Silvicultural Systems

Topic 2
 SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS
Silvicultural system.

-A planned program of a silvicultural

treatments applied during the whole life of
the stand.

- A set of silvicultural prescriptions applied to

the stand for the entire life of the species to
be managed.
- A planned program of activities applied to a
given stand of forest trees from the period of
establishment to harvest time.
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What are the Objectives

of Silvicultural
Systems?
1. Control of species composition
2. Control of stand density
3. Restocking of unproductive area
4. Protection and salvage
5. Facilitating the harvesting,
management and the use of the forest
6. Protection of site and indirect benefits
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The Components of
Silvicultural Systems
• 1. Reproduction or regeneration methods – a procedure by which a
stand is established or renewed
• 2. Intermediate treatments – any manipulation in a stand that occurs
between two regeneration periods
• 3. Harvesting – cutting down of trees in the forest
• 4. Protection and care – safeguarding and tending our forest from
any agents of destruction
 Silvicultural Systems

Reproduction/Regeneration
SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS
CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE BROAD GROUPS:
REGENERATION SYSTEMS
Even-aged systems Uneven-aged systems
Clearcut systems Group or Individual Selection systems
Coppice systems
Seed tree systems
Shelterwood systems

INTERMEDIATE CUTS
Thinnings, cleanings

SALVAGE/PROTECTION
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Objectives of Reproduction or regeneration:

1. To open up the stand and

create a condition favorable
to regeneration
2. To utilize mature and over
mature trees
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Opportunities of Reproduction or
regeneration

1. Ensuring that regeneration occurs within a predictable

time
2. Creation of environment favorable to the desired species
3. Change in species composition
4. Change in stand structure
5. Test or apply recent development in forest production
6. Adopt harvesting method suitable to the stand
Barriers to regeneration
1. Site Quality
2. Lack of Seed Source
3. Unwanted residual trees
4. Poor drainage
5. Steep Slopes
6. Droughtiness
7. Hardwood and Herbaceous competition
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Classifications of Reproduction or regeneration

Natural regeneration
1.

Reproduction is obtained either by natural seeding or through

natural vegetative propagation (sprouts) usually dependent on seed
year.
Seed year – period wherein there is an abundant
occurrence/supply of viable seeds
Seed off year – a period in between seed year
2. Artificial regeneration – reproduction is obtained either by
planting nursery grown seedlings or by direct seeding/sowing.
Natural Regeneration Method
• Advantages
• Low establishment cost.
• Relatively little labor and heavy
equipment required.
• Little soil disturbance.
• No problem with geographical origin
of seed.
• Not dependent on availability of
nursery-grown seedlings or
processed seeds.
• Few insect and disease problems for
established stand.
• Disadvantages
• Little control over spacing and initial stocking.
• Cannot use genetically improved planting stock.
• Loss of income due to leaving seedtrees.
• Precommercial thinning often required in the
resulting stand.
• Stand regeneration possibly delayed because of
inadequate seed crops.
• Often produces irregular stands not well suited
for mechanical harvesting or other stand
treatments.
• May require a number of preharvesting
operations to ensure regeneration.
• Does not permit species conversion.
Artificial Regeneration
• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Good control over spacing and
initial stocking. • High establishment costs.
• Can use genetically improved • Intensive labor and equipment
planting stock. use.
• Not dependent on natural seed • Severe insect and disease
crops. problems with some species.
• Few entries into stand needed
to prepare for regeneration.
• Permits species conversion.
 SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS
CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE BROAD GROUPS:
REGENERATION SYSTEMS
Even-aged systems Uneven-aged systems
Clearcut systems Group or Individual Selection systems
Coppice systems
Seed tree systems
Shelterwood systems

INTERMEDIATE CUTS
Thinnings, cleanings

SALVAGE/PROTECTION
Natural Regeneration Methods
• 1. Clearcutting – complete
removal of trees in a stand in an
Even-aged forest
• A. Strip Clearcut System – removal
of trees in strips
Natural Regeneration Methods
• Forms of Clearcutting:

• 1.) Clearcutting with artificial

regeneration
•
• Applied:
• For short duration crops
• For conversion of poor to well-stocked
stands
• For aiming a pure stand
• Where labor is cheap and wood is
costly
Natural Regeneration Methods
• Forms of Clearcutting:

• 2.) Clear cutting with natural

regeneration – recommended to the
opposite of the above application
•
• Reasons why Clearcutting is
Important:
• If the stand is in a condition of insect
attack, disease, fire, or decadent
• If the desire is to change species
composition and introduce better genotype
• If the need is to regulate volume
production
•
Natural Regeneration Methods
Modifications of Clear cutting Method:

• Clear cutting in alternate strips – stand is divided in a

series of strips
• Clear cutting in progressive strips – strip cuttings are
made at short intervals of time starting at one side of the
stand advancing across the other side
• Clear cutting in patches – stand is removed in a series
of clear cutting in patches
•
Natural Regeneration Methods
Sources of Seeds in Clear cutting with Natural
Regeneration:

• Seeds from adjacent stands

• Seeds from trees harvested
• Seeds stored in the forest floor
•
Natural Regeneration Methods
• 2. SEED TREE METHOD – a
reproduction method involving the
removal of the mature timber in one
cutting except for a small number of
seed trees left singly or in small
groups.
Natural Regeneration Methods
• 2. SEED TREE METHOD

Characteristics of Good Seed Tree:

(1) Wind Firm – well-developed root system

(2) Old enough to produce viable seeds

(3) Dominant and better co-dominants

(4) Healthy and disease-free

  Mangrove and Pine forest are
Natural Regeneration Methods
best recommended in this method
• 2. SEED TREE METHOD
but with supplemental planting.

• Factors to consider in determining the

Number and Distribution of Seed Trees: Reasons for
• Supplemental Planting:
• Amount of viable seed produced per tree
(1) Poor dispersal of seeds
• Probable proportion of seed trees which will
survive (2) Compaction of soils during cutting
• Percentage of seed which will finally
operation
produce or establish seedlings
• Distance to which seed can be dispersed in (3) Heavy slash which prevent adequate
sufficient quantity to ensure full stocking
regeneration
Natural Regeneration Methods
• C. SHELTERWOOD METHOD –
A method of regenerating an even-aged
stand in which a new age class develops
beneath the moderated microenvironment
provided by the residual trees.
• the new seedlings are established before
the mature trees are fully (or mostly)
removed.
Natural Regeneration Methods
• C. SHELTERWOOD METHOD –
Objectives of the Shelter
• Sequence of Operation in Shelter wood
Method: wood Method:
• Preparatory Cuttings – to correct some unfavorable
condition in the stand (1) Cut undesirable trees
• to improve wind firmness
(2) Improve the volume of the final
• to correct poor seedbed condition
harvest
•Seed Cut – open up enough growing space in a single
operation to allow the establishment of regeneration (3) Initially protect the reproductions

•Removal Cuttings – done so that the new crop fills the underneath
growing space as fast as the old crop
Natural Regeneration Methods
• D. COPPICE METHOD – describes all
regenerations that are derived from
vegetative sprouting of dormant or
adventitious roots or buds
• Coppicing is a method of cutting trees to
ground level, leading to a strong vegetative
response and the regeneration of new shoots
from the base. Coppiced trees have a fully
developed root system so that regrowth is rapid
and the wood from the new stems may be
harvested in short intervals of 2–10 years.
Natural Regeneration Methods
Types of Coppice Method:

(1)Simple Coppice Method – any type of cutting in

which dependence is placed mainly to vegetative

reproduction

(2)Coppice with Standard Method – production of

coppice and high forest on the same area with the

trees of seedling origin being carried through much

longer rotations

(3)Pollarding – involves cutting of main stem at

specified height to increase number of shoots,

Natural Regeneration Methods
COPPICE METHOD

Sources of Cuttings/Kinds of Vegetative Reproduction:

1. Epicormic branches – produced from dormant buds on the bole at a

relatively high level

2. Seedling sprout – arising from stumps less than 2 inches in diameter

3. Adventitious buds – develops from callus tissues formed after

wounding

4. Root suckers – sprout from roots which have been cut or damaged

5. Layering – arises from living, low hanging branches buried in moist

organic matter

6. Stool shoots – produced from adventitious buds

Natural Regeneration Methods
E. SELECTION CUTTING
– cutting only selected
trees in a timber stand
- favorable to shade-
tolerant species like
Dipterocarpaceae
- recommended for
sustain yield management Selection cutting, also known as selection system, is
the silvicultural practice of harvesting trees in a way that
-This is applicable for uneven- moves a forest stand towards an uneven-aged or all-aged
aged forest stand condition, or 'structure'.
Intermediate Cuts
Silvicultural Systems
• INTERMEDIATE CUTTINGS

• When you cut trees, the activity is called

intermediate cutting if the trees are
immature, and harvest cutting if the trees
are mature.

• this is the treatment of stand during the

portion of rotation not included in the
period of regeneration.
• all cutting operations made in a stand
from the time of establishment up to the
time the stand is ready for harvest.
INTERMEDIATE CUTS
Treatment of stand during part of the rotation not included
in regeneration period….
Intermediate cuts are used for:
-improve existing stand
-regulate growth
-provision for early
financial returns

If regulate growth then called thinnings

If regulate species composition: young stands: release cuttings
old stands: improvement cuts
If take branches off: pruning
 INTERMEDIATE CUTS
Many types of thinnings:

Low (German)
Crown (French)
Selection
Geometric
Free
CROWN CLASSIFICATION
Low Thin
Trees are removed from the
lower crown classes

Mimics natural mortality

You can work in a range of

Thinnings:

A-B thin without risk of

reducing wood production

C-D stimulate growth of

remaining trees (not just
salvage)
CROWN THIN
Remove trees in middle and
upper crown classes

Most trees cut are Codominant

but can take out interfering
Intermediates or Dominants

Crown thinning favors nearly the

same trees as Low thins but
removes a few strong
competitors rather than eliminate
the weak (As Low thin does)

Crown thin is more flexible but

demands greater expertise…
 SELECTION THIN

-Dominant trees are removed to stimulate lower crown classes

-Vigorous trees favored in Crown and Low are the very ones likely
to be cut here
-Be careful: limited use, could become High grading!
Intermediate Cuttings
• The different types of Intermediate
Cuttings
•
• I. Release Cutting – an act of freeing
a young stand of desirable trees, not
past sapling stage, from all competition
of undesirable trees that threaten to
suppress them
• The term 'release cutting' will only be
used for specific types of thinning,
relating for example to young sprouts
(or young saplings) in order to improve
individual growth.
Types of Release Cutting
• 1. Cleaning

• removable of undesirable trees whose ages and

height are same with the favored trees.
• Purpose is to regulate the composition of mixed
Stands to the advantage of the better species
• cleaning is best done as soon as the individuals that
need help are threatened with injury
• Undesirable trees, vines, overtopping shrubs,
sprouts, and herbaceous growth are the ones that
are cleaned
Types of Release Cutting
• 2. Weeding –
• removable of undesirable trees whose crown is
above, at the side, or below the favored trees.
•
• How it is done:
• - cutting
• - stump spraying
• - treating stumps of sprouting species using a
herbicide
Types of Release Cutting
• 3, Liberation Cutting –
• cuttings made to free a young stand, not past the sapling
stage, from the competition of older, overtopping individuals
(called wolf trees)

• Period of Cutting
• -made during the same life period of the main crop as
cleaning, differing only with respect to the age of the trees
removed
• made as early in the life of the young stand as possible;
upon reaching about 30 to 60 cm in height
• Characteristics of Trees to be Cut:

• - occupy large growing space; short,

stocky with little clean length and
wide spreading crowns
• - left standing when previous stand
was harvested
• - present long before the natural or
artificial establishment
• of the young trees
•
•
• Methods:
• a.) Cutting
• b.) Girdling – killing trees by
severing the bark, cambium and
sometimes the sapwood in the ring
extending entirely around the trunk
of the tree
•
•
• Application:
• a.) In situation where the young crop of good
trees is overtopped by older and
undesirable or less desirable trees
•
• b.) Applied in any forest types especially in
situations where poor management or
market restrictions have left stands with an
overburden or predominance of culled trees
•
• c.) In mix forest, to free the under story and
desirable species from the competition of
the over story and less desirable species
•
•  Restoration of culled forest of old-growth
hardwoods to productivity.

•  Improvement of the mixed stand

composition.
•
•
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
2. Improvement Cutting

cutting made in stands past the sapling stage for

the purpose of improving composition and quality
by removing trees of undesirable species, forms,
and condition from the main canopy.

Objectives:

 to correct unsatisfactory condition of the stand

which might have been avoided, if cleanings and
liberation cuttings have been made earlier in the
life of the stands.

 to encourage the good trees rather than merely

to locate undesirable trees to eliminate.
•
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
2. Improvement Cutting

• Trees Removed in Improvement

Cutting:

 Inferior species
 Crooked, leaning, extremely limby, or
otherwise badly formed trees
 Overmature individuals
 Trees seriously injured by biotic or
atmospheric agencies
 Choice of season – done during dormant
season
 Subsequent treatment
 Silvicultural System
2021-2022

Salvage Cutting
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
• 3. Salvage cutting
• is the practice of felling trees in forest
areas that have been damaged by fire,
severe wind, disease, or insect infestation
•
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
• 4. Sanitation Cutting –
• cutting which involved the elimination of
trees that have been attacked or appear in
imminent danger of attack by destructive
agents (insects, fungi) in order to prevent
spreading of such pest to other trees or
stand.

• differ from salvage cutting only to the

extend that they are combined with or
represent precaution to reduces the spread
of damaging organism to the residual stand.
•
• May also be done anticipation of attacked in
attempts to arrest the establishment of
damaging organism entirely.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
5.Thinning – cutting made in immature
stands in order to stimulate the growth of
the trees that remain and to increase the
total yield of useful material from the stand.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
• Basic Objectives of Thinning

 To increase the growth of the remaining

trees, allowing them to reach a
merchantable size earlier.
 To select the trees that are the most
favorable species. Unwanted or low value
species can be removed.
Five Good Reasons to Thin:
 To reduce insect and disease vulnerability
by increasing the individual vigor and to 1. Favors the most desirable species and trees with
increase the tree species diversity. the best form and vigor.
 To improve the appearance and quality of 2. Helps crop trees reach merchantable size sooner.
the remaining trees, broken, deformed or 3. Improves individual tree vigor, helping to reduce
forked trees can be removed. insect and disease vulnerability.
• 4. Increase long-term profitability.
5. Provides periodic income.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
• Types of Thinning:
• 1. Spacing Thinning – trees at
fixed intervals of distance are
chosen for retention and all others
are cut.

• 2. Row Thinning – trees are cut in

lines or narrow strips at fixed
intervals throughout the stand.
 a.) Low Thinning – trees are removed from the lower
Methods of Thinning crown classes using various grades such as:

Grade A – very light

B – light
C – moderate
D – heavy
- synonymous to thinning from below and ordinary or
“German” method

b.) Crown Thinning (also called the “French” method)

- trees removed are from middle and upper
portion of the range of crown and diameter classes
- trees removed from:
dominant
co-dominant
intermediate
Methods of Thinning
c.) Selection Thinning
Method
1. similar to tree stand
improvement

2. dominant trees are

removed in order to
stimulate the growth of
the trees of the lower
crown classes
Methods of Thinning
d.) Mechanical Thinning
– the trees to be cut are or
retained are chosen on
the basis of a
predetermined spacing or
pattern with little or no
regard for their position in
the crown canopy.
Methods of Thinning
d.) Mechanical Thinning –

Application:
1. Stands that have not been
previously cut or thinned and are
densely crowded.
2. Highly uniform stands that have not
yet differentiated into crown classes
have same classes
Methods of Thinning
d.) Mechanical Thinning –

• A typical free thinning operation in an

unevenly stocked but even-aged stand might
simultaneously include:
•
• 1. Selection thinning to eliminate
scattered undesirable dominants.
• 2. Crown thinning to release crop trees drawn
mainly from good dominants and secondarily
from thrifty codominants in the more sparsely
stocked portions, and
• 3. Low thinning to salvage all merchantable
overtopped trees throughout the stand and to
thin the well-stocked portions.
•
•
Methods of Thinning
d.) Mechanical Thinning –

Types:

1. Spacing Thinning – trees at fixed

intervals of distance are chosen for
retention and all others are cut.
2. Row Thinning – trees are cut in lines or
narrow strips at fixed intervals throughout
the stand.
Methods of Thinning
e.) Free Thinning – cutting designed to
release crop trees without
regard for their position in the
crown canopy, in the sense of
being unrestricted by
adherence to any one of the
other methods of thinning.

Application:
1. Stands which are irregular in age, density ,
or composition, as present in many
naturally established stands.
2. Conditions commonly occurring at the time
of the first thinning in previously untreated
natural stands.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
• VI. Pruning is a regular part of plant
maintenance involving the selective
removal of specific plant parts. This
process usually involves removal of
diseased, non-productive, or otherwise
unwanted portions from a plant.

• Purpose
1. Maintenance of health and appearance.
2. Control of plant size.
3. Invigoration of stagnating plants
4. Reducing/ minimizing hazard
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
• Types of pruning

• A. Natural or self pruning – the

elimination of branches by a physical or
Biotic agent of the environment.(no human
intervention)

• B. Artificial pruning – removal of

branches from chosen portion of the stem
to increase the quality and value of the
crop estimated to be harvested.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
Types of Artificial Pruning

• 1. Pinching:
Removing new buds or growth of
herbaceous plants in order to control
growth. This is the least damaging
method for pruning and is the first
opportunity to control the plant,
encouraging bushiness or height in a
plant by removing its terminal growth or
lateral growths, respectively.
•
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
Types of Artificial Pruning

2. Trimming:

Removing a portion of a growing stem down

to a set Of desirable buds or side-branching stems.
This is commonly performed in well trained plants for
a variety of reasons, for example to stimulate growth
of flowers, fruit or branches, as a preventative
measure to wind and snow damage on long stems
and branches, and finally to encourage growth of the
stems in a desirable direction. Also commonly known
s heading-back.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
Types of Artificial Pruning

• 3. Thinning:

• A more drastic form of pruning, a thinning out cut is the

removal of an entire shoot, limb, or branch at its point
of origin. This is usually employed to revitalize a plant
by removing over-mature, weak, problematic, and
excessive growths. When performed correctly, thinning
encourages the formation of new growths that will
more readily bear fruit and flowers.
Different types of Intermediate Cuttings
Types of Artificial Pruning

• 4. Topping:

 involves removing all branches and growths

down to a few large branches or to the trunk of
the tree.
 When topping a tree down to a stump, the
technique is called coppicing. When topping is
performed incorrectly, or done on old trees, the
result is at best a non-aesthetically pleasing tree
crown or, at worst, the death of the tree. Older
names for topping include heading, tipping, hat-
racking, and rounding.
Proper Pruning
1. Prune those branches you don’t want.
2. Prune with the cut parallel to the stem.
3. Prune as close to the stub.
4. Prune with the use of sharp cutting tools
5. Treat the part pruned, using a dark colored paint.
Pruning Techniques
1. Pruning the hedges.
2. Pruning branches near houses or roofs.
3. Crown pruning touching telephone, electric and other lines.
4. Opening the fork to drain water out of trunk.
5. Cleaning all branch stumps.
6. Crown lifting and removal of unnecessary stems.
7. Pruning for rejuvenation.
Common Pruning
Shears
Common Pruning Tools
Common Pruning Tools

Secateurs
There are a number of secateurs to choose from in
this section, most of which are available with two
different types of blade. Secateurs are also
available in different sizes and for use left handed
Common Pruning Tools

Loppers

These tools are generally used for cutting thicker

stems and branches that are too thick for
secateurs. This section has four main types of
loppers including products with telescopic handles,
mini and lightweight models.
Long reach pruners

Ideal for cutting hard-to-reach branches, this

group of tools includes models with telescopic
handles, lightweight products and tree pruner
systems and saws.
Tree pruning systems and
saws

Pruning medium and high

growing trees and shrubs can
be made easier using these
tree pruning systems. Garden
saws have teeth specifically
designed to cut live green
wood.
Garden scissors

When cutting flowers or deadheading

plants with thinner stems it is best to use
scissors designed for the purpose. Long
reach cut and hold models are useful for
deadheading and gathering high growing
flowers.
 Pruning Cuts
Pruning cuts should be made so that only branch tissue is removed and stem
tissue is not damaged. At the point where the branch attaches to the stem,
branch and stem tissues remain separate, but are contiguous. If only branch
tissues are cut when pruning, the stem tissues of the tree will probably not
become decayed, and the wound will seal more effectively
When removing heavy branches, avoid ripping the bark
by shortening the branch to a stub before cutting it off at
the branch collar. Use a sharp pruning saw and make
these three cuts as described below:

1. About a foot from the branch collar makes a cut from

the underside approximately a third of the way through.
2. About an inch further out on the branch, cut through
the top until the branch rips off. The branch should split
cleanly between the two cuts.

3. Make the final cut by placing the saw beside the

branch bark ridge and cutting downward just outside the
branch collar. (If the branch angle is very narrow, cut
upward from the bottom to avoid cutting into the branch
collar.)
Pruning living branches
•
To find the proper place to cut a
branch, look for the branch collar
that grows from the stem tissue at the
underside of the base of the branch
(Fig. 6A). On the upper surface, there
is usually a branch bark ridge that
runs (more or less) parallel to the
branch angle, along the stem of the
tree. A proper pruning cut does not
damage either the branch bark ridge
or the branch collar.
Pruning Practices
1. Topping and tipping are pruning practices that harm trees and should not
be used. Crown reduction pruning is the preferred method to reduce the size
or height of the crown of a tree, but is rarely needed and should be used
infrequently.

Improper pruning cuts cause unnecessary injury and bark ripping . Flush cuts
injure stem tissues and can result in decay . Stub cuts delay wound closure
and can provide entry to canker fungi that kill the cambium, delaying or
preventing woundwood formation.
1.
Treating wounds
• Tree sap, gums, and resins are
the natural means by which trees
combat invasion by pathogens.
Although unsightly, sap flow from
pruning wounds is not generally.
Pruning Guidelines

To encourage the development of a strong, healthy tree, consider the following

guidelines when pruning.

A. Prune first for safety, next for health, and finally for aesthetics.
B. Never prune trees that are touching or near utility lines; instead consult
your local utility company.
C. Avoid pruning trees when you might increase susceptibility to important
pests ; prune trees susceptible to fireblight only during the dormant
season).
D. never prone the tree branches more than 50 percent of its total height
Decision guide for size of branches to be removed:
• General
•
• 1. under 5 cm diameter - go ahead,
•
• 2. Between 5 and 10 cm diameter - think twice, and
•
• 3. greater than 10 cm diameter - have a good reason.
•
 Artificial Regeneration Methods

Seedling planting
Direct Seeding

Broadcast
Seeding
Row Seeding
Spot Seeding
 Forest Protection
A general term describing methods purported to
preserve or improve a forest.
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Fire
• Fighting, techniques and equ
ipment used to extinguish
fires and limit the damage
caused by them.
• Fire fighting consists of
removing one or more of the
three elements essential to
combustion—fuel, heat, and
oxygen—or of interrupting
the combustion chain
reaction.
•
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FOREST FIRE PROTECTION, PREVENTION

AND CONTROL
• Forest fires - natural or human-caused
fires that burn forest vegetation
Ground fires – which burns humus layer
of the forest floor but do not burn
appreciably above surface

Surface Fires - which burn forest

undergrowth and surface litter;

Crown fires - which advance through the

tops of trees or shrubs. It is not
uncommon for two or three types of fires to occur
simultaneously
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Ground Fires
• Ground fires, once established, are
difficult to extinguish. When the humus
layer is not very deep, a ground fire may
be extinguished with water or sand. Most
ground fires, however, are controlled by
digging trenches around the burning area
and allowing the fire to burn itself out
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Surface Fires
• Surface fires are limited by
clearing the surrounding area of
low vegetation and litter, or digging
emergency furrows to confine the
area
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Crown Fires
• Crown fires are difficult to extinguish.
They may be allowed to burn
themselves out, they may be halted by
streams, or they may be limited by
backfired areas. Backfiring consists of
carefully controlled burning of a strip of
forest on the leeward side of the blaze,
so that when the fire reaches the
burned area it can go no farther.
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Recent Forest Fire Incidents

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What are the causes of forest Fire?

Fire

Accidental Negligenc
Natural Arson
Causes e

 Lightening  Spark from wheels of  Cigarette stubs  protest,

 Volcanic train or matches resentment or
eruption  Locomotives  Agricultural and insensitivity
 Flash point forestry toward forests
activities  dubious causes
 other
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Natural causes of Forest Fire

A. Lightning B. Volcanic Eruption C. Flash point

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Accidental Causes
• - Fires caused by sparks from wheels of trains or certain locomotives.
3. Negligence

• A - Fires caused by cigarette stubs or matches

• -Along roads
• -In rural areas
• -In wooded areas
• -Along highway
3. Negligence

• B - Fires caused by agricultural and forestry activities

• - For the clearing of uncultivated land
• - For the clearing of plant residue (forestry and agricultural processing)
• - For the renewal of pastures
• - For the burning of stubble
• - For the clearing of road and highway way embankments
3. Negligence
• C - Fires caused by other forms of negligence
• - Fires caused by recreational and tourist activities
• - Fires caused by the firing of fire-crackers and rockets, blasting of landmines
or explosive
• - Fires caused by the use of motor, flame, electric or mechanical devices
• - Fires caused by military maneuvers or shooting exercises
• - Fires caused by the burning of waste in illegal dumps
• - Fires caused by bad maintenance of electrical lines or by the breakage or
falling of wires
• - Fires caused by negligence not otherwise defined
•
4. Arson
• B - Fires due to manifestations of protest, resentment or intensitivity
toward forests
• - Fires caused as revenge or retaliation against public administration
• - Fires caused by conflicts between or revenge against owners
• - Fires caused as protest against limitations imposed in conservation areas
• - Fires caused for fun or games by minors
• - Fires caused by terrorist acts
• - Fires caused by dissatisfaction, social dissent, behavioral disturbances
(pyromania and mythomania)
• C - Fires due to dubious causes
• - Fires caused by arson not otherwise defined
•
Methods of Forest Fire Prevention

• use less combustible tree species

• Proper sanitation
• use of fire retardant ground cover
Forest Protection
against Weeds
Weeds
• , term applied to any plant that
grows where it is not wanted.
• weed is usually characterized by
rapid growth, and it typically
replaces other, more desirable
plants.
• Some plants are considered
weeds everywhere they grow, but
many plants are considered
weeds in some regions and not in
others.
•
CATEGORIES OF WEEDS

•
• 1. Annuals- complete an entire life cycle in one growing season.
•
• 2. Biennial- any plant that normally requires two years for its life cycle.
Biennials store food in the first season of their growth, flower and bear fruit in
the second season, and then die. Biennial plants usually have strong root
systems that send up new shoots when the original tops are removed.
•
• 3. Perennial- Perennial weeds are often the most troublesome weeds to
control because they have strong, well-developed underground parts and
produce large numbers of seeds. Perennials live for at least three years,
flowering and producing fruit each year after reaching maturity.
Weed Control-
• Weed Control- killing or limiting the growth of plants in
places where they are not wanted, usually for economic,
health, or aesthetic reasons.
•
• Uncontrolled weed growth poses a variety of problems.
• Significant reduction of yield
• delays tree maturity
• alternative host of insect pest and diseases
• noxious weeds causes live stocks poisoning
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL
1. MECHANICAL METHOD-
eliminating weeds by hand
picking, slashing, plowing, or any
mechanical methods using
machineries and equipments.
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL
2. CULTURAL METHOD-

any cultural practices that may

suppress or interfere the growth of
weeds. Close planting distances for
example, to reduce the penetration of
light to the ground of the young
stand.
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL
3. BIOLOGICAL METHOD-

Method of controlling
weeds by using other organisms.
Biological controls take
advantage of organisms that are
natural enemies of some weeds
because they infect or eat them.
Such controls include insects,
bacteria, and grazing animals.
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL
CHEMICAL METHOD-

Weed control using

plant-killing chemicals, or
herbicides, that disrupt plant
growth in a variety of ways,
such as preventing root
growth or interfering with
photosynthesis.