Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Fire design of steel-to-timber dowelled connections

Carsten Erchinger, Andrea Frangi ∗ , Mario Fontana
ETH Zurich, Institute of Structural Engineering, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland

article info abstract

Article history: The load-carrying capacity of timber structures is often limited by the resistance of the connections.
Received 2 April 2009 Thus, highly efficient connections such as multiple shear steel-to-timber connections with slotted-in
Received in revised form steel plates and steel dowels are needed for an efficient design. The load-carrying capacity of multiple
17 August 2009
shear steel-to-timber dowelled connections with slotted-in steel plates in fire primarily depends on the
Accepted 2 November 2009
Available online 17 November 2009
temperature-dependent reduction of embedment strength of the timber members. In order to accurately
predict the fire resistance of the connection, knowledge of the temperature distribution in the cross-
Keywords:
section as well as the influence of steel elements (slotted-in steel plates and steel dowels) on the charring
Fire resistance of the timber members is essential.
Steel-to-timber connection Based on an extensive experimental and numerical analysis, a design model for the calculation of
Charring the load-carrying capacity in fire of multiple shear steel-to-timber dowelled connections with slotted-in
Residual cross-section steel plates subjected to tension was developed and is presented. The design model is in analogy with
ISO-fire exposure the reduced cross-section method according to EN 1995-1-2 commonly used for the fire design of timber
Design model members. The proposed design model takes into account different geometries of the connection and the
Steel dowels influence of the steel elements on the temperature distribution in the cross-section.
Embedment strength
© 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Dowelled connections are made of circular cylindrical steel
dowels, fitting tightly in pre-drilled holes and used for transferring
loads perpendicular to the dowel axis. Multiple shear steel-to-
timber connections with slotted-in steel plates and steel dowels
(see Fig. 1) show a high load-carrying capacity and a ductile failure
mode (plastic deformation of the dowels) at ambient temperature
if minimum spacing and distance requirements of the dowels are
respected, for example according to EN 1995-1-1 [1]. The load-
carrying capacity of the connections primarily depends on the
embedment strength of the timber members and the yield moment
of the dowels. Due to the protection of the slotted-in steel plates
against fire provided by the timber side members (see Fig. 1), a
high fire resistance may be achieved. In order to accurately predict
the structural performance in fire, knowledge of the temperature
distribution in the cross-section as well as the influence of steel
elements (slotted-in steel plates and steel dowels) on the charring
of the timber members is required. This is challenging and complex
due to the influence of several parameters like the dowel diameter,
geometry of the connection, different failure modes, and different
thermal properties of timber and steel as well as the thermal
interaction between timber members and steel elements. Thus,
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: c.erchinger@web.de (C. Erchinger), frangi@ibk.baug.ethz.ch
(A. Frangi).
0141-0296/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2009.11.004
only limited work has been carried out on the fire behaviour of
steel-to-timber connections [2–4], and current standards do not
contain consistent calculation models for the fire design of steel-
to-timber connections taking into account the influences of the
different parameters. The reduced load method given in EN 1995-
1-2 [5] is only valid for laterally loaded symmetrical three-member
connections (two shear planes, one steel plate in the middle) under
ISO-fire exposure. The relative load-carrying capacity versus time
given as a one-parameter exponential model is based on a still
limited number of fire tests carried out on timber connections
with bolts and nails [6–8]. For multiple shear steel-to-timber
connections with two or three slotted-in steel plates, no design
models in the fire situation exist so far.
A comprehensive research project on the fire behaviour of mul-
tiple shear steel-to-timber connections with two or three slotted-
in steel plates and steel dowels has recently been performed at
ETH Zurich [9]. The objective of the research project was the de-
velopment of a fire design model for multiple shear steel-to-timber
connections with slotted-in steel plates and steel dowels. In addi-
tion to 25 tensile tests at ambient temperature to determine the
load-carrying capacity, the fire behaviour of the connections was
experimentally analysed with 18 fire tests under constant tensile
load [10]. All fire tests were performed under ISO-fire exposure on
the horizontal furnace at the Swiss Laboratories for Materials Test-
ing and Research (Empa) in Duebendorf.
The paper first describes the main results of extensive experi-
mental and numerical analyses on the fire behaviour of multiple
shear steel-to-timber connections with slotted-in steel plates and
 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589
Fig. 1. Typical multiple shear steel-to-timber connection with three steel plates
(left) and an example of the geometry of tested connection D1.1 (right).
steel dowels. Particular attention is given to the analysis of the in-
fluence of the steel elements on the charring of the timber mem-
bers. Then, the design model for multiple shear steel-to-timber
dowelled connections with slotted-in steel plates in fire is pre-
sented and compared to fire tests.
2. Fire design methods for timber members
When sufficient heat is applied to wood, a process of thermal
degradation (pyrolysis) takes place producing combustible gases,
accompanied by a loss in mass. A charred layer is then formed on
the fire-exposed surfaces and the charred layer grows in thickness
as the fire progresses, reducing the cross-sectional dimensions of
the timber member [11]. The charred layer protects the remaining
uncharred residual cross-section against heat. In order to calculate
the resistance of structural timber members exposed to fire, the
loss in cross-section due to charring as well as the reduction
in strength and stiffness near the charred layer due to elevated
temperature has to be considered. For timber surfaces unprotected
throughout the time of fire exposure, the residual cross-section can
be calculated by assuming a charring rate that is constant with
time [12]. As a basic value, the one-dimensional charring rate β0
is usually taken as the value observed for one-dimensional heat
transfer under ISO-fire exposure in a semi-infinite timber slab.
EN 1995-1-2 gives a value of β0 = 0.65 mm/min for softwood,
confirmed by several experimental studies [13–15]. In order to take
into account the effects of corner roundings and fissures and to
simplify the calculation of cross-sectional properties (area, section
modulus and second moment of area) by assuming an equivalent
rectangular residual cross-section, design codes generally define
charring rates greater than the one-dimensional charring rate.
The charring rate including these effects is called the notional
charring rate βn according to EN 1995-1-2, and for example for
glued laminated timber a value of βn = 0.7 mm/min can be
assumed. Fig. 2 shows the definition of charring depth dchar,0 for
one-dimensional charring and notional charring depth dchar,n .
Fire reduces the cross-section and the stiffness and strength of
the heated timber close to the burning surface. The stiffness and
dchar,n
dchar,0
Fig. 2. Charring depth dchar,0 for one-dimensional charring and notional charring depth dchar,n [12].
581
Fig. 3. Definition of residual cross-section and effective cross-section [12].
strength of wood significantly decrease with increasing temper-
ature [16,17]. At a temperature of about 200 ◦ C, wood begins to
undergo rapid thermal decomposition. The pyrolysis zone can be
located between 200 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C; the front of the char is found
at a temperature of about 300 ◦ C [12,13]. Because of the good insu-
lating behaviour of the charred layer and the timber typical tem-
perature profiles through burning timber members exhibit a steep
temperature gradient. The temperature-dependent reduction in
strength and stiffness near the charred layer can be considered
in different ways. EN 1995-1-2, for example, gives two alterna-
tive simplified methods: the ‘‘Reduced cross-section method’’ and
the ‘‘Reduced properties method’’ [12]. The ‘‘Reduced cross-section
method’’ considers the strength and stiffness reduction near the
charred layer by adding an additional depth k0 · d0 (called the zero
strength layer) to the charred layer dchar,n (see Fig. 3). It is assumed
that this zero strength layer is built up linearly with time during
the first 20 min of fire exposure. This method permits the designer
to use strength and stiffness properties for ambient temperature
for the resulting effective cross-section. Thus the temperature-
dependent reduction factor is therefore taken as kmod,fi = 1.0 for
the effective cross-section.
The ‘‘Reduced properties method’’ takes into account the in-
fluence of the temperature reducing the timber stiffness and
strength properties of the residual cross-section by a temperature-
dependent reduction factor kmod,fi . The reduction of the timber
strength and stiffness properties were derived using test re-
sults [18], which do not well reflect the physical behaviour of tim-
ber in fire [12].
3. Fire behaviour of steel-to-timber dowelled connections
3.1. Fire tests
The test series consisted of 25 tensile tests performed at
ambient temperature according to EN 26891 [19] as well as 18
fire tests conducted under ISO-fire exposure. The timber cross-
section was 200 mm × 200 mm (strength class GL24h) with two or
three slotted-in steel plates (thickness 5 mm) and steel dowels. In
the fire tests a constant tensile loading parallel to grain direction
was applied with 30%, 15% or 7.5% of the average measured load-
carrying capacity Fu of five tensile tests performed at ambient
582 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589

Table 1
Overview of test programme on multiple shear steel-to-timber connections with slotted-in steel plates.
Test Number Type of Tensile Fire resistance Remarks
name of tests test load (kN) (mean value) (min)

D1.1 5 Ambient Until –

temp. failure Fu
200 × 200 mm (GL24h), 3 steel plates, 2 × 9 steel dowels (6.3 mm); (see Fig. 1 (right))
2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 33.0
145
2 ISO-fire 0.15 · Fu = 36.0
72
2 ISO-fire 0.075 · 41.0
Fu = 36
D1.2 5 Ambient Until –
280 × 280 mm (GL24h), 3 steel plates, 2 × 9 steel dowels (6.3 mm)
temp. failure Fu
2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 73.0
173
D1.3 2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 64.5 Same as D1.1; protection by three-layered timber boards (27 mm)
145
D1.4 2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 60.5 Same as D1.1; protection by gypsum plasterboards (15/18 mm)
145
D2.1 5 Ambient Until –
200 × 200 mm (GL36h), 3 steel plates, 3 × 9 steel dowels (6.3 mm)
temp. failure Fu
2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 31.0
188
D3.1 5 Ambient Until –
200 × 200 mm (GL24h), 3 steel plates, 3 × 3 steel dowels (6.3 mm)
temp. failure Fu
2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 32.5
69
D4.1 5 Ambient Until –
200 × 200 mm (GL24h), 2 steel plates, 2 × 4 steel dowels (12 mm)
l temp. failure Fu
2 ISO-fire 0.3 · Fu = 34.5
124

Fig. 4. Test arrangement for the fire tests.

temperature. As test parameters, the dowel diameter (6.3 and
12 mm), the number and configuration of the steel dowels, the
thickness of the timber members (in order to reach a fire resistance
of 60 min) and the load level (30%, 15% and 7.5% of Fu ) were varied.
Table 1 gives an overview of the test programme and the main
results. Fig. 4 shows the test arrangement for the fire tests. All
details of the test specimens, test set-up and test results can be
found in [9,20].
All connections reached a fire resistance of more than 30 min.
A reduction (connection D2.1) or increase (connection D3.1) of the
number of dowels as well as the dowel diameter (connection D4.1)
did not significantly increase the fire resistance. A reduction of
the load level applied during the fire did not lead to a significant
increase of the fire resistance. By increasing the thickness of the
timber side members as well as the end distance of the dowels
by 40 mm the connections reached a fire resistance of more than
70 min (connection D1.2). Connections protected by 27 mm thick
three-layered cross-laminated timber boards made of spruce or
gypsum plasterboards showed a fire resistance of around 60 min.
Thus, from a fire design point of view these strategies were
favourable in order to increase the fire resistance significantly.
Due to charring of the timber side members, the steel dowels
were not able to form plastic hinges (see Fig. 5). Thus, the connec-
tions usually failed by embedment failure, known as failure mode I
according to the Johansen yield model [21]. Due to the heat flux
from the steel dowels into the wood, the temperature close to
the steel dowels was higher than in the inner part of the timber
cross-section, leading to large ovalisations of the holes due to the
temperature-dependent reduction of the embedment strength of
timber (see Fig. 5).
 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589 583

Fig. 5. Typical test specimen after the fire characterised by embedment strength failure (failure mode I) with large ovalisation of the holes.

Fig. 6. Laser scanner (left), 3D model and residual cross-section of connection D1.1 obtained by laser scanning (right); see Fig. 9 for section B–B.

After the charred layer was removed, the residual cross-section

of the test specimens was measured by laser scanning, as shown in
Fig. 6 (left). Laser scanning allowed generating three-dimensional
(3D) models of the residual timber members, as shown in Fig. 6
(right) as an example for connection D1.1. Furthermore, the
residual cross-section can be defined in every section where it
is interesting to determine the residual cross-section (see Fig. 6
(right)). The laser-scanning technology used for the determination
of the residual cross-sections was found to be a quicker and more
exact method than the commonly used measurement method.

3.2. Finite element thermal analysis

In addition to the fire tests, an extensive thermal numerical

study was performed using the FEM (finite element method).
The temperature development in the connection was calculated
using three-dimensional finite element models implemented in
ANSYS [22]. The calculated temperatures were used for the
mechanical analysis of the connection in fire. The heat transfer
to the surface of the member was calculated using temperature-
independent constant values according to EN 1991-1-2 [23] for the
resultant emissivity by radiation εres = 0.8 and the coefficient
of heat transfer by convection αc = 25 W/(m2 K). The density,
thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity of wood, charcoal
and steel vary as a function of the temperature. The change of
moisture, i.e. the evaporation of water at a temperature of about
100 ◦ C was implemented into the FE simulation as latent heat.
Mass transfer of moisture into or out of the wood was neglected.
In the FE thermal analysis, charring of wood (i.e. reduction of
cross-section) was taken into account by gradually changing the
thermal properties of wood into those of charcoal with increasing
temperature. For the FE thermal analysis, an initial density of
450 kg/m3 and an initial moisture content of 12% were considered
(average values of test specimens). The temperature-dependent
relationships for the density and specific heat of wood and charcoal
Fig. 7. Comparison of measured [25] and calculated temperatures at different
timber depths.
were assumed according to EN 1995-1-2. Cracks in the charcoal
increase the heat flux due to radiation and convection. Thus,
the thermal conductivity values of the char layer used in the FE
thermal analyses are ‘‘effective’’ values rather than ‘‘real’’ material
properties in order to take into account the increased heat flux due
to cracks above about 500 ◦ C and the degradation of the char layer
at about 1000 ◦ C [12]. For the FE thermal analysis, the temperature-
dependent relationship for the thermal conductivity of wood and
charcoal was assumed according to EN 1995-1-2. For steel, the
thermal properties were assumed according to EN 1993-1-2 [24]. If
possible, the FE thermal analysis was performed using symmetrical
conditions in order to reduce the calculating time.
The material properties of wood and charcoal used for the
FE thermal analysis were verified with a series of fire tests [25]
584 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589

Fig. 8. Temperature distribution in a timber member 200 × 200 mm after 33 min ISO-fire exposure on four sides (left). Temperature distribution in connection D1.1 with
the same dimensions of 200 × 200 mm at failure after 33 min ISO-fire exposure on four sides (right).

Fig. 9. Residual cross-section of connection D1.1 at failure time of 33 min calculated numerically (left) as well as determined with the laser-scanning method (right); see
Fig. 6 for the position of the cross-section B–B.

on spruce specimens exposed to ISO-fire only on one side. The
specimens had a moisture content of about 12%. Temperatures
were measured at a depth of 6, 18, 30, 42 and 54 mm from the
surface exposed to fire. Fig. 7 shows the comparison between fire
tests and FE results for the temperatures measured at different
depths. The experimental and numerical results were in good
agreement. A detailed description of the validation of the material
properties used for the FE -thermal analysis can be found in [9].
The temperature distribution of a timber member 200 ×
200 mm without steel elements is shown in Fig. 8 (left) after 33 min
of ISO-fire exposure on four sides. It can be seen that most of the
inner parts of the cross-section shows ambient temperature. The
influence of the steel elements on the temperature distribution
can be seen in Fig. 8 (right) for connection D1.1 with the same
dimensions of 200 × 200 mm, three slotted-in steel plates
(thickness of 5 mm each) and two rows of nine steel dowels with a
dowel diameter of 6.3 mm (see also Fig. 1 (right)) after 33 min ISO-
fire exposure on four sides. Due to the high thermal conductivity of
steel, the heat flux from the steel elements into the cross-section
led to much higher temperatures inside the timber member (about
100 ◦ C), while the temperature on the surface of the steel plates
and steel dowels remained lower than the temperature on the
surface of the timber member.
The residual cross-section of connection D1.1 calculated nu-
merically taking into account all areas with temperatures lower
than 300 ◦ C as well as determined with the laser-scanning method
after the fire test is shown in Fig. 9. A very good agreement was
found between the FE thermal analysis and the fire test. Further,
it can be seen that the side members were completely charred
and the steel dowels located close to the edge were embedded in
charred wood. Corner roundings due to the superposition of heat
flux from the side and top/bottom as well as an increased charring
close to the steel elements were calculated in the FE thermal anal-
ysis. The middle slot did not show temperatures above 300 ◦ C, so
no charring was expected there. All calculation results were con-
firmed by visual observation of the residual cross-sections after the
fire tests.
3.3. Calculation model
Because of charring of the timber side members, embedment
failure (i.e. failure mode I according to the Johansen yield model)
was observed during the fire tests (see Fig. 5). Thus, the fire re-
sistance of the multiple shear steel-to-timber connections with
slotted-in steel plates was calculated taking into account the
temperature-dependent reduction of the embedment strength of
timber. The temperature of timber close to the dowels varied
depending on the position of the dowel in the cross-section. There-
fore, for the calculation of the load-carrying capacity of the connec-
tion in fire, for each dowel three-dimensional temperature fields
were calculated using FE thermal analysis, as shown in Fig. 10. The
three-dimensional temperature fields were divided into elements
i with a width bi of 10 mm and a length of half the spacing of the
dowels (l = 3.5d) parallel to grain direction (i.e. load direction).
The length of each element was divided into elements of size 2 mm
(see Fig. 10).
For the calculation of the load-carrying capacity of the connec-
tion in fire, the mean value of the temperature was calculated for
each element i. Elements with a temperature higher than 300 ◦ C
were not considered as the embedment strength of timber is as-
sumed to decrease to zero for a temperature of 300 ◦ C (see Fig. 11).
 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589 585

Fig. 10. Element i of a three-dimensional temperature field between two fasteners

within one row parallel to the load direction in a multiple shear steel-to-timber
connection with slotted-in steel plates and steel dowels. Fig. 11. Temperature-dependent reduction of embedment strength assumed
for the calculation model and compressive strength parallel to grain direction
Then, the load-carrying capacity of the connection in fire was cal- according to EN 1995-1-2.

culated according to Eq. (1) by integration of all elements, taking

into account the temperature-dependent reduction of embedment
strength.
n
X
Rfi = ntot · (fh,i(θmean,i ) · bi ) · d (1)
i =1

where
Rfi is the load-carrying capacity of the connection in
fire (N)
ntot is the number of dowels in a connection (-)
θmean,i is the mean temperature of element i (◦ C)
fh,i(θmean,i ) is the temperature-dependent embedment
strength of element i (N/mm2 )
bi is the width of element i (mm)
d is the diameter of the steel dowel (mm).

Unfortunately, the temperature-dependent properties of wood

reported in the literature exhibit a large scatter and are partially
in contradiction with each other [26]. The main reason is that
the test results are highly influenced by differences in the test
methods used [26]. Few data are available on the influence of
temperature on the embedment strength of timber. For simplicity,
a bilinear relationship with break point at 100 ◦ C as shown in
Fig. 11 was assumed, similar to the bilinear relationship for the
temperature-dependent reduction of the compressive strength of
timber given in EN 1995-1-2, which was derived from results of
both small-scale and large-scale fire tests on loaded timber frame
members in bending [27,28]. The assumed bilinear relationship for
the temperature-dependent reduction of the embedment strength
of timber shows a relative reduction to 50% of strength at 100 ◦ C
and was calibrated to the results of the fire tests on multiple shear
steel-to-timber connections with slotted-in steel plates and steel
dowels performed during the research project at ETH Zurich (see
Fig. 12).
Further, the model was used to calculate the load-carrying ca-
pacity of connections with only one steel plate in the middle tested
under ISO-fire exposure in France [29] and Austria [30]. The calcu-
lation model slightly overestimated the fire resistance of the con-
nections (see Fig. 12). A possible reason may be that connections
with only one steel plate are more susceptible to stress concen-
tration close to the dowels than connections with multiple steel
plates. Further, the temperature fields in connections with only one
steel plate are generally lower than the temperature fields in con-
nections with two or three steel plates.
Fig. 12. Comparison of fire resistance between the calculation model and fire tests.
4. Design model
4.1. Introduction
An analytical design model for the calculation of the load-
carrying capacity in fire of unprotected multiple shear steel-to-
timber dowelled connections was developed in analogy with the
reduced cross-section method according to EN 1995-1-2 (see
Section 2). The model is based on failure mode I according to
the Johansen yield model (i.e. embedment failure) and takes into
account the influence of the steel elements (i.e. steel plates and
steel dowels) on the charring of the connection. The temperature-
dependent reduction of the strength of the steel dowels is not
significant in comparison to the temperature-dependent reduction
of the embedment strength of timber, and can be neglected.
The model was developed for a fire resistance up to 60 min.
The influence of thermal expansion of timber is small, and was
neglected [31].
For the relevant duration of the fire exposure it shall be verified
that
Ed,fi ≤ Rd,fi . (2)
The design effects of actions in fire Ed,fi are calculated according
586 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589

Fig. 13. Residual (Ar ) and effective cross-section (Aef ) for the determination of the load-carrying capacity of multiple shear steel-to-timber dowelled connections in fire,
shown on the example of one quarter of the cross-section of a connection with three slotted-in steel plates (SD = steel dowel).

Fig. 14. Minimal requirements on the strength class of glued laminated timber as a function of the number of dowels n within one row parallel to the load direction.

to EN 1990 [32]. For the calculation of the fire design resistance where
Rd,fi the design strength values in fire fd,fi of timber are determined
according to EN 1995-1-2 as follows: Rd,fi is the design value of the load-carrying capacity
in fire of the connection
kfi · fk Aef is the effective cross-section: Aef = bef · hef
fd,fi = kmod,fi · (3)
γM ,fi ft ,0,k is the characteristic tensile strength parallel to
where the grain direction.
fd,fi : is the design strength in fire of timber
The design model is based on the following assumptions:
fk : is the characteristic mechanical property (5%
fractile) at ambient temperature • Unprotected multiple shear dowelled connections with two or
kfi : is the modification factor for fire taking into three slotted-in steel plates. Spacings, edge and end distances of
account the 20% fractile the dowels according to EN 1995-1-1 for ambient temperature
kfi = 1.15 for connections and glued laminated timber design (except for the spacing between dowels parallel to grain
direction: a1 = 7d according to SIA 265 [33] instead of a1 = 5d,
kmod,fi : is the modification factor for fire taking into
where d is the diameter of the steel dowels). A comparative
account the effects of temperature on the
mechanical properties (kmod,fi = 1.0 for the numerical analysis showed that the assumption of a spacing
reduced cross-section method) a1 = 5d leads to a reduction of the load-carrying capacity Rd,fi
of the connection in the range of 8% to 10%.
γM ,fi : is the partial safety factor in fire (γM ,fi = 1.0 for
accidental actions). • ISO-fire exposure on four sides.
• Glued laminated timber members with a minimum width of
The effective cross-section is calculated by reducing the initial b ≥ 160 mm and a minimum thickness of the timber side
cross-section by the effective charring depth def , as shown in member t1 ≥ 35 mm (see Fig. 13). The thickness of the timber
Fig. 13. The temperature-dependent reduction of strength and middle member t2 (see Fig. 13) is 8d, as normally required for
stiffness of timber in the heat-affected zones as well as the effects
the design at ambient temperature for failure mode III.
of corner roundings is considered by adding a further layer dred to
the charring depth dchar . For simplicity, the same value of dred is • For one (n = 1) or two (n = 2) dowels within one row parallel
used for charring on the side (index s) and on the top/bottom (index to the load direction, at least strength class GL24h is required.
o). In order to avoid net cross-section timber failure, strength class
GL36h should be used for connections with three dowels (n =
def,s = dchar,s + dred (4)
3) within one row parallel to the load direction (see Fig. 14).
def,o = dchar,o + dred . (5)
In order to reach a fire resistance of 60 min, the size of the
The design value of the load-carrying capacity in fire Rd,fi of the timber members is increased by a thickness c (see Fig. 15). If the
connection subjected to tension can be calculated as follows: width b of the timber members is smaller than 200 mm, then a
Rd,fi = Aef · ft ,0,k · kfi (6) thickness of c = 45 mm is required; for b ≥ 200 mm a thickness
 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589
of c = 40 mm is required. For a fire resistance between 30 and
60 min the thickness c can be linearly interpolated as follows:
c = 1.5 · t − 45 for b < 200 mm and 30 ≤ t ≤ 60 min
c = 4/3 · t − 40 for b ≥ 200 mm and 30 ≤ t ≤ 60 min.
While the timber size is increased by a thickness c, the width
of the steel plates should not be changed. Thus, an air gap is
created leading to a better protection of the steel plates against
heat due to the insulation effect of the air gap, particularly during
the first phase of fire exposure (see Fig. 15). Increasing the overall
thickness of the timber members by a thickness c would not apply
when adequately protecting the connection with timber boards or
gypsum plasterboards.
4.2. Residual cross-section
An extensive FE thermal analysis on a large number of geome-
tries of multiple shear dowelled connections commonly used (see
for example [34]) showed that the side charring dchar,s is mainly in-
fluenced by the thickness of the timber side member t1 (see Fig. 13).
The required minimum thickness of the timber side member t1 ≥
35 mm and the required increased size of the timber members by a
thickness c for a fire resistance between 30 and 60 min allowed the
development of the simplified charring model for the side charring
as follows:
dchar,s = β0 · t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 30 min
dchar,s = β0 · 30 + 1.5 · β0 · (t − 30) for 30 ≤ t ≤ 60 min. (10)
The charring model is based on the one-dimensional charring rate
β0 and is characterised by two charring phases. For simplicity,
linear relationships between the charring depth and time are as-
sumed for each phase. The influence of the steel plate on charring
leads to an increased charring rate of 1.5 · β0 during the second
charring phase (30 ≤ t ≤ 60 min).
The extensive FE thermal analysis on a large number of geome-
tries of commonly used multiple shear dowelled connections also
allowed the analysis of the top/bottom charring. The results of the
extensive FE thermal analysis showed that the top/bottom charring
can be calculated assuming an increased charring rate of 1.1 · β0
from the beginning up to a fire duration of 60 min as follows:
dchar,o = 1.1 · β0 · t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 60 min.
4.3. Effective cross-section
The depth dred required for the calculation of the effective cross-
section (see Fig. 13) was analysed by comparing the load-carrying
capacity in fire of a large number of commonly used multiple
shear dowelled connections calculated according to Eqs. (1) and
(6). The analysis showed that the depth dred depends mainly on the
following three parameters:
– the ratio between the initial width b of the cross-section and the
width br of the residual cross-section;
– the time of fire exposure t;
– the number of dowels n within one row parallel to the load
direction (see Fig. 14).
As the minimum thickness of the timber middle member t2
required for the design at ambient temperature is 8d and timber
cross-sections with a width greater than 300 mm are unusual,
connections with three slotted-in steel plates were analysed only
for dowel diameters up to 10 mm (for 30 min fire resistance) as
well as 8 mm (for 60 min fire resistance).
The depth dred can be calculated according to Eqs. (12)–(15) for
a fire resistance of 30 min and Eqs. (16)–(19) for a fire resistance
60 min. For a fire resistance between 30 and 60 min, a linear
interpolation can be carried out.
587
Fire resistance of 30 min
– Multiple shear steel-to-timber connection with two slotted-in
(7) steel plates:
(8) n = 1 : dred = −60(b/br ) − 0.1d + 126.5 (mm)
with 8 ≤ d ≤ 16 mm (12)
n = 2, 3 : dred = −40(b/br ) − n(0.5d − 2) + 94 (mm)
with 8 ≤ d ≤ 16 mm. (13)
– Multiple shear steel-to-timber connection with three slotted-in
steel plates:
n = 1 : dred = −60(b/br ) − 0.4d + 133 (mm)
with 6 ≤ d ≤ 10 mm (14)
n = 2, 3 : dred = −40(b/br ) − 0.4d(n + 2) + 101 (mm)
with 6 ≤ d ≤ 10 mm. (15)
Fire resistance of 60 min
– Multiple shear steel-to-timber connection with two slotted-in
steel plates:
n = 1 : dred = −30(b/br ) − 0.6d + 117 (mm)
with 8 ≤ d ≤ 12 mm (16)
n = 2, 3 : dred = −20(b/br ) − d(0.2n + 1.4) + 101.5 (mm)
with 8 ≤ d ≤ 12 mm. (17)
(9)
– Multiple shear steel-to-timber connection with three slotted-in
steel plates:
n = 1 : dred = −30(b/br ) + 115.5 (mm)
with 6 ≤ d ≤ 8 mm (18)
n = 2, 3 : dred = −20(b/br ) − 4n + 94 (mm)
with 6 ≤ d ≤ 8 mm. (19)
The calculation of dred is based on the strength class GL24h for
connections with one or two dowels within one row parallel to
the load direction, while for connections with three dowels within
one row the strength class GL36h is assumed (see Fig. 14). For
other strength classes the load-carrying capacity in fire Rd,fi of
connections with one or two dowels within one row parallel to the
(11) load direction can be increased with the conversion factors given
in Table 2.
Fig. 16 shows the comparison of numerically and analytically
calculated values for the depth dred and the load-carrying capacity
in fire Rd,fi for the example of multiple shear steel-to-timber
dowelled connections with two or three slotted-in steel plates and
two dowels within one row parallel to the load direction (n = 2)
after 30 min ISO-fire exposure on four sides. A good agreement can
be observed between the numerically and analytically calculated
values. Further comparisons and details of the developed design
model can be found in [9].
5. Conclusions
The load-carrying capacity of timber structures is often limited
by the resistance of the connections. Thus, highly efficient
connections such as multiple shear steel-to-timber connections
with slotted-in steel plates and steel dowels are needed for an
efficient design. Connections with slotted-in steel plates achieve a
high fire resistance because the steel plates are protected by the
timber side members. The results of an extensive experimental
analysis showed that shear steel-to-timber dowelled connections
with two or three slotted-in steel plates designed for ambient
temperature with a width of the timber members of 200 mm
reached a fire resistance of at least 30 min. A reduction of the load
level from 30% to 15% or 7.5% of the average load-carrying capacity
588 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589

Fig. 15. Definition of the timber size increased by a thickness c in order to reach a fire resistance of more than 30 min shown on the example of one quarter of the cross-section
of a connection with three slotted-in steel plates (SD = steel dowel).

Table 2
Conversion factors for the calculation of the load-carrying capacity in fire Rd,fi of multiple shear steel-to-timber connections taking into account different strength classes.

Number of dowels within one row (-) GL24h GL28h GL32h GL36h

n=1 1.00 1.08 1.13 1.18

n=2 1.00 1.08 1.13 1.18
n=3 – – – 1.00

Fig. 16. Comparison of numerically and analytically calculated values for the depth dred (left) and the load-carrying capacity in fire (right) for the example of multiple shear
steel-to-timber dowelled connections with two or three slotted-in steel plates and two dowels within one row parallel to the load direction (n = 2) after 30 min ISO-fire
exposure on four sides.

measured at ambient temperature did not lead to a significant
increase of the fire resistance. By increasing the thickness of the
side members as well as the end distance of the dowels by 40 mm
the connections reached a fire resistance of more than 60 min.
Connections protected by timber boards or gypsum plasterboards
can reach a fire resistance of 60 min or more depending on the
thickness and type of protection. Thus, from a fire design point of
view the increase of the overall thickness of the timber member or
the protection by boards are efficient in order to increase the fire
resistance significantly.
The load-carrying capacity of multiple shear steel-to-timber
dowelled connections with slotted-in steel plates primarily de-
pends on the charring of the timber members and the resulting
temperature distribution in the residual cross-section. An exten-
sive numerical analysis showed that slotted-in steel plates and
steel dowels strongly influence the charring of the timber mem-
bers and the temperature distribution in the residual cross-section.
Based on the results of the experimental and numerical analyses,
an analytical design model for the calculation of the load-carrying
capacity of multiple shear steel-to-timber dowelled connections
with slotted-in steel plates subjected to tension was developed.
The design model is in analogy with the reduced cross-section
method according to EN 1995-1-2. The model takes into account
the influence of the steel elements on charring and temperature
distribution in the cross-section and allows accurate fire design of
multiple shear steel-to-timber dowelled connections with slotted-
in steel plates with different geometries for a fire resistance up to
60 min.
References
[1] EN 1995-1-1 (Eurocode 5). Design of timber structures, Part 1–1: General—
Common rules and rules for buildings. CEN, Brussels; 2004.
[2] Moss PJ, Buchanan AH, Fragiacomo M, Lau PH, Chuo T. Fire performance of
bolted connections in laminated veneer lumber. Fire Mater 2009;33:223–43.
 C. Erchinger et al. / Engineering Structures 32 (2010) 580–589
[3] Fornather J. Brandverhalten von Holz unter besonderer Berücksichtigung
stiftförmiger Verbindungsmittel—Experimentelle und numerische Unter-
suchungen. Ph.D. thesis. Institut für Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau. Universität
für Bodenkultur Wien; 2003.
[4] Laplanche K. Etude du comportement au feu des assemblages de structures
bois: Approche expérimentale et modélisation. Ph.D. thesis. Clermont-
Ferrand: University Blaise Pascal; 2006.
[5] EN 1995-1-2 (Eurocode 5). Design of timber structures, Part 1–2: General—
Structural fire design. CEN, Brussels; 2004.
[6] Norén J. Load-bearing capacity of nailed joints exposed to fire. Fire Mater
1996;20:133–43.
[7] Dhima D. Vérification expérimentale de la résistance au feu d‘assemblages
d‘éléments en bois. Réf. INC-99/399-DD/NB, CTICM. Saint-Rémy-Lès-
Chevreuse; 1999.
[8] Kruppa J, Lamadon T, Racher P. Fire resistance tests of timber connections.
Réf. INC-00/187-JK/NB, CTICM. Saint-Rémy-Lès-Chevreuse; 2000.
[9] Erchinger C. Zum Verhalten von mehrschnittigen Stahl-Holz-
Stabdübelverbindungen im Brandfall. ETH Ph.D. thesis no. 18208. ETH
Zurich; 2009.
[10] Erchinger C, Fontana M, Mischler A, Frangi A. Versuche an mehrschnitti-
gen Stahl-Holz-Stabdübelverbindungen und Rillennagelverbindungen bei
Raumtemperatur und Normbrandbedingungen. IBK-Research report no. 293.
ETH Zurich: Institute of Structural Engineering IBK; 2006.
[11] Buchanan AH. Fire performance of timber construction. Progr Struct Eng
Mater 2000;2:278–89.
[12] König J. Structural fire design according to Eurocode 5—Design rules and their
background. Fire Mater 2005;29:147–63.
[13] Schaffer EL. Charring rate of selected woods—Transverse to grain. Forest Ser-
vice Research Paper FPL 69. Madison (WI): Forest Products Laboratory; 1967.
[14] Lache M. Untersuchungen zur Abbrandgeschwindigkeit von Vollholz und
zur Feuerwiderstandsdauer biegebeanspruchter BSH-träger. Institut für
Holzforschung der Universität München; 1992.
[15] Frangi A, Fontana M. Charring rates and temperature profiles of wood sections.
Fire Mater 2003;27:91–102.
[16] Gerhards CC. Effect of moisture content and temperature on the mechanical
properties of wood: An analysis of immediate effects. Wood Fiber 1982;14:
4–36.
[17] Källsner B, König J. Thermal and mechanical properties of timber and some
other materials used in light timber frame construction. In: Proceedings of
CIB W18, meeting thirty-three. Germany: Lehrstuhl für Ingenieurholzbau.
Karlsruche, University of Karlsruhe; 2001.
589
[18] Glos P, Henrici D. Festigkeit von Bauholz bei hohen Temperaturen. Abschluss-
bericht 87505. Institut für Holzforschung der Universität München; 1990.
[19] EN 26891. Timber structures: Joints made with mechanical fasteners; General
principles for the determination of strength and deformation characteristics.
CEN, Brussels; 1991.
[20] Frangi A, Erchinger C, Fontana M. Experimental analysis on the fire be-
haviour of steel-to-timber connections with slotted-in steel plates and nail
connections. Fire and Materials; 2009. Paper [in press] doi:10.1002/fam.994.
[21] Johansen KW. Theory of timber connections. Internat Assoc Bridge Struct Eng
IABSE, Publ 1949;9:249–62.
[22] Ansys. Ansys Workbench Version 11.0. Canonsburg (USA).
[23] EN 1991-1-2 (Eurocode 1). Actions on structures—Part 1–2: General actions—
Actions on structures exposed to fire. CEN, Brussels; 2002.
[24] EN 1993-1-2 (Eurocode 3). Design of steel structures, Part 1–2: General—
Structural fire design. CEN, Brussels; 2005.
[25] König J, Walleij L. One-dimensional charring of timber exposed to standard and
parametric fires in initially unprotected and postprotection situation. Trätek
Report I 9908029. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology; 1999.
[26] König J, Walleij L. Timber frame assemblies exposed to standard and para-
metric fires, Part 2: A design model for standard fire exposure. Trätek Report I
0001001. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research; 2000.
[27] König J, Norén J, Olesen FB, Hansen FT. Timber frame assemblies exposed
to standard and parametric fires, Part 1: Fire tests. Trätek Report I 9702015.
Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research; 1997.
[28] König J. Fire resistance of timber joists and load bearing wall frames. Trätek
Report I 9412071. Stockholm: Swedish Institute for Wood Technology
Research; 1995.
[29] Ayme N, Joyeux D. Rapport du comportement au feu d‘assemblages bois. As-
semblages bois–métal en double cisaillement. Rapport SR2I-0.3/121-NA/PB,
No CA 030156, CTICM. Saint-Rémy-Lès-Chevreuse. 2003.
[30] Fleischer H, Fornather J, Bergmeister K, Luggin W. Versuche an
Holz–Stahlblech Verbindungen mit Stabdübeln, Grossbrandversuchsreihe 1
— GBV 1. Institut für Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau. Universität für Bodenkultur
Wien; 2002.
[31] Frangi A, Fontana M. Thermal expansion of wood and timber–concrete
composite members under ISO-fire exposure. Fire Safety Sci 2003;7:1111–22.
[32] EN 1990 (Eurocode). Basis of structural design. CEN, Brussels; 2002.
[33] SIA 265 (Swiss Standard), Timber Structures. Zurich: Swiss Society of Engi-
neers and Architects; 2004.
[34] Holzbautabelle HBT1. Handbuch für die bemessung. Lignum, Holzwirtschaft
Schweiz 1. Auflage, Zurich; 2005.