Bukasna Promotes laziness
(Manana habit)
Will not act when a problem is still
small, thinking that it will go away
by itself.
Utang n a b o b It makes the person overlook
moral principles because he or
she is beholden to those who gave
him/her a favor
Kanya kanya Seen as selfish with no regard for
the world's well-being
i 1 •
WHY IT Is POSITIVE. • 1
. t IN ORIENTAL CONCEPT'; 1
Does hot become overly
stressed for failing
Failure is not personal because
there are other factors, not just
"me."
Will not stress out because
of guilt feelings or self­
recrimination
It promotes mental therapy
because it allows the person to
keep his/her dignity.
Promotes unity, especially in
the family
Provides a sense of
belongingness and security
Filipinos know how to keep
things in stride rather than be
stressed or tensed
One learns to go with the flow
and take what comes naturally.
This trait personifies the
Filipino saying,
"Ang hindi marunong
lumingon sa pinanggalingan
ay hindi makakarating sa
kanyang patutunguhan."
This trait is still in a collective
context. Kanya-kanya means 1
take care of. my own (i.e., those
that are important to me); you
take care of yours. Family is
central to the Filipino psyche;
thus, the family is always given
first priority before the self and
everyone else.
The social and cultural dimensions of stress
What is social stress? It is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting
from adverse or very demanding circumstances arising from the person’s social
environment relationships (Sattler & Kirsch, 2014). There are several sources of social
stress, and they can affect almost every area in your life. Social stress gets aggravated
when you have little capability to change your circumstances.

W hat are the sources of social stress?

The sources of social stress include (but are not limited to):
• Problems with work or earning an income; '
• Parenting; •
• Education;
• Sex and socialization;
• Immigration status or language
• Personal, physical, and psychological health;
• Peer pressure; and
• Social marginalization.
Social status is seen as a common denominator for social stress. For example, if you are
poor, it usually means having less income opportunities, lower quality of education, and
decreased access to proper health care. These problems typically contribute to problems
in interpersonal relationships, such as in marriage and in parenting. The numerous
problems that people in the lower social status could evoke a feeling of powerlessness.
Being unable to change his or her situation makes the person more susceptible to stress.
Even though it is not usually harmful, peer pressure is another extremely common
source of social stress, usually affecting young people. Those with lower self-confidence
are more to be stressed because of peer pressure. Peer pressure also becomes dangerous
when drugs, alcohol, smoking, and gambling are involved.

Stress and the sociological perspective

Emile Durkheim’s book S u icid e,' shows how social organization of groups influence
the individual behavior of their members. Durkheim hypothesizes that the extent to
which an individual is integrated within a group affects the likelihood of suicide.
Three prim ary types of suicide (Durkheim, translated 1951):
• Egoistic suicide - occurs when a person feels he br she is not accepted by or does
not belong to society. The social bond is very weak.
• A ltruistic suicide - occurs when a person ends his or her life fpr others.
• Anomic suicide - is linked to disillusionment and disappointment.

181
M ediators of Stress: Coping and Social Support
Coping refers to personal responses that canbe activated when stressful circumstances
arise. Coping refers to things people do to prevent, avoid, or control emotional distress.
Three basic objectives of coping (Weiss and Lonnquist, 2015):
1. Eliminate or modify the stressful situation so that it will not be a continuing
problem.
2. Control the meaning of the problem, by “cognitively neutralizing” the situation.
3. Control the stress created by the situation (e.g., through stress-management
techniques).

|The Role of Social Class, Race, and Gender In Social Stress

Social Class
Those who are in the lower social class have higher mental and emotional stress than
those who are affluent. Three common factors are:
1. Inadequate financial resources;
2. Greater use of ineffective coping strategies; and
3. Less access to social support.
0

Race
Research shows that responses to stress vary, and the person’s ethnicity is relevant
to his/her stress response. Ronald Kessler and Harold Neighbors (1986) found out
that even when' social class is controlled, race continues to be an important predictor
of distress. Their study showed that African American women still feel more stressed
compared with European American females of the same social class. However, African
American women also have more access to social support than European American
females. This may help explain the pattern that even though African Americans often
experience higher levels of stress than white American females, they have lower levels
of mental disorder.

Gender
Women were found to have higher rates of psychological distress and depression
compared to men. According to Rosenfield (1999), this is evidenced “across cultures,
over time, in different age groups, in rural as well as urban areas, and in treated as well
as untreated populations.”
Possible causes for the high disparity between women and men are:
1. Women tend to be delegated to the caregiver role more than men.
2. Women are more inclined to be emotionally involved in the lives of the people
around them.
 3. Women in tr o je c t rather than express anger. Introjection is a person’s ability to
take in the expectations and projections of others (communicated nonverbally or
verbally; covertly or overtly) and take these as the person’s own.
4. Continuing power differences between women and men in society

Cultural Differences in Stress Response

Culture is the set of ideas, beliefs, expectations, and behaviors shared by a particular
group of people (Yoost& Crawford, 2015).
H ow cu ltu re a ffe c ts a p e rso n ’s exp erien ce to s tr e s s :

• The type of stressor to which a person may likely be exposed

• How a stressor will he perceived
• Coping mechanisms available to deal with stress

Type of Stressor
Different cultural groups live in different geographical, economic, and political
areas. Hence, the types of stress a cultural group is exposed to will also depend on their
general location. For example, for Filipinos a 2017 survey showed that their jobs/studies
were their leading cause of stress. However, for someone who lives in war-torn Syria, the
primary concern would have been something else.

Perception of Stressors
Cultures differ according to what their members perceive as stressful. For example,
Southeast Asian neighbors like Korea or Japan, academic success is given higher
importance. This degree of educational stress is reflected in the number of Japanese
students committing suicide for not passing an exam (Naughton, 1997). However, such
occurrences though not unheard are very rare in the Philippines.

Coping Mechanisms
Some of the ways that cultures differ in the way they make available different coping
mechanisms to their members are:
1. Beliefs that allow them to make sense of. stressors;
2. Beliefs about how stressors should be coped with; and
3. The availability of social support.
Cultures transmit belief systems that may affect the way their members make sense
of stressors and, consequently, how well they are able to cope with them. For example,
religious belief as in the Philippines. The b d h a la n a attitude of the Filipinos draws on
“divine assistance” to help them cope. Other than a subjective impression that religion
assists coping, it was also found to give, beneficial health effects. Research showed
that more African Americans suffer hypertension compared with European Americans

is4
(Lacklaftd, 2014). However, another study discovered that religious coping significantly
helped lower down blood pressure among African Americans, though not with European
*

Americans (Steffen et al., 2001). The study suggested that the difference between how
the two cultures use religious beliefs in structuring their experiences might account
for the different physiological reactions. The Western culture of independence and self-
reliance could have an impact on a person’s willingness to access coping resources, such
as social support that being part of a religious group provides.
Different cultures also transmit different values on coping with stress. For example,
the western culture of independence and self-reliance will impact the person’s willingness
to seek social support. Asking for some other people’s help would be regarded as shameful
because one’s problem is typically dealt with alone. Meanwhile, for collectivist culture,
being a part of a social group is the primary coping mechanism.
Cultures also vary according to the arriount of social support they make available
to their members. There is also considerable evidence that social support is one of the
most important variables that affect the impact of stress (Umberson & Montez, 2016).
Individuals that come frdm cultures which offer ihore social support are able to cope
better with stress. For example, it has been found that nOn-Western patients with
schizophrenia have more social support and better treatment outcomes than Western
patients.

iT a kin g care of the self: The need for self-care and compassion

Here is a link for compassion survey with scoring key: h ttp ://se lf-c o m p assio n .o rg /w p -
c o n te n t/u p lo a d s/2 0 1 5 /0 2 /S h o r tS C S .p d f

Stress is a natural occurrence. It is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension

resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances (WEB). Stress brings about
physical and psychological effects that could hinder you from reaching your full potential.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Why do we feel stressed? Psychologist Abraham Maslow presented a motivational
theory outlining human needs illustrated in a hierarchal manner. The hierarchy of needs
is in the form of a pyramid starting with the most basic and most important need at the
bottom and moving up to achieve self-fulfillment.
 Adapted

iD e fic ie n c y V e rsu s G ro w th
Maslow called the four bottom levels (physiological, safety, belongingness and love,
esteem) as deficiency needs because a person does not feel anything if these needs are
met, but he/she becomes anxious if these needs are not met. On the other hand, the fifth
level (self-actualization) according to Maslow was a growth need because it enables the
person to reach his or her full potential as a human being.

i M o f i v a f e d by Unsatisfied Need
Maslow s theory holds that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs. Thus,
lower needs take precedence over higher needs, and they must be satisfied first. If a need
is unmet, the person feels agitated, and this motivates him or her to act and find ways to
satisfy the need. When a need is mostly satisfied, it is no longer a source of motivation
and the person moves on to the next higher need. Maslow further stated that, a person
could only move up to the higher level of need once the lower level is securely met, and
only then will a person be motivated to work on self-actualization. Maslows concept
provides a glimpse on underlying causes of difficult behavior, as well as emotional and
mental problems.

&
■
(Lackland, 2014). However, another study discovered that religious coping significantly
helped lower down blood pressure among African Americans, though not with European
Americans (Steffen et al., 2001). The study suggested that the difference between how
the two cultures use religious beliefs in structuring their experiences might account
for the different physiological reactions. The Wes.tern culture of independence and self-
reliance could have an impact on a persons willingness to access coping resources, such
as social support that being part of a religious group provides.
Different cultures also transmit different values on coping with stress. For example,
the western culture of independence and self-reliance will impact the persons willingness
to seek social support. Asking for some other peoples help would be regarded as shameful
because ones problem is typically dealt with alone. Meanwhile, for collectivist culture,
being a part of a social group is the primary coping mechanism.
Cultures also vary according to the amount of social support they make available
to their members. There is also considerable evidence that social support is one of the
most important variables that affect the impact of stress (Umberson & Montez, 2010).
Individuals that come from cultures which offer more social support are able to cope
better with stress. For example, it has been found that non-Western patients with
schizophrenia have more social support and better treatment outcomes than Western
patients.

iTaking care of the self: The need for self-care and compassion

Here is a link for compassion survey with scoring key: http://self-compassion.org/wp-

content/uploads/2015/02/ShortSCS.pdf
Stress is a natural occurrence. It is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension
resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances (WEB). Stress brings about
physical and psychological effects that could hinder you from reaching your full potential.

M aslow ’s H ie ra rc h y o f N eeds
Why do we feel stressed? Psychologist Abraham Maslow presented a motivational
theory outlining human needs illustrated in a hierarchal manner. The hierarchy of needs
is in the form of a pyramid starting with the most basic and most important need at the
bottom and moving up to achieve self-fulfillment.

185
This table illustrates how a person may react when needs are unsatisfied.

.I M A S L O W ’S H IE R A R C H Y O F N E E D S > . ! I F N O T S A T IS F IE D .

*feel sick, irritated, uncomfortable

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS *if pathological, we can eat, drink too
(A need that must be met every day) much or engage in hoarding behaviors
*will cause death
*can affect our perception, e.g.,
paranoia
SAFETY NEEDS * can lead to neurosis, insecurity
* if pathological, can develop phobias,
such as agoraphobia
^become increasingly susceptible to
loneliness and social anxieties
BELONGING- LOVE NEEDS
*if pathological, can lead to antisocial
behavior
ESTEEM NEEDS * low self-esteem
Two form s:
* inferiority complex
1) Lower-form needs: * if pathological, can lead to degression
Such as respect from others, for status,
fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation,
appreciation, dignity, even dominance
2) Higher form:
Involves self-respect including such
feelings as confidence, competence,
achievement, mastery, independence, and
freedom
* can cause feelings of lack of meaning
in life
SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS *if pathological, metapathologies,
such as boredom, cynicism, alienation
(feeling isolated, detached, lack o f
sympathy, estrangement)

Source: h ttp ://w w w .b e n c h m a rkin stitu te .o rg /

iSeSf-care: W h a t i s i t and w h y i s i t i m p o r t a n t ?
As described by Maslow s hierarchy of needs, satisfying the various levels of need is
very important to a persons overall health and wellbeing. Part of your overall wellbeing
and healthcare is to take care of yourself. This caring for the “self,” however, is more
than being clean (hygiene) and living clean (lifestyle).
Self-care? as described by the University of Kentucky (WEB), entails taking deliberate
acts of looking after your mental, emotional, and physical health.

|W h a t s e i f - c o r e is n o t :
Everytime you are stressed you say, “I had a rough day, so I'm going for a drink to
unwind, Self-care!”
Everytime you like something, “This is really not in my budget, but I should not
deprive myself‘coz you know, self-care!”
Or, “I am so hungry, but I’m on a diet so I wont eat. Taking care of my weight is self-
care!
These notions of self-care are oversimplified. Proper self-care is taking a very active
and powerful choice to engage in activities that will result in acquiring or maintaining
optimal health that cover the physical, psychological, emotional, social, and spiritual
components.
Self-care is vital for the management of daily stressors and challenges, as well
as overall health and wellness. Self-care is neither overindulging nor unnecessarily
depriving yourself. The keyword to self-care is balance; being good to yourself will
enhance the likelihood of living to your fullest potential.

^ C o m p a s s io n : N e u tra l o r L e a r n e d ?
Human beings are actually wired for compassion, rather than self-interest, according
to scientific research. What is compassion? Compassion, framed as an emotion, is the
felt response to perceiving suffering that involves an authentic desire to ease distress
(Goetz, Keltner, & Simon-Thomas, 2010). It is a kind and caring emotional response to
perceived suffering that acknowledges the shared human experience of imperfection,
and that involves an authentic desire to help.
Compassion is often confused with that of empathy and altruism although
compassion does involve empathy and altruistic behavior. However, empathy as defined
by researchers is the visceral or emotional experience of another person s feelings
(.Psychology Today, 2013; De Souza, 2016). In reading a sense, it is an automatic mirroring
of another's emotion, like feeling sad when reading a soldier s goodbye letter to his
family, even though the soldier and his family are unknown to you.

188
 Altruism, on the other hand, is the unselfish regard to or devotion to the welfare of
others (Merriam-Webster). It is commonly defined in two ways: the belief in or practice
of disinterested and selfless concern for th'e well-being of others (Vakoch, 2013), and the
behavior of an animal that benefits another at its own expense (self-sacrifice).
DacherKeltner of the University of California, Berkeley coined the term
“compassionate instinct” tc point out the growing evidence that at the core both animals
and human beings have an automatic response to ensure the survival not only of our
own but of others.

iCompassion’s Surprising Benefits for Physical and PsychoiogicaS

Health
Research suggests that compassion may have ensured our survival because of
its tremendous benefits for both physical and mental health and overall well-being
(Seppala, 2013). It suggested that connecting with others in a meaningful way helps us
enjoy better mental and physical health and speeds up recovery from disease (Diener &
Seligman, 2013) and may even lengthen our life spans (Brown & Konrath, 2013). The
possible reason for such benefits in psychological well-being is the fact that the act of
giving results in a pleasurable feeling as evidenced by a brain-imaging study. The parts
of the brain that are active when a person experiences pleasure ( centers), such
as eating favorite desserts or receiving money, were found to be equally active when the
person is doing acts of kindness, such as giving food to a homeless person or donating to
a charity (Grafman, 2013; National Institutes of Health, 2013).

189