TECHNICAL ARTICLE

27

Microplastics in the environment: impact on human

health and future mitigation strategies

Disha Katyal*, Elaine Kong, and Jacit Villanueva

Environmental Health Program, British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, BC, Canada
Environ. Health Rev. Downloaded from pubs.ciphi.ca by 27.75.237.200 on 07/15/21

Abstract: Plastic is a synthetic material that has gradually been integrated into nearly all aspects of human life because of
its malleable and durable nature; it can commonly be found in consumer products such as textiles, beauty products, and
food packaging. The massive prevalence of plastic-based items in our society poses a potential threat to human health and
the environment. Since plastic material can physically degrade over time, there is growing concern over the production of
microplastics (MPs), which are plastic particles that are ≤5 mm in size. Recent studies confirming the presence of MPs in
our environment and drinking water have garnered significant attention worldwide because of the potential impact on
human health. As a result of growing public concerns, legislative action has been taken in Canada to ban the manufacture
and importation of personal care products containing microbeads. MPs are a new and upcoming issue that the
environmental public health field should monitor. In the future, we may play a major role in educating the public on what
microplastics are and their impact on our health in addition to consulting stakeholders as regulations get implemented.
For personal use only.

Key words: microplastics, wastewater treatment, microbeads, water filtration, plastic pollution, human health

Issue
Although the definition of microplastics (MPs) varies in the cur-
rent literature, they are generally identified as plastic fragments
that are ≤5 mm in size (Boucher and Friot, 2017; GESAMP,
2015). The ubiquitous presence of MPs in our environment and
their potential effects on human health are relevant issues to
consider given that over 300 megatons of plastic is created
worldwide each year (Boucher and Friot, 2017). Food packag-
ing, textiles, tires, and other plastic materials can shed MPs into
the air, food, and water. Since leaching of plasticizer additives
have been widely associated with endocrine-disrupting capabili-
ties, there is growing concern over the potential adverse effects of
MPs on human health and the environment (Rist et al., 2018).
The environmental public health field has yet to establish a role
in managing the presence of MPs in our environment. In recent
years, there has been a push to reduce plastic waste and single-use
disposable items by the public as we move towards more environ-
mentally friendly practices. By-laws or regulations that would
help manage plastic waste are in the process of being drafted and
implemented on a national and a local scale. To handle the grow-
ing concerns from the public regarding MPs and the gradual cul-
tural shift towards sustainability, a greater understanding and
knowledge base of MPs is needed by environmental health offi-
cers and other related professions in our field in the future.
Discussion
Sources of microplastics
The range of ways in which MPs can be formed supports its per-
vasiveness within the environment. However, the ultimate
source of MPs is plastic itself —whether it be man-made or frag-
mented over time. Understanding how MPs are made and intro-
duced into the environment is an important step towards
learning how to mitigate MP waste in the future.
Depending on their size and source, MPs can be classified
into two categories: primary and secondary. Primary MPs are
intentionally manufactured to its microscopic size. This is most
common in industries creating products that contain microbe-
ads, such as facial scrubs and toothpaste. On the other hand, sec-
ondary MPs can be formed unintentionally through the
chemical, physical, and biological breakdown of larger plastic
materials over time (Cole et al., 2011). In a terrestrial environ-
ment, plastics can undergo degradation due to UV radiation or
changing temperatures during thaw–freeze cycles (Efimova et
al., 2018). These processes weaken the structural integrity of the
plastic material and enhances their fragmentation into MPs.
Similarly, in marine environments, weathering and mechanical
abrasion of plastics caused by the movement of ocean waves can
also produce MPs (Cole et al., 2011; Efimova et al., 2018).

*Corresponding author: Disha Katyal (email: dkatyal@my.bcit.ca)

EHR Vol. 63(1) 27–31 DOI: 10.5864/d2020-005 Published on 9 April 2020
 28 EHR, Vol. 63, Issue 1
Routes of human exposure
Since MPs are ≤5 mm in size, it enables them to enter the human
body in various ways. Oral consumption of drinking water or
food contaminated with MPs is a primary route of human expo-
sure. There is a high risk of ingesting MPs when consuming
marine products. Aquatic organisms at the lower trophic levels,
such as plankton and filter feeders, can involuntarily ingest MPs
due to their small size (Cole et al., 2011). These substances can
thereby accumulate up the food chain where the highest levels of
MPs will be present in organisms of the higher trophic level,
such as crustaceans and mollusks. Such bioaccumulation of
MPs, potentially containing harmful additives, can result in
highly toxic seafood products that can eventually reach the
human consumer (Revel et al., 2018).
Dermal exposure to MPs can occur through skin application
of products containing microbeads (Revel et al., 2018). However,
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the potential for dermal absorption of MPs is unlikely since the
stratum corneum (outer layer of skin) is restricted to particle
sizes of <100 nm—the size of microbeads ranges from approxi-
mately 0.1 µm to 5 mm (Revel et al., 2018; Environment and
Climate Change Canada, 2015). Although the skin has been
shown to provide an effective barrier against MPs, there are con-
cerns their even smaller counterparts, such as nanoplastics, could
potentially penetrate and be absorbed into the skin (Revel et al.,
2018). Furthermore, inhalation is another way MPs can enter
the human body. Plastic-based items can shed and contribute to
For personal use only.
airborne MPs that can enter the environment and be distributed
by wind currents (Prata, 2018). The variety of ways humans can
be exposed to MPs suggests that a multi-faceted approach may
be needed in handling MP waste in the future.
Ubiquity of microplastics in the environment and
growing media attention
Given that we live in a “plastic-based” society, the presence of
MPs in our environment is inevitable. More recently, indepen-
dent investigations through television and internet platforms
have sparked a greater public interest into MPs. In a 2017 study
conducted by Orb Media, a nonprofit journalist organization,
MPs were confirmed to be found in 83% of tap water samples
and 93% of bottled water samples in eight geographical regions
around the world (Tyree and Morrison, 2017). These studies
have subsequently been published in online peer-reviewed jour-
nals (Kosuth et al., 2018; Mason et al., 2018). Although further
research is necessary to validate the findings, this investigative
report drew massive media attention to the overwhelming pres-
ence of MPs in the environment, especially drinking water.
Likewise, in a CBC Marketplace investigation into MPs,
researchers at McGill University also determined that MPs exist
in 60% of tested samples of major brands of bottled water (Szeto,
2018). Due to the garnered public interest and concern into
MPs, the World Health Organization has now launched a review
into the effects of MPs if consumed by humans—this demon-
strates the increasing relevance of these emerging substances in
our society (Readfearn, 2018). As public awareness and con-
cerns regarding MPs grows, the environmental public health
professionals will have an increasing responsibility to provide
comprehensive information on the impact of MPs on our health
and the environment.
Challenges
Impact of microplastics on human health is
uncertain
The effects of MPs on human health are becoming highly perti-
nent in the environmental health profession since these particles
are present in food, water, and air. Few studies have been able to
determine the immediate effects of MPs upon entering the
human body (Revel et al., 2018). Some researchers have theo-
rized that MPs could potentially be internalized into cells by
macrophages or endothelial cells of blood vessels (Yoo et al.,
2011, as cited in Revel et al., 2018). Even if MPs could enter the
bloodstream, there is little research available confirming their
distribution and metabolism within the body (Revel et al.,
2018). Although there are gaps in knowledge on the uptake and
transport of MPs, the presence of these substances in the human
gut has been confirmed in a recent 2018 study presented at a
conference in Vienna—up to nine different types of MPs were
found in stool samples of eight people from different countries
(Parker, 2018; Quenqua, 2018). While this pilot project con-
sisted of a small sample size, the significance of the results is
demonstrated by the presence of MPs at the end of the human
digestive tract and implies that MPs are indeed present in the
environment and are making their way back to us.
In contrast to the lack of research studying the direct health
effects of MPs, a greater amount of scientific data about their
indirect impact on human health is available. Most plastic mate-
rials we encounter daily, such as polypropylene (used in yogurt
containers) and polyethylene (used in plastic bags) are generally
safe and inert (Revel et al., 2018; Rist et al., 2018). However,
there is increasing concern about the breakdown of these com-
plex substances, where the leaching of chemical additives could
cause subsequent toxic effects on humans. For example, a large
amount of research into plasticizer additives, such as BPA and
phthalates, have shown that these are endocrine-disrupting
chemicals that can potentially cause adverse health effects on
human reproduction and growth, including carcinogenesis
(Cole et al., 2011; Rist et al., 2018).
Although studies have separately shown that plastics can
leach hazardous chemicals and that MPs can be taken up by the
human body, more research is required to establish an evident
relationship between MPs and their adverse effects on our
health. The indirect impact of MPs on human health is further
implicated in a newly discovered phenomenon known as “the
Plastisphere” (Keswani et al., 2016). Hard plastic surfaces pro-
vide an excellent environment for microbial colonization.
Hence, the large surface area-to-volume ratio and hydrophobic
nature of MPs allow a suitable microenvironment that promotes
favorable conditions for the growth and replication of microor-
ganisms (Cole et al., 2011). Bacterial colonies can form biofilms
by secreting proteins that allow them to stick to each other and
to living or nonliving surfaces; this creates a protective niche
that enables the microorganisms to survive in hostile environ-
ments (Keswani et al., 2016). Most importantly, biofilms enable
plastics to become vehicles for disease by facilitating the disper-
sal and transport of microbes throughout the environment via
land, water, or air (Keswani et al., 2016; Revel et al., 2018).
Consequently, MPs have inadvertently become a promising ves-
sel in providing a means for pathogenic transmission.
 Katyal et al. 29
Microplastics in wastewater can be reduced with
tertiary treatment
One of the main contributors to environmental MP pollution
comes from wastewater treatment plants (Kay et al., 2018). In
addition to many personal care products such as cleansers, soaps,
toothpastes, scrubs, shampoos, etc., containing microbeads, syn-
thetic clothing such as polyester and nylon also shed thousands
of microfibers into the wastewater stream via wash cycles (Kay et
al., 2018). Even though the conventional treatment of wastewa-
ter removes 98% of MPs, the discharge of final effluent (contain-
ing only 2% of the original levels of MPs) into the aquatic
environment remains as one of the main sources of pollution
due to the high volumes of daily discharge (Murphy et al., 2016;
Talvitie et al., 2017).
With improving technology, wastewater treatment has been
designed to enhance the quality of final effluent entering the
Environ. Health Rev. Downloaded from pubs.ciphi.ca by 27.75.237.200 on 07/15/21
environment, but MPs removal has not been targeted (Mason
et  al., 2016). Several studies suggest the advanced final-stage
wastewater treatment technologies included in tertiary treat-
ment can significantly reduce the levels of MPs being released
into the environment (Mason et al., 2016; Murphy et al., 2016;
Talvitie et al., 2017). These advanced final-stage wastewater
treatment technologies include disc filtration, rapid sand filtra-
tion, dissolved air floatation filtration, and membrane bioreac-
tor filtration (Talvitie et al., 2017). Table 1 summarizes the four
filtration techniques. Although tertiary treatment facilities are
For personal use only.
available across Canada, the vast majority of wastewater is given
primary or secondary treatment, whereas a significant percent-
age is given no treatment prior to release into the environment
(Statistics Canada, 2019). Improving wastewater treatment by
adding tertiary processes for filtration of MPs is the biggest chal-
lenge in controlling MP pollution.
Legislative action can only target a specific
aspect of microplastic mitigation
In Canada, the government has taken significant steps to address
the pollution caused by MPs. Specific regulations were proposed
under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 to
Table 1:   Types of MP filtration techniques for wastewater treatment
Filtration Disc filters Rapid sand filters
type
Description Comprised of multiple Consists of 1 m of gravel
rotating discs, and quartz with varying
containing 24 filter grain sizes.
panels in each.
Filtration Filtration is based on Filtration occurs through Saturation of effluent
principle physical retention of physical separation of
particles within the suspended solids through which adhere to
pores of the rotating adhesion to sand grains
discs as water is and breakdown of organic float them to the surface down organic matter via
pumped through them. matter by microbes.
Efficiency 40–98.5% 97%
Source: Talvitie et al., 2017.
consider the microbeads in toiletries that make their way into the
wastewater stream and contaminate the natural water sources. The
Microbeads in Toiletries Regulations (2017) were published in the
Canada Gazette on 5 November 2016. They came into force from
1 January 2018 and banned the manufacture and importation of
toiletries containing microbeads (≤5 mm in size). From 1 July
2018, the sale of toiletries containing microbeads was also banned
within Canada. These Regulations did not apply to products clas-
sified as natural health products or nonprescription drugs; how-
ever, 1 July 2019 marked the ban on the sale of toiletries containing
microbeads that are natural health products or nonprescription
drugs (Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999).
Although Canada has taken the lead by passing and enforcing
these legislations, further work is needed to control the release
of MPs into the environment. Forcing wastewater treatment
facilities to upgrade their equipment for better filtration of MPs
can reduce the environmental impact. Making it mandatory for
laundry machines to be equipped with plastic filters can also
reduce the amount of fibrous plastics entering the marine eco-
systems (Falco et al., 2018). Banning toiletries that contain
microbeads will help limit MP pollution, but a follow-up evalu-
ation on its impact on plastic reduction in the environment
would be necessary in the future to determine the effectiveness
of such a ban. The specific nature of regulations helps contribute
to reducing MPs in the environment on a small scale. In the end,
legislation can only deal with certain aspects of mitigating MPs
in industries and society. Legislative action to manage MP waste
is a step in the right direction, but a greater transformation on a
social level of how society perceives plastics is needed to create
an influential and significant change.
Future directions
The ever-increasing production and use of plastic-based items in
our society has encouraged discussion amongst industries and
the public on how to handle MP waste, such as microbeads, in
the future. Due to the uncertainty and lack of evidence-based
studies surrounding the health effects of MPs, it is too early to
define the role of the environmental public health field in man-
aging MP waste.
Dissolved air Membrane bioreactor
floatation
Involves saturation of
Comprised of a submerged
effluent with air at high
membrane unit, containing 20
pressure. flat-sheet filters coated with
bioreactors.
Effluent is pulled through the
with air creates bubbles membranes via negative pressure,
physically trapping suspended
suspended solids and solids and chemically breaking
for removal. bioreactors.
95% 99%
 30 EHR, Vol. 63, Issue 1
However, in recent years, the issue of plastics in our environ-
ment has become a major topic on a local scale in cities and com-
munities. In 2018, the city of Vancouver in British Columbia
developed and approved a Single-Use Item Reduction Strategy
as part of its overall Zero Waste 2040 vision (City of Vancouver,
2019). A phase of this strategy involves a ban of plastic straws
and single-use items in the food industry, such as Styrofoam
containers and disposable cups. This ban is expected to take
place in April 2020. With the eventual need to interpret these
newly implemented bylaws, environmental public health profes-
sionals may be responsible for assisting workers in the food
industry in understanding and upholding these new bans. We
may even incorporate education regarding plastics and MPs
during inspections of food establishments.
Furthermore, a major part of Vancouver’s zero waste plan is
focused on campaigning through education, promotion, and out-
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reach in the community. This gives the environmental public
health field an opportunity to become involved in Vancouver’s
Zero Waste 2040 vision. In terms of MPs, we can help educate the
public on what they are and promote awareness on how it can
impact our health and the environment. Since we play a key role in
relaying public health information between different groups, such
as everyday citizens and policy makers—our profession is in a
meaningful position to empower the public to make a change.
Certainly, a cultural shift in how we perceive plastics is hap-
pening now. The negative impact of plastics on our environ-
ment, particularly on marine life, has caused us to rethink how
For personal use only.
we use plastics. There is a collective push towards leading a
more sustainable and environmentally friendly lifestyle. As we
continue to live in a plastic-based society, environmental pub-
lic health professionals will have an evolving role in how we
manage plastic waste and the newly emerging issue of MPs in
the future.
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