CONCRETE

CE141 – LECTURE 4
 Concrete
In its simplest form, concrete
is a mixture of paste and
aggregates (sand & rock). The
paste, composed of cement
and water, coats the surface of
the fine (sand) and coarse
aggregates (rocks) and binds
them together into a rock-like
mass known as concrete.
 1.

Proportioning
of Concrete
Mixes
 Proportioning of
Concrete Mixes

● Proportioning of concrete is the process of

selecting quantity of cement, sand, coarse
aggregate and water in concrete to obtain
desired strength and quality.
● Two types of mixes:
○ Nominal Mix
○ Design Mix
 Nominal Mix

● The nominal mix is the process in which all the ingredients are prescribed
as per specifications and their proportions are specified in the ratio of
cement to aggregates for the certain strength achievement. The nominal
mix is preferred for simpler, relatively unimportant and small concrete
works. Concrete shall be called ‘Nominal mix concrete’ when concrete is
made in proportion mix like 1:1.5:3, 1:2:4, 1:3:6 etc. and so without any
scientific basis, but based on past empirical studies.
 Nominal Mix

● Nominal mix generally contains volumetric batching. Normally the

proportion is decided by weight and for concreting, it is converted to
volumetric proportion. Nominal mix concrete may be used for concrete of
M 20 grade or lower grade such as M 5, M 7.5, M 10, M 15.
 Design Mix

● Design mix is a process in which the proportions of the ingredients of

concrete are properly determined with their relative proportions to
achieve the concrete of desired strength. Not only the desired strength but
according to the properties of fresh concrete like workability or
performance of concrete with the certain specifications. Concrete shall be
called ‘Design mix concrete’ when the proportion of its ingredients are
decided after trial and error of various option in the laboratory, after
carrying out tests, from given selected and available material to be used
for the work.
Methods in Proportioning

● Arbitrary Method
● Fineness Modulus Method
● Minimum Void Method
● Maximum Density Method
● Water-Cement Ratio Method
 Arbitrary Method

● The general expression for the proportions

of cement, sand and coarse aggregate is 1 :
n : 2n by volume.

○ 1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1.2 : 2.4 for very high

strength.

○ 1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.

○ 1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations and
mass concrete works.
Fineness Modulus Method
● The term fineness modulus is used to
indicate an index number which is roughly
proportional to the average size of the
particle in the entire quantity of aggregates.
● The fineness modulus is obtained by adding
the percentage of weight of the material
retained on the following sieve and divided
by 100.
● The coarser the aggregates, the higher the
fineness modulus.
Fineness Modulus Method

● All aggregates : 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm,

10 mm, and Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30
and 15.
● Coarse aggregates : mm, 40 mm, 20
mm, 10 mm, and No. 480.
● Fine aggregates : Nos. 480, 240, 120,
60, 30 and 15.
Fineness Modulus Method
● Proportion of the fine aggregate to the
combined aggregate by weight

Where:

P = desired fineness modulus for a concrete mix of

fine and coarse aggregates

P1 = fineness modulus of fine aggregate

P2 = fineness modulus of coarse aggregate

 Minimum Void Method

● Does not give satisfactory result

● The quantity of sand used should be such that it

completely fills the voids of coarse aggregate.

Similarly, the quantity of cement used shown such

that it fills the voids of sand, so that a dense mix

the minimum voids is obtained.

 Minimum Void Method

● In actual practice, the quantity of fine

aggregate used in the mix is about 10%

more than the voids in the coarse aggregate

and the quantity of cement is kept as about

15% more than the voids in the fine

aggregate.
 Maximum Density
Method
● Not very popular.

Where:

P = percentage of material finer than diameter d (by

weight).

d = maximum size of fine aggregate.

A box is filled with varying proportions of fine and coarse

aggregates. The proportion which gives heaviest weight is
then adopted.
 Water-Cement Ratio
Method
According to the water – cement ratio law given by Abram
as a result of many experiments, the strength of well
compacted concrete with good workability is dependent
only on the ratio.

● The lower water content produces stiff paste having

greater binding property and hence the lowering the
water-cement ratio within certain limits results in the
increased strength.
● Similarly, the higher water content increases the
workability, but lower the strength of concrete.
 Water-Cement Ratio
Method

● The optimum water-cement ratio for the concrete of

required compressive strength is decided from graphs
and expressions developed from various experiments.
● Amount of water less than the optimum water
decreases the strength and about 10% less may be
insufficient to ensure complete setting of cement. An
increase of 10% above the optimum may decrease the
strength approximately by 15% while an increase in
50% may decrease the strength to one-half.
 Water-Cement Ratio
Method
● According to Abram’s Law water-cement law, lesser
the water-cement ratio in a workable mix greater will
be the strength.
● If water cement ratio is less than 0.4 to 0.5, complete
hydration will not be secured.
● Some practical values of water cement ratio for
structure reinforced concrete
○ 0.45 for 1 : 1 : 2 concrete
○ 0.5 for 1 : 1.5 : 3 concrete
○ 0.5 to 0.6 for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.
 Water-Cement Ratio
Method

● Concrete vibrated by efficient mechanical

vibrators require less water cement ratio, and
hence have more strength.
● Thumb Rules for deciding the quantity of water in
concrete:
○ (i) Weight of water = 28% of the weight of
cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate
○ (ii) Weight of water = 30% of the weight of
cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate
 2.

Mixing, Placing,
and Handling
of Fresh
Concrete
 Mixing, Placing, and
Handling Fresh Concrete

● The design of concrete is very important to

strength and durability, however, attention
should be placed on handling, placing, and
curing to ensure uniform quality
throughout the mix. In this section we will
discuss the proper handling and placing
techniques.
 Batching & Mixing

● Batching - Batching of aggregates and cement should always be done by

weight.
○ Water & Admixture - batched by volume
● Batching Equipment -- Any piece of batching equipment should allow free
and unobstructed flow of materials while minimizing segregation.(Machine
of this type can be divided into three categories)
○ Manual: used for small jobs or low output requirements
○ Semi-automatic: Manually started but is automatically terminated
○ Fully Automatic: Single switch activates the entire batching procedure
 Batching & Mixing

● Handling of Aggregate - Prevent segregation and control moisture of the

material.
● Mixing - Proper mixing is essential to produce homogenous, uniform
concrete.
● Mixing Times - The optimum mixing time depends on several factors.
○ Type of mixer
○ Condition of the Mixer
○ Speed of the mixer
○ Size of the charge
○ Nature of the materials
 Batching & Mixing

● Charging the mixer - It refers to the pre-blending of materials

● Type of Mixers - It is divided into 3 types
○ Drum mixers: a series of interior fixed blades which ensure end-to-end
mixing materials.
○ Pan mixers: Mixing blades are fixed and the pan rotates.
○ Continuous mixers: the materials are proportioned at one end of a
drum, mixed in the drum, and exit the other end of the drum as
concrete.
 Batching & Mixing

● Ready-Mixed Concrete -- This type of operation eliminates the need for mass
storage of materials on the job site. There are several ways to handle this type of
operation
○ Central-mixed: completely mixed at the batching plant
○ Transit-mixed: concrete is partially mixed or completely mixed in transit
○ Shrink-mixed: concrete is partially mixed at the plant and completely mixed in
the truck mixer
○ Truck-mixed: completely mixed in the truck after being charged at the plant
● Remixing - Concrete is often remixed at the job site to ensure proper slump is
achieved.
 Placement of Concrete

● Minimize segregation of coarse aggregates

● Concrete should be placed by a vertical dro
● Concrete should be allowed to flow slowly into the forms at a vertical
angle.
● If placement on a slope is desired the concrete should be constrained
to fall vertically by some sort of chute or baffle.
 Placement of Concrete

● SPECIAL PLACEMENT
○ Slip Forming: A method for the continuous placement and consolidation of concrete.
○ Preplaced Aggregates: In this method, forms are packed with well-graded
aggregates and injected with mortar to fill the voids.
○ Shotcreting or Guniting: In this method concrete is applied by spraying it from a
nozzle by means of compressed air.
○ Tremie Concrete: his method is used for pouring concrete underwater or placement
in deep forms.
○ Underwater Placement: The tremie method is only one method for underwater
placement.
 Consolidation

● After placement, the concrete should be consolidated into the forms and around
reinforcing bars to eliminate trapped air and voids. Most concrete now placed is
consolidated by vibration.
○ Concrete Vibrators
■ Basically, a vibrator applies periodic shear forces to the concrete which
causes the material to flow.
○ Vacuum Dewatering
■ A method of consolidation of horizontal surfaces which removes water
form the upper 12 inches of the slab, effectively consolidating the
material.
 Finishing Concrete

● Screeding: Excess concrete is struck off to bring the surface to the desired
level and fill any low spots.
● Floating: After the concrete has hardened and bleed water has
disappeared, the surface is floated to a flat blade. This process compacts
and removes imperfections from the surface while forcing cement and
water to the surface. Excessive floating will cause a high w/c ratio and
weaken the surface.
● Trowelling: After floating, a surface may be steel-troweled to provide a
really smooth, dense, wear-resistant surface.
 Finishing Concrete

● Texturing: If a skid-resistant surface is desired, the freshly screeded

surface can be textured by scoring the surface with a wire or fiber broom.
Excessive paste can be removed with washing which results in an exposed
aggregate finish.
● Hardening: This treatment causes the surface to provide additional
durability and wear-resistance.
3.

Curing
Concrete
 Curing of Concrete

● Method by which concrete is protected

from moisture and is kept within a
recommended temperature range.
● It must be done as soon as formworks are
removed and a uniform temperature should
be maintained throughout the concrete.
● In standard industrial cases, full strength
concrete is recognized at 28 days.

CivilDigital.com (n.d.). Curing of Concrete. Retrieved from https://civildigital.com/curing-concrete-purpose-

curing-curing-methods/
ASTM C31: Standard Practice for
Making and Curing Concrete
Specimens in the Field
Initial Curing:
● After molding & finishing, specimens shall
be stored for a period up to 48 h at a
temperature range of 16 and 27°C.
● All specimens shall be away from direct
sunlight.
Final Curing; Cylinders:
● 30 mins after removing the mold, cure
specimens with water maintained at 23+/-
2°C
ASTM C31: Standard Practice for
Making and Curing Concrete
Specimens in the Field

Final Curing; Beams:

● 30 mins after removing the mold, cure
specimens with water maintained at
23+/- 2°C
● 20 hrs before testing, cure the
specimens in water saturated with
calcium hydroxide.
 Curing
Methods
● Water Curing
● Sheet Curing
● Membrane Curing
● Steam Curing
 Water Curing

● Uninterrupted wetting of the exposed surface of the concrete.

● Done by spraying/sprinkling water over the concrete’s surface.
● Water curing methods are:
○ Ponding
○ Sprinkling, fogging & mist curing
○ Wet Coverings

CivilDigital.com (n.d.). Curing of Concrete. Retrievedfrom https://civildigital.com/curing-concrete-purpose-

curing-curing-methods/
 Water Curing

● Ponding
○ Usually used on flat surfaces like pavements, footpaths, and floors.
○ A pond of water that is retained at the perimeter of the concrete.
○ Efficient method for preventing loss of moisture & maintaining a
uniform temperature.

CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from

https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
 Water Curing

● Sprinkling
○ Continuous sprinkling or done in intervals
(with supervision).
○ Prevents cracking caused by alternate cycles
of wetting and drying.
○ The method requires an adequate supply of
water and careful supervision.
CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from
https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
 Water Curing

● Wet Coverings
○ Wet coverings use hessian or other moisture
retaining fabrics for are used.
○ Coverings should be, immediately after
hardening, placed above concrete to prevent
surface cracking.
○ Should be kept continuously moist.
CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from
https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
 Sheet Curing

● Can be carried out more easily on both horizontal and vertical surfaces.
● Polythene sheets are easy to handle and can be re-used.
● Coverings should be, immediately after hardening, placed above concrete
to prevent surface cracking.

CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from

https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
 Sheet Curing

● Formwork Protection:
○ Formworks protects the concrete against loss of
moisture, and thus allows curing to proceed.
○ Concrete that is in an exposed must be
thoroughly cured.

CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from

https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
 Sheet Curing

● Formwork Protection:
○ But in a mild, protected environment, and
provided that the formwork has been in position
for at least four days, there might be no need for
further curing even in dry weather.

CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from

https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
 Membrane Curing

● Lessens moisture loss from the concrete surface by

wrapping it with an impermeable membrane.
● Curing compounds are wax, acrylic and water based
liquids are sprayed over fresh concreting and will
reduces the loss of wetness from the concrete.
● No further supervisions needed once applied.
CCANZ (n.d.). Curing Methods. Retrieved from
https://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/Curing-Methods.aspx
CivilDigital.com (n.d.). Curing of Concrete. Retrievedfrom https://civildigital.com/curing-concrete-purpose-
curing-curing-methods/
 Steam Curing

● Keeps the surface moist and raises the temperature of concrete to quicken
the rate of strength achievement.
● Done to speed up the early hardening of concrete and mortars by
subjecting it to steam and humidity.
● Commonly used for precast concrete plants.

CivilDigital.com (n.d.). Curing of Concrete. Retrievedfrom https://civildigital.com/curing-concrete-purpose-

curing-curing-methods/
 4.

Properties of
Hardened
Concrete
 Properties
of Concrete
● Strength
● Durability
● Creep
● Shrinkage
● Elasticity
 Strength

● The strength of concrete means the maximum amount of load which it can
handle. It is also considered as its most valuable property.
● There are two types of strength of concrete:
○ Compressive Strength
○ Tensile Strength
 Compressive Strength

Factors influencing the strength of concrete:

•Type of Cement. •Curing Conditions.

•Nature of Aggregates. •Method of Preparation.

•Water-Cement Ratio.
 Tensile Strength

Tensile strength indirect method:

● Split-Cylinder Method - the cylinder of specified

dimensions is made to fail under tension by applying

compressive load across the diameter. From the load at

failure, tensile strength is calculated by a test machine.

 Durability

● Durability is the second most important quality of hardened concrete. It may be

defined as the capacity of hardened concrete to withstand all the forces of

deterioration that are likely to act on it, after setting, in a given environment.

● Actions that may deteriorate concretes

○ Frost Action

○ Chemical Action
 Creep

● Also called cold flow, is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or

deform permanently under the influence of an sustain load.

● Defines the behavior of concrete under loads.

 Shrinkage

● The volume decrease of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes.

In other words, the reduction of volume for the setting and hardening of
concrete is defined as shrinkage.
● Three types of shrinkage: Plastic, Drying, Thermal.
 Modulus of Elasticity

● The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends on the Modulus of Elasticity of the concrete’s
ingredients and their mix proportions. As per the ACI code, the modulus of Elasticity can be
calculated using the following equation:
5.

Testing of
Hardened
Concrete
 Two Types of Tests

Destructive Tests Non- Destructive Tests

Compressive strength test Rebound hammer test
(most common) Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
Split-tension test Penetration resistance test
Flexural strength test. Pull out test.
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTS
 Compressive Strength
Test / Cube Test
(ASTM C39)
● Compressive strength depends on
specimen size, larger specimens has greater
probability for weaker elements, reducing
strength and have less variability and
better representation of actual concrete.
● Concrete cube is prepared by placing 3
layer of concrete in the mould
 Compressive Strength
Test / Cube Test

•Each layer is compacted using rod for 35

times n Then it is cured in a tank of water for 7,
14 and 28 days.

•On the 7th day, cube will be taken out for

compressive strength test.
Compressive Strength
Test / Cube Test
 Split-tension Test
(ASTM C496)

•This test measures the tensile strength on

concrete (ASTM C496). Cylinder is subjected
to compressive load along vertical diameter at
a constant rate until fatigue. Failure occurs
along vertical diameter due to tension
developed in transverse direction.
 Split-tension Test
● Logically, the load will split to 2 parts (P), so the
tensile strength can be calculated as:
T = 2p/BLD
Where: p= load at failure, N (psi)
L = length of specimen, mm (in.)
D = diameter of specimen, mm (in.)

● Tensile strength varies from 2.5 MPa to 31

MPa (360 psi to 450 psi), about 10% of
compressive strength
Split-tension Test
 Flexural Strength Test
● Most common method for measuring the tensile strength of concrete.
● A concrete beam with span length equal to 3 times the beam depth ( the
length of the beam should be at least 2 in. (50mm) larger than the span) is
subjected to 3rd point loading (ASTM C78).
 Flexural Strength Test
(ASTM C78)

● This produces tensile stresses at the

bottom of the beam and compressive
stresses at the top.
● Since concrete is weaker in tension than
compression, the specimen fails where it
breaks into 2 following the formation of a
nearly vertical crack called a flexural crack,
near the section of maximum moment.
Flexural Strength Test
 NON-
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTS
 Rebound Hammer Test
(ASTM C805)

● Known as Schmidt hammer test.

● Can be used to determine the in-place
compressive strength of concrete within a
range of 1500 – 8000 psi (10-55MPa).
● This is test can be used to establish
whether the rebound number has reached a
value known to correspond to the desired
strength.
Rebound Hammer Test
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
(ASTM C597)

● It uses measurement of the speed of

ultrasonic pulses through the to correlate
concrete strength to standard strength.
● Allows the determination of compressive
concrete strength and location of cracks.
● It will identify non homogenous condition in
the structure such as honeycomb, voids &
cracks.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Test
Penetration Resistance Test
(ASTM C803)

● The Windsor probe is generally considered

to be the best means of testing penetration.
● It consists of a powder-actuated gun or
driver ,hardened alloy probes, loaded
cartridges, a gauge for measuring
penetration of probes & other related
equipment.
Penetration Resistance Test
(ASTM C803)

● Rebound hammer tests only the surface

while penetration resistance test make
measurements into the depth of the
sample.
● Depth of penetration provides an indication
of the compressive strength of the
concrete.
Penetration Resistance
Test
 Pull Out Test
(ASTM C900)

● This is a test which measures, by means of a

special tension jack, the force required to
pull out a previously cast-in-metal insert
with an enlarged end.
● This test is superior to the rebound
hammer and to penetration resistance test
because a larger volume and greater depth
of concrete are involved in the pull out test.
Pull Out Test